152-446: River Oaks is a residential community located in the center of Houston, Texas , United States. Located within the 610 Loop and between Downtown and Uptown , the community spans 1,100 acres (450 ha). Established in the 1920s by brothers Will Hogg and Michael Hogg, the community became a well-publicized national model for community planning. Real estate values in the community range from $ 1 million to over $ 20 million. River Oaks
304-481: A change in venue on the grounds that "it was impossible to get a fair trial in Houston". Enron's bankruptcy, the largest in U.S. history when it was filed during December 2001, cost 20,000 employees their jobs. In addition, many of them lost their life savings. Investors also lost billions. Skilling and many of the company's executives had sold huge portions of their own Enron stock before the bankruptcy filing, making
456-563: A 14-seat private conference room. The library has several reading areas, including the Marsha Moody Children's Reading Room, a teenager reading area, and a periodical reading area. The exterior was designed to match visual cues of buildings in the surrounding area, such as the River Oaks Baptist Church and School . The Emily Scott and Joseph Wood Evans Clock Tower, a part of the library's exterior, includes
608-670: A 25-year prison sentence for his involvement in the Enron scandal . The River Oaks Garden Club Forum of Civics , located in Upper Kirby , is listed in the National Register of Historic Places as the "Forum of Civics" on October 13, 1988. Formerly a county schoolhouse, the building is currently the administrative center for the River Oaks Garden Club. In 2011 Bloomberg Businessweek ranked River Oaks as
760-533: A business in the State of Texas. According to the public records available through the Texas Comptroller of Public Accounts , Rebecca Carter, Skilling's wife, is listed as manager of the company. On August 30, 2022 the company became listed as withdrawn. Skilling has a daughter and two sons from his first marriage to Susan Long, which ended in divorce in 1997. His youngest child, John Taylor "JT" Skilling,
912-572: A city with zoning that flooded." On May 16, 2024, a strong derecho caused widespread damage across the city and surrounding metropolitan area. Houston is 165 miles (266 km) east of Austin , 88 miles (142 km) west of the Louisiana border, and 250 miles (400 km) south of Dallas . The city has a total area of 637.4 square miles (1,651 km ); this comprises over 599.59 square miles (1,552.9 km ) of land and 22.3 square miles (58 km ) covered by water. Most of Houston
1064-399: A club membership with a share of stock in the residential investment. They raised a total of $ 249,750 for Country Club Estates Company. They hired Herbert A. Kipp for the design of the first subdivision, covering an area of about 178 acres. Keeping with the country club theme, Kipp laid out wide, curving roads for a non-gridded network and named some of them for well-known country clubs. Some of
1216-553: A commercial center, forming a symbiosis with its Gulf Coast port, Galveston. Landlocked farmers brought their produce to Houston, using Buffalo Bayou to gain access to Galveston and the Gulf of Mexico. Houston merchants profited from selling staples to farmers and shipping the farmers' produce to Galveston. The great majority of enslaved people in Texas came with their owners from the older slave states. Sizable numbers, however, came through
1368-649: A day of groundwater. Houston has four major bayous passing through the city that accept water from the extensive drainage system. Buffalo Bayou runs through Downtown and the Houston Ship Channel , and has three tributaries: White Oak Bayou, which runs through the Houston Heights community northwest of Downtown and then towards Downtown; Brays Bayou , which runs along the Texas Medical Center; and Sims Bayou , which runs through
1520-515: A floodplain, a flowing flood-water stream termed a floodway runs through the development area, a most dangerous place to encounter during any future flooding event. Harris County , like other more rural counties, cannot direct developers where to build or not build via land use controls such as a zoning ordinance by Texas law, and instead can only impose general floodplain regulations for enforcement during subdivision approvals and building permit approvals. The 2020 U.S. census determined Houston had
1672-495: A garden book archive and works of art. The Houston Chronicle is the area's regional newspaper. On Thursdays, residents receive the Bellaire / West U /River Oaks/ Meyerland section, which covers events specific to these neighborhoods. The River Oaks Examiner and Village News are local newspapers distributed in the community. The River Oaks Buzz is a monthly magazine mailed free of charge to all residents and focuses on
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#17328021796691824-775: A group of civic clubs, places of worship, businesses, and other institutions and community interests. River Oaks is a part of the Houston City Council District G. River Oaks is within Harris County Precinct 4. As of 2020, R. Jack Cagle is the precinct's County Commissioner. River Oaks is in Justice of the Peace/Constable Precinct One. As of 2012 Alan Rosen is the constable. River Oaks is located in District 134 of
1976-611: A large and growing international community. Houston is the most diverse metropolitan area in Texas and has been described as the most racially and ethnically diverse major city in the U.S. It is home to many cultural institutions and exhibits, such as the Houston Museum District and the Houston Theater District . Present-day Houston sits on land that was once occupied by the Karankawa and
2128-643: A lighted sports ground. River Oaks Park includes the Pumpkin Carriage, intended to evoke Cinderella 's carriage. Around 2003 Friends of River Oaks Parks had restored the carriage. The Houston Business Journal said "Pumpkin Park provides outstanding resources for neighborhood children – a wonderful playground, community center and the Summer Enrichment Program offering youngsters sports activities and crafts classes." On June 24, 1999,
2280-441: A mortgage were $ 1,646, and $ 536 without a mortgage. Houston's median gross rent from 2015 to 2019 was $ 1,041. The median household income in 2019 was $ 52,338 and 20.1% of Houstonians lived at or below the poverty line . Houston is a majority-minority city. The Rice University Kinder Institute for Urban Research, a think tank , has described Greater Houston as "one of the most ethnically and culturally diverse metropolitan areas in
2432-521: A national model for community planning. River Oaks' planning standards, residential architecture, and landscape design were publicized during the 1920s and 1930s in national newspapers, real estate media and design journals. Deed restrictions at the time restricted home prices to over $ 7,000 and specified architectural styles, with a gentlemen's agreement excluding blacks , Jews, and other minorities. Homes along Kirby Drive were restricted to American Colonial or English Tudor style architecture. During
2584-445: A novel idea: by promoting the company's aggressive investment strategy, the company didn't really need any "assets". This plan helped make Enron the largest wholesaler of gas and electricity, with $ 27 billion traded in a quarter. On February 12, 2001, Skilling was named CEO of Enron, replacing Lay. He was slated to succeed Lay as chairman as well in early 2002, but abruptly resigned six months later on 14 August 2001. Skilling joked about
2736-399: A population of 2,304,580. In 2017, the census-estimated population was 2,312,717, and in 2018 it was 2,325,502. An estimated 600,000 undocumented immigrants resided in the Houston area in 2017, comprising nearly 9% of the city's metropolitan population. At the 2010 United States census , Houston had a population of 2,100,263 residents, up from the city's 2,396 at the 1850 census . Per
2888-595: A population of 2,314,157 in 2023, Houston is the fourth-most populous city in the United States after New York City , Los Angeles , and Chicago , and the sixth-most populous city in North America . Houston is the southeast anchor of the greater megaregion known as the Texas Triangle . Comprising a land area of 640.4 square miles (1,659 km ), Houston is the ninth-most expansive city in
3040-482: A shelter to more than 150,000 people from New Orleans, who evacuated from Hurricane Katrina . One month later, about 2.5 million Houston-area residents evacuated when Hurricane Rita approached the Gulf Coast , leaving little damage to the Houston area. This was the largest urban evacuation in the history of the United States. In May 2015, seven people died after 12 inches of rain fell in 10 hours during what
3192-455: A substantial profit. On May 25, 2006, the jury returned with the following findings regarding Skilling: In a front-page interview with The Wall Street Journal on June 17, 2006, Skilling claimed that he had been melancholic after the Enron bankruptcy and that he had considered suicide , but that his indictment actually ended his depression . He also claimed that the worst witness against him
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#17328021796693344-400: A total of 9,521 individuals. River Oaks Super Neighborhood had a lower average family size than the average City of Houston family size. The River Oaks average was 2.7, while the city average was 3.4. River Oaks is one of the wealthiest communities in Texas and the United States. Real estate values range from $ 1 million to over $ 20 million. The community has multiple houses deemed historic by
3496-593: Is also home to buildings designed by noted architects I. M. Pei , César Pelli , and Philip Johnson. In the late 1990s and early 2000s, a mini-boom of midrise and highrise residential tower construction occurred, with several over 30 stories tall. Since 2000 over 30 skyscrapers have been developed in Houston; all told, 72 high-rises tower over the city, which adds up to about 8,300 units. In 2002, Uptown had more than 23 million square feet (2,100,000 m ) of office space with 16 million square feet (1,500,000 m ) of class A office space . Houston's climate
3648-486: Is an attorney and assisted his legal team during the criminal trial. In April 2004, Skilling got into a scuffle with patrons of a cigar bar in New York City after a night of drinking. He was not arrested, but he and his wife, Rebecca, who was hurt during the scuffle, were transported to a hospital where a blood test showed Skilling had a blood-alcohol level of 190 milligrams per deciliter (0.19% BAC), as indicated in
3800-628: Is classified as humid subtropical ( Cfa in the Köppen climate classification system ), typical of the Southern United States . While not in Tornado Alley , like much of Northern Texas , spring supercell thunderstorms sometimes bring tornadoes to the area. Prevailing winds are from the south and southeast during most of the year, which bring heat and tropical moisture from the nearby Gulf of Mexico and Galveston Bay. During
3952-568: Is known as the Memorial Day Flood. Eight people died in April 2016 during a storm that dropped 17 inches of rain. The worst came in late August 2017, when Hurricane Harvey stalled over southeastern Texas, much like Tropical Storm Allison did sixteen years earlier, causing severe flooding in the Houston area, with some areas receiving over 50 inches (1,300 mm) of rain. The rainfall exceeded 50 inches in several areas locally, breaking
4104-472: Is located northeast of Uptown , north of the Upper ;Kirby district, west of Neartown , and is near to the freeway system and many major thoroughfares such as Westheimer Road, Kirby Drive and San Felipe Street. River Oaks Boulevard, a road that runs through the center of the community, is lined on both sides by mansions and estates located away from the street. The two square mile (5.2 m) area of
4256-507: Is on the gulf coastal plain , and its vegetation is classified as Western Gulf coastal grasslands while further north, it transitions into a subtropical jungle, the Big Thicket . Much of the city was built on forested land, marshes, or swamps, and all are still visible in surrounding areas. Flat terrain and extensive greenfield development have combined to worsen flooding. Downtown stands about 50 feet (15 m) above sea level, and
4408-606: Is the most populous city in the U.S. state of Texas and the Southern United States . Located in Southeast Texas near Galveston Bay and the Gulf of Mexico , it is the seat of Harris County ; as well as the principal city of the Greater Houston metropolitan area, the fifth-most populous metropolitan statistical area in the United States and the second-most populous in Texas after Dallas–Fort Worth . With
4560-533: Is the 64-floor, 901-foot (275 m)-tall, Philip Johnson and John Burgee designed landmark Williams Tower (known as the Transco Tower until 1999). At the time of construction, it was believed to be the world's tallest skyscraper outside a central business district. The new 20-story Skanska building and BBVA Compass Plaza are the newest office buildings built in Uptown after 30 years. The Uptown District
4712-793: Is the closest public early childhood center to River Oaks, while Wilson Elementary School's preschool program is the closest tuition-based program. Only economically disadvantaged students, homeless students, students who are not proficient in English , or children of active-duty members of the U.S. military or whose parent has been killed, injured, or missing in action while on active duty may be enrolled in tuition-free HISD preschools. Students who are eligible for HISD's preschools may attend any Early Childhood Center in Houston ISD for free. Students not eligible may enroll in tuition-based HISD preschool programs. Several independent (private) schools serve
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4864-488: Is the largest city in the United States without formal zoning regulations, it has developed similarly to other Sun Belt cities because the city's land use regulations and legal covenants have played a similar role. Regulations include mandatory lot size for single-family houses and requirements that parking be available to tenants and customers. In 1998, Houston relaxed its mandatory lot sizes from 5,000 square feet to 3,500 square feet, which spurred housing construction in
5016-631: Is the only metropolitan area with less than ten million citizens where such a CO 2 dome can be detected by satellites. Because of Houston's wet season and proximity to the Gulf Coast , the city is prone to flooding from heavy rains; the most notable flooding events include Tropical Storm Allison in 2001 and Hurricane Harvey in 2017, along with most recent Tropical Storm Imelda in 2019 and Tropical Storm Beta in 2020. In response to Hurricane Harvey, Mayor Sylvester Turner of Houston initiated plans to require developers to build homes that will be less susceptible to flooding by raising them two feet above
5168-418: Is the tallest structure in Texas, 19th tallest building in the United States, and was previously 85th-tallest skyscraper in the world, based on highest architectural feature. In 1983, the 71-floor, 992-foot (302 m)-tall Wells Fargo Plaza (formerly Allied Bank Plaza) was completed, becoming the second-tallest building in Houston and Texas. Based on highest architectural feature, it is the 21st-tallest in
5320-515: Is ubiquitous in Houston; in 1981, annual spending on electricity for interior cooling exceeded $ 600 million (equivalent to $ 2.01 billion in 2023), and by the late 1990s, approximately 90% of Houston homes featured air conditioning systems. The record highest temperature recorded in Houston is 109 °F (43 °C) at Bush Intercontinental Airport, on four occasions: September 4, 2000; August 27, 2011; and August 24 and August 27, 2023. Houston has mild winters, with occasional cold spells. In January,
5472-405: The 500-year floodplain . Hurricane Harvey damaged hundreds of thousands of homes and dumped trillions of gallons of water into the city. In places this led to feet of standing water that blocked streets and flooded homes. The Houston City Council passed this regulation in 2018 with a vote of 9–7. Had these floodplain development rules had been in place all along, it is estimated that 84% of homes in
5624-479: The American Lung Association rating the metropolitan area's ozone level twelfth on the "Most Polluted Cities by Ozone" in 2017, after major cities such as Los Angeles , Phoenix , New York City , and Denver . The industries along the ship channel are a major cause of the city's air pollution. The rankings are in terms of peak-based standards, focusing strictly on the worst days of the year;
5776-701: The Atakapa indigenous peoples for at least 2,000 years before the first known settlers arrived. These tribes are almost nonexistent today; this was most likely caused by foreign disease, and competition with various settler groups in the 18th and 19th centuries. However, the land then remained largely uninhabited from the late 1700s until settlement in the 1830s. The Allen brothers— Augustus Chapman and John Kirby —explored town sites on Buffalo Bayou and Galveston Bay . According to historian David McComb, "[T]he brothers, on August 26, 1836, bought from Elizabeth E. Parrott, wife of T.F.L. Parrott and widow of John Austin,
5928-545: The Battle of Galveston . After the Civil War, Houston businessmen initiated efforts to widen the city's extensive system of bayous so the city could accept more commerce between Downtown and the nearby port of Galveston. By 1890, Houston was the railroad center of Texas. In 1900, after Galveston was struck by a devastating hurricane , efforts to make Houston into a viable deep-water port were accelerated. The following year,
6080-695: The Ben Stevenson Academy , were located on West Gray near the River Oaks Shopping Center until 2012. Several municipal parks serve River Oaks. River Oaks Park and the River Oaks Community Center, operated by the City of Houston, is one block west of Lamar High School . River Oaks Park includes a .25-mile (0.40 km) off-road trail located within the park's boundaries, tennis courts, a playground, and
6232-695: The California energy crisis at one meeting of Enron employees by asking, "What is the difference between California and the Titanic ? At least when the Titanic went down, the lights were on". Skilling later attributed the remark to frayed relations between Enron and California. His employees, meanwhile, plotted to keep the price of energy high in California. On March 28, 2001, PBS 's Frontline interviewed Skilling, where he claimed for Enron "We are
River Oaks, Houston - Misplaced Pages Continue
6384-949: The Houston Community College System boundaries. The closest campuses are the Central Campus in Midtown and the West Loop Center. Four-year universities and colleges in close proximity to River Oaks include University of St. Thomas in Montrose and Rice University in the Houston Museum District . The community is served by the Adele B. Looscan Branch of Houston Public Library . The current building opened in September 2007. The former library, established in 1956, closed on August 27, 2005, and
6536-564: The Houston Dynamo soccer team was formed. In 2017 , the Houston Astros won their first World Series . Flooding has been a recurring problem in the Houston area. In June 2001, Tropical Storm Allison dumped up to 40 inches (1,000 mm) of rain on parts of Houston, causing what was then the worst flooding in the city's history and billions of dollars in damage, and killed 20 people in Texas. In August 2005, Houston became
6688-726: The Houston Ship Channel , and the Texas oil boom . In the mid-20th century, Houston's economy diversified, as it became home to the Texas Medical Center —the world's largest concentration of healthcare and research institutions—and NASA 's Johnson Space Center , home to the Mission Control Center . Since the late 19th century, Houston's economy has had a broad industrial base in energy , manufacturing , aeronautics, and transportation . Leading in healthcare sectors and building oilfield equipment, Houston has
6840-538: The Interstate 610 loop . The "Inner Loop" encompasses a 97-square-mile (250 km ) area which includes Downtown, pre–World War II residential neighborhoods and streetcar suburbs , and newer high-density apartment and townhouse developments. Outside the loop, the city's typology is more suburban , though many major business districts—such as Uptown , Westchase , and the Energy Corridor —lie well outside
6992-484: The River Oaks Theatre , an " arthouse " theater, located in the center. The theater is the last historic movie theater in Houston that is still being used as it was originally designed. River Oaks is home to the forty-member River Oaks Chamber Orchestra . The orchestra is composed of musicians from around the United States and guest conductors from around the world. River Oaks Country Club , located within
7144-680: The Texas House of Representatives and represented by Ann Johnson, a Democrat. River Oaks is within District 17 of the Texas Senate and represented by Joan Huffman , a Republican. The community is within Texas's 7th congressional district . As of 2019, the representative is Lizzie Pannill Fletcher . The United States Post Office Service (USPS) operates the River Oaks Post Office at 1900 West Gray Street, supporting
7296-482: The capital of the Texas Republic in the late 1830s, Houston grew steadily into a regional trading center for the remainder of the 19th century. The 20th century brought a convergence of economic factors that fueled rapid growth in Houston, including a burgeoning port and railroad industry, the decline of Galveston as Texas's primary port following a devastating 1900 hurricane , the subsequent construction of
7448-604: The 100-year and 500-year floodplains would have been spared damage. In a recent case testing these regulations, near the Brickhouse Gulley, an old golf course that long served as a floodplain and reservoir for floodwaters, announced a change of heart toward intensifying development. A nationwide developer, Meritage Homes , bought the land and planned to develop the 500-year floodplain into 900 new residential homes. Their plan would bring in $ 360 million in revenue and boost city population and tax revenue. In order to meet
7600-423: The 12,088 residents over 18 years of age, 10,390 (86.0%) were White, 945 (7.8%) were Hispanic, 353 (2.9%) were Asian, 205 (1.7%) were Black, 17 were Native American, 8 were Native Hawaiian, and 22 were Other. 148 were of two or more races. As of 2000 the neighborhood had 8,169 housing units. Of the 7,401 occupied units, 3,573 were rental units and 3,828 were owner units. The Super Neighborhood had 3,518 families with
7752-405: The 1920s, River Oaks was so effectively organized, planned and restricted that it became the most expensive neighborhood in Houston. The City of Houston annexed the community in 1927, adding 3,465 acres (1,402 ha) of land to the city limits. Bus service to Downtown Houston opened during the same year. After World War II, as Houston experienced its greatest growth, River Oaks became a haven for
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#17328021796697904-507: The 1960s, Downtown Houston consisted of a collection of mid-rise office structures. Downtown was on the threshold of an energy industry–led boom in 1970. A succession of skyscrapers was built throughout the 1970s—many by real estate developer Gerald D. Hines —culminating with Houston's tallest skyscraper, the 75-floor, 1,002-foot (305 m)-tall JPMorgan Chase Tower (formerly the Texas Commerce Tower), completed in 1982. It
8056-447: The 2019 American Community Survey , Houston's age distribution was 482,402 under 15; 144,196 aged 15 to 19; 594,477 aged 20 to 34; 591,561 aged 35 to 54; 402,804 aged 55 to 74; and 101,357 aged 75 and older. The median age of the city was 33.4. At the 2014-2018 census estimates, Houston's age distribution was 486,083 under 15; 147,710 aged 15 to 19; 603,586 aged 20 to 34; 726,877 aged 35 to 59; and 357,834 aged 60 and older. The median age
8208-652: The 21st century. In 2000, the Houston Astros opened their new baseball stadium, Daikin Park , in downtown adjacent to the old Union Station . The Houston Texans were formed in 2002 as an NFL expansion team, replacing the Houston Oilers , which had left the city in 1996. NRG Stadium opened the same year. In 2003, the Toyota Center opened as the home for the Houston Rockets . In 2005,
8360-602: The City of Houston that includes River Oaks and some surrounding subdivisions, including Afton Oaks . In 2015 the super neighborhood had 14,518 residents; 77% were non-Hispanic White, 10% were Hispanic, 7% were non-Hispanic Asian, 4% were non-Hispanic black, and 2% were non-Hispanic other. According to the 2000 U.S. Census , the super neighborhood had 14,313 residents; 12,273 of them (85.7%) were White , 1,160 (8.1%) were Hispanic , 390 (2.7%) were Asian, 247 (1.7%) were Black, 18 were Native American , 13 were Native Hawaiian, and 23 were Others. 189 people were of two or more races. Of
8512-480: The Clayton family in 1924. This property is a City of Houston Landmark and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places . The development plans ensured that River Oaks's parks and esplanades were planted with oaks, shrubs, azaleas and other flowers. Every detail of the development was planned to establish a well-integrated community. Advertised as a "distinguished experiment in fine living," River Oaks became
8664-485: The Enron scandal. He surrendered to the Federal Bureau of Investigation on February 19, 2004, and pleaded not guilty to all charges. The indictments emphasized his probable knowledge of, and likely direct involvement with, the fraudulent transactions within Enron. About a month after quitting Enron, Skilling sold almost US$ 60 million of his stake in the company (in blocks of 10,000 to 500,000 shares), resulting in
8816-410: The Houston area. In 2001, Enron Corporation , a Houston company with $ 100 billion in revenue, became engulfed in an accounting scandal which bankrupted the company in 2001. Healthcare has emerged as a major industry in Houston. The Texas Medical Center is now the largest medical complex in the world and employs over 120,000 people. Three new sports stadiums opened downtown in the first decade of
8968-507: The North ; this resulted in an economic boom and produced a key shift in the city's economy toward the energy sector. The increased production of the expanded shipbuilding industry during World War II spurred Houston's growth, as did the establishment in 1961 of NASA's "Manned Spacecraft Center" (renamed the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center in 1973). This was the stimulus for the development of
9120-610: The PRC process as "the most important process we conduct as a company". Dawkins has distanced himself from Enron and Skilling, saying that Skilling misunderstood his book. Dawkins has said that he has never advocated selfishness as a means of progression. On October 13, 2009, the Supreme Court of the United States agreed to hear two questions presented by Skilling's appeal. The Court subsequently scheduled and heard argument March 1, 2010. The first challenge by Skilling's defense
9272-611: The River Oaks Property Owners, Inc. entered an agreement with the City of Houston; ROPO agreed to maintain and upgrade parks and esplanades in River Oaks. ROPO also has the right to spend its own funds to improve them. Municipal parks assisted by ROPO include Del Monte Park, Mary Elliot Park, Ella Lee Park, Homewood Park, Kirby Park, Rebecca Meyer Park, Olympia Park, Pine Valley Park, and Sleepy Hollow Park. The Houston Independent School District (HISD) operates
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#17328021796699424-459: The River Oaks and Melcher post offices. Metropolitan Transit Authority of Harris County, Texas (METRO) operates bus services in and around River Oaks. Lines serving River Oaks are the 27 Shepherd, 32 Renwick/San Felipe, 41 Kirby/Polk and 82 Westheimer. Harris Health System (formerly Harris County Hospital District) designated Casa De Amigos Health Center in Northside for ZIP code 77019 and
9576-529: The Skilling case back to the lower court for further proceedings to decide which charges must now be dismissed as the result of the invalidation of the honest services statute. In April 2011, a three-judge panel of the Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals ruled that since the jury was presented with "overwhelming evidence" that Skilling conspired to commit conspiracy fraud, the verdict would have been
9728-475: The United States (including consolidated city-counties ). It is the largest city in the United States by total area whose government is not consolidated with a county, parish, or borough. Though primarily in Harris County, small portions of the city extend into Fort Bend and Montgomery counties, bordering other principal communities of Greater Houston such as Sugar Land and The Woodlands . Houston
9880-401: The United States. The majority of rainfall occurs between April and October (the wet season of Southeast Texas), when the moisture from the Gulf of Mexico evaporates extensively over the city. Houston has excessive ozone levels and is routinely ranked among the most ozone-polluted cities in the United States. Ground-level ozone, or smog, is Houston's predominant air pollution problem, with
10032-498: The United States. In 2007, Downtown had over 43 million square feet (4,000,000 m ) of office space. Centered on Post Oak Boulevard and Westheimer Road, the Uptown District boomed during the 1970s and early 1980s when a collection of midrise office buildings, hotels, and retail developments appeared along I-610 West. Uptown became one of the most prominent instances of an edge city . The tallest building in Uptown
10184-695: The Valbona Health Center (formerly People's Health Center) in Greater Sharpstown for ZIP code 77027. The nearest public hospital is Ben Taub General Hospital in the Texas Medical Center . Politicians and political parties conduct fundraising campaigns in River Oaks because it has "six desired qualities" including "allure, location, preening, location, Secret Service familiarity and location." In both 2000 and 2004, River Oaks residents gave $ 3.9 million to political campaigns. In 2008, they gave $ 3.4 million to political campaigns through
10336-405: The area and private schools marketed to River Oaks families include St. John's School (K–12, in Upper Kirby), Annunciation Orthodox School (K-8, in the Neartown area), River Oaks Baptist School (K-8, in River Oaks), Episcopal High School (9–12, Bellaire ), The Kinkaid School in ( Piney Point Village ). In 2006 St. Anne Catholic School received the Blue Ribbon Award . River Oaks is within
10488-441: The average ozone levels in Houston are lower than what is seen in most other areas of the country, as dominant winds ensure clean, marine air from the Gulf. Excessive man-made emissions in the Houston area led to a persistent increase of atmospheric carbon dioxide over the city. Such an increase, often regarded as "CO 2 urban dome", is driven by a combination of strong emissions and stagnant atmospheric conditions. Moreover, Houston
10640-435: The center, originally known as River Oaks Community Center, was one of the first automobile-oriented retail centers in the United States. Its design, with arcs of retail space on either side of West Gray Avenue, was considered a model for future development. Portions of the historic shopping center were demolished in September 2007 to redevelop the site for a bookstore and parking garage. As of 2008, Landmark Theatres operates
10792-403: The city dramatically. Such restrictions have had mixed results. Though some have blamed the city's low density, urban sprawl , and lack of pedestrian-friendliness on these policies, others have credited the city's land use patterns with providing significant affordable housing, sparing Houston the worst effects of the 2008 real estate crisis . The city issued 42,697 building permits in 2008 and
10944-552: The city government's planning commission. As of 2020 the law allows for demolition of city-designated landmarks after a 90-day waiting period, so by 2020 multiple property owners tore down their respective historic landmarks. 80 demolition permits of River Oaks permits residences were approved in 2018 and 2019. Adjacent to the community is the River Oaks Shopping Center , Houston's first shopping center. Constructed in 1927 and designed by architect Hugh Prather ,
11096-435: The city have a high risk of localized flooding due to flat topography, ubiquitous low- permeability clay-silt prairie soils, and inadequate infrastructure. During the mid-2010s, Greater Houston experienced consecutive major flood events in 2015 ( "Memorial Day" ), 2016 ( "Tax Day" ), and 2017 ( Hurricane Harvey ). Overall, there have been more casualties and property loss from floods in Houston than in any other locality in
11248-608: The city in addition to Downtown , which include Uptown, the Texas Medical Center , Midtown , Greenway Plaza , Memorial City , the Energy Corridor, Westchase , and Greenspoint . Houston had the fifth-tallest skyline in North America (after New York City, Chicago , Toronto and Miami ) and 36th-tallest in the world in 2015. A seven-mile (11 km) system of tunnels and skywalks links Downtown buildings containing shops and restaurants, enabling pedestrians to avoid summer heat and rain while walking between buildings. In
11400-584: The city's aerospace industry. The Astrodome , nicknamed the " Eighth Wonder of the World ", opened in 1965 as the world's first indoor domed sports stadium. During the late 1970s, Houston had a population boom as people from the Rust Belt states moved to Texas in large numbers. The new residents came for numerous employment opportunities in the petroleum industry, created as a result of the Arab oil embargo . With
11552-419: The city. Land in some areas southeast of Houston is sinking because water has been pumped out of the ground for many years. It may be associated with slip along the faults; however, the slippage is slow and not considered an earthquake, where stationary faults must slip suddenly enough to create seismic waves. These faults also tend to move at a smooth rate in what is termed " fault creep ", which further reduces
11704-626: The community on the northern end of River Oaks Boulevard, is a country club that includes a golf facility that was designed by architect Donald Ross . Ross is considered to be one of the most significant golf course designers in the history of golfing . Opening in 1923, the country club has hosted the River Oaks International Tennis Tournament since 1931. The Houston Intown Chamber of Commerce assists economic activity in River Oaks. The Houston Ballet headquarters, training facilities and pre-professional school,
11856-585: The community. Houston Fire Department operates Station 3 at 3735 West Alabama at Cummins, near River Oaks. The fire station is in Fire District 28. Station 3 moved to its current location in 1958. The station underwent a renovation in 2003 and 2004 and re-opened in the northern hemisphere spring of 2004. The community is within the Houston Police Department 's Central Patrol Division, headquartered at 61 Riesner. River Oaks has one of
12008-563: The community. Since the 1970s and by 1995, most of the children in River Oaks were sent to private schools. Catholic schools , operated by the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Galveston-Houston , include St. Thomas High School (9–12, males only, north of River Oaks along the north edge of the Buffalo Bayou) and St. Anne Catholic School (K-8, south of River Oaks at Shepherd and Westheimer). Other private schools in
12160-478: The company, and people with internal connections. Employees' bonuses often rested significantly on their ranking, and those with the lowest ratings were supposed to be fired. The rankings were assigned on a curve at Skilling's direction, meaning that ten percent of people had to be graded five, regardless of absolute performance. They were given two weeks to try to find another job at Enron or be fired. The scheme came to be known as "rank and yank". Skilling described
12312-449: The corporation. Then-chairman Kenneth Lay, who previously served as CEO for 15 years, returned as CEO until the company filed for bankruptcy protection during December 2001. When brought in front of congressional committees , Skilling stated that he had "no knowledge" of the complicated scandal that would eventually result in Enron's bankruptcy . Skilling was indicted on 35 counts of fraud , insider trading , and other crimes related to
12464-402: The country". Houston's diversity, historically fueled by large waves of Hispanic and Latino Americans, and Asian immigrants, has been attributed to its relatively lower cost of living compared to most major cities, strong job market, and role as a hub for refugee resettlement . Jeff Skilling Jeffrey Keith Skilling (born November 25, 1953) is an American businessman who in 2006
12616-473: The development of the community. The two brothers promoted the sale of lots in the subdivision for US$ 2,200 (equivalent to $ 39,037 in 2023) apiece in 1928. The brothers, along with sister Ima Hogg , oversaw the construction of Bayou Bend , a stately southern-style home on the banks of Buffalo Bayou . The first development of River Oaks was the summer house of William L. Clayton . Houston-architect Birdsall Briscoe completed this Colonial Revival home for
12768-553: The discovery of oil at the Spindletop oil field near Beaumont prompted the development of the Texas petroleum industry. In 1902, President Theodore Roosevelt approved a $ 1 million improvement project for the Houston Ship Channel. By 1910, the city's population had reached 78,800, almost doubling from a decade before. African Americans formed a large part of the city's population, numbering 23,929 people, which
12920-584: The domestic slave trade. New Orleans was the center of this trade in the Deep South, but slave dealers were in Houston. Thousands of enslaved black people lived near the city before the American Civil War . Many of them near the city worked on sugar and cotton plantations, while most of those in the city limits had domestic and artisan jobs. In 1840, the community established a chamber of commerce, in part to promote shipping and navigation at
13072-537: The erosion of the Rocky Mountains . These sediments consist of a series of sands and clays deposited on decaying organic marine matter, that over time, transformed into oil and natural gas. Beneath the layers of sediment is a water-deposited layer of halite , a rock salt. The porous layers were compressed over time and forced upward. As it pushed upward, the salt dragged surrounding sediments into salt dome formations, often trapping oil and gas that seeped from
13224-499: The first time that May. The Republic of Texas granted Houston incorporation on June 5, 1837, as James S. Holman became its first mayor. In the same year, Houston became the county seat of Harrisburg County (now Harris County). In 1839, the Republic of Texas relocated its capital to Austin . The town suffered another setback that year when a yellow fever epidemic claimed about one life for every eight residents, yet it persisted as
13376-554: The good guys. We are on the side of angels". On April 17, 2001, Skilling made what became an infamous comment during a conference call with financial analysts. In response to fund manager Richard Grubman saying "You know, you are the only financial institution that can't produce a balance sheet or cash flow statement with their earnings", Skilling replied: "Thank you very much, we appreciate that... asshole." Skilling unexpectedly resigned on August 14 of that year, citing personal reasons, and he soon sold large amounts of his shares in
13528-508: The government's motion to modify conditions of Skilling's pretrial release order. Prosecutors moved against Skilling, asking a judge to increase his $ 5 million bond to $ 7 million, restrict his travel to Texas and impose a curfew. They argued that Skilling violated his bond's terms by drinking excessively and failing to report his contact with police to federal pretrial services authorities. The trial began on January 30, 2006, in Houston, despite repeated protests from defense attorneys calling for
13680-436: The highest point in far northwest Houston is about 150 feet (46 m) in elevation. The city once relied on groundwater for its needs, but land subsidence forced the city to turn to ground-level water sources such as Lake Houston , Lake Conroe , and Lake Livingston . The city owns surface water rights for 1.20 billion U.S. gallons (4.5 Gl) of water a day in addition to 150 million U.S. gallons (570 Ml)
13832-616: The increase in professional jobs, Houston has become a destination for many college-educated persons, most recently including African Americans in a reverse Great Migration from northern areas. In 1997, Houstonians elected Lee P. Brown as the city's first African American mayor. Houston has continued to grow into the 21st century, with the population increasing 15.7% from 2000 to 2022. Oil and gas have continued to fuel Houston's economic growth, with major oil companies including Phillips 66 , ConocoPhillips , Occidental Petroleum , Halliburton , and ExxonMobil having their headquarters in
13984-535: The judge and the selection process were appropriate. Sri Srinivasan , a partner at O'Melveny & Myers , was Skilling's Washington defense attorney, and Justice Department lawyer Michael Dreeben argued for the government. On June 24, 2010, in an opinion by Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg , the Supreme Court unanimously nullified Skilling's honest services fraud conviction, finding that "Skilling's misconduct entailed no bribe or kickback". The Court remanded
14136-555: The larger lots ranged from one-quarter acre to four acres in size. William and Michael Hogg, the sons of former Texas Governor Jim Hogg , and attorney Hugh Potter established River Oaks in the 1920s. Potter obtained an option to purchase 200 acres (81 ha) around the River Oaks Country Club in 1923, and in the following year William Hogg established the Country Club Estates in order to support
14288-506: The lowest crime rates in Houston. The River Oaks Property Owners, Inc. offices are at 3923 San Felipe Road. The community operates its own private security force, River Oaks Patrol. The Texas Department of Public Safety classifies the force as a guard, alarm, and investigation company. The community is within Super Neighborhood #23 and its recognized council was established on October 15, 2001. Each super neighborhood represents
14440-570: The metro area, and an event on December 7, 2017, which precipitated 0.7 inches (2 cm) of snowfall. Snowfalls of at least 1 inch (2.5 cm) on both December 10, 2008, and December 4, 2009, marked the first time measurable snowfall had occurred in two consecutive years in the city's recorded history. Overall, Houston has seen measurable snowfall 38 times between 1895 and 2018. On February 14 and 15, 1895, Houston received 20 inches (51 cm) of snow, its largest snowfall from one storm on record. The coldest temperature officially recorded in Houston
14592-828: The middle of that year. In 1992 Cynthia Mayer of the Philadelphia Inquirer described River Oaks as one of Houston's "richest, most Republican neighborhoods", and Bennett Roth of the Houston Chronicle also described the area as such in 2008. See also: List of companies in Houston See: List of colleges and universities in Houston [REDACTED] Category [REDACTED] Texas portal 29°45′04″N 95°25′59″W / 29.751°N 95.433°W / 29.751; -95.433 Houston, Texas Houston ( / ˈ h juː s t ən / HEW -stən )
14744-415: The most attention. Justices Stephen Breyer and Sonia Sotomayor seemed especially bothered by the questioning of one potential juror who reported that she had lost from $ 50,000 to $ 60,000 in the Enron debacle. "How can we be satisfied that a fair and impartial jury was picked when the judge doesn't follow up when the juror said, 'I'm a victim of this crime, ' " Sotomayor asked. The government maintained that
14896-611: The national record for rainfall. The damage for the Houston area was estimated at up to $ 125 billion U.S. dollars , and was considered to be one of the worst natural disasters in the history of the United States , with the death toll exceeding 70 people. Houston's lack of zoning laws allowed unregulated building of residential homes and other structures in flood-prone areas. However, it also resulted in more concentrated development in already urban areas than in wetlands and suburbs. Mayor Sylvester Turner tweeted of Hurricane Harvey that "zoning wouldn't have changed anything. We would have been
15048-447: The neighborhood program at River Oaks Elementary School which allows non-magnet students residing in the school's boundaries to attend. Some magnet parents opposed, believing that the River Oaks program would reduce racial diversity at the school. In 1996, HISD added a neighborhood program to the school for grades Kindergarten through 2nd, with grades 3 through 5 phased in over a subsequent three-year period. Crockett Early Childhood Center
15200-461: The new floodplain regulations, the developers needed to elevate the lowest floors two feet above the 500-year floodplain, equivalent to five or six feet above the 100-year base flood elevation, and build a channel to direct stormwater runoff toward detention basins. Before Hurricane Harvey, the city had bought $ 10.7 million in houses in this area specifically to take them out of danger. In addition to developing new streets and single-family housing within
15352-491: The newly created port on Buffalo Bayou. By 1860, Houston had emerged as a commercial and railroad hub for the export of cotton. Railroad spurs from the Texas inland converged in Houston, where they met rail lines to the ports of Galveston and Beaumont . During the American Civil War, Houston served as a headquarters for Confederate Major General John B. Magruder , who used the city as an organization point for
15504-423: The normal mean temperature at George Bush Intercontinental Airport is 53 °F (12 °C), with an average of 13 days per year with a low at or below 32 °F (0 °C), occurring on average between December 3 and February 20, allowing for a growing season of 286 days. Twenty-first century snow events in Houston include a storm on December 24, 2004 , which saw 1 inch (3 cm) of snow accumulate in parts of
15656-409: The notes taken from FBI agents during interviews with Andrew Fastow be given to the defense. A number of inconsistencies in the notes were discovered soon after. On April 3, 2008, Skilling's defense attorney, Daniel Petrocelli, argued with government prosecutors that Skilling's trial and the conviction itself was based on honest services fraud , which he said did not apply to Skilling. This argument
15808-544: The notional town in honor of Sam Houston, who would become President later that year. They successfully lobbied the Republic of Texas Congress to designate Houston as the temporary capital, agreeing to provide the new government with a state capitol building. About a dozen persons resided in the town at the beginning of 1837, but that number grew to about 1,500 by the time the Texas Congress convened in Houston for
15960-453: The now closed Will Rogers Elementary School (opened in 1950, closed in summer 2006), and Poe Elementary School . By 1995 River Oaks Elementary became one of the most prestigious elementary schools in Houston and had a waiting list. By that year several new families had established themselves in River Oaks and many of them were interested in sending their children to public school. In 1995, several River Oaks parents petitioned HISD to re-establish
16112-515: The only things that motivated people. Soon after being hired at Enron, he set up the Performance Review Committee (PRC), a twice-yearly process in which employees were publicly graded by management panels on a scale from 1 to 5, 5 being lowest. Ratings were ostensibly based on job performance and feedback from colleagues and supervisors, but in reality, the highest grades were typically assigned to people bringing in money to
16264-485: The port decreased and shipping activities were suspended; however, the war did provide economic benefits for the city. Petrochemical refineries and manufacturing plants were constructed along the ship channel because of the demand for petroleum and synthetic rubber products by the defense industry during the war. Ellington Field , initially built during World War I , was revitalized as an advanced training center for bombardiers and navigators. The Brown Shipbuilding Company
16416-448: The postwar years. In 1945, the M.D. Anderson Foundation formed the Texas Medical Center . After the war, Houston's economy reverted to being primarily port-driven. In 1948, the city annexed several unincorporated areas, more than doubling its size. Houston proper began to spread across the region. In 1950, the availability of air conditioning provided impetus for many companies to relocate to Houston, where wages were lower than those in
16568-431: The prosecution team of misconduct. Federal judge Simeon T. Lake III , who had presided over Skilling's 2006 trial, accepted the deal on June 21, 2013. Jeffrey Skilling was released from federal custody on February 21, 2019, after 12 years in federal prison. In June 2020, Skilling was reported by Reuters to be fundraising for launch of an online oil and gas trading platform named Veld LLC. In August 2021, Veld LLC filed as
16720-466: The prosecutors' allegation that he sold those shares with inside information of Enron's impending bankruptcy. Skilling's main attorney was Daniel Petrocelli , the 52-year-old civil litigator who represented Ron Goldman 's father in his successful civil suit against O. J. Simpson for negligent death. Skilling spent $ 40 million in preparation for the trial , of which at least $ 23 million went to his defense lawyers' retainer. Skilling's younger brother Mark
16872-851: The public schools serving River Oaks. The community is within Trustee District VII. As of 2000, almost 9% of HISD property taxes originated from River Oaks residents. The attendance boundaries of River Oaks Elementary School , Lanier Middle School , and Lamar High School include River Oaks. Lanier opened in 1926, River Oaks Elementary opened in 1929, and Lamar opened in 1937. As of 2014 there were 517 students in grades Kindergarten through 5 that were zoned to River Oaks Elementary School; that year, according to HISD estimates, about 56% attended River Oaks Elementary, about 41% attended private schools or homeschooling programs, about 2% attended other HISD schools, and about 1% attended public schools in other school districts. Laura Nathan-Garner, author of
17024-431: The purpose of developing a subdivision. County Club Estates Company sold investors shares to fund the River Oaks Country Club, which they chartered on February 1, 1923. The club developed both recreational facilities for adults and children. Country Club Estates Company planned a residential subdivision near the country club grounds. Kenneth E. Womack and Ball sold club memberships and also charter memberships which bundled
17176-505: The risk of an earthquake. The city of Houston was incorporated in 1837 and adopted a ward system of representation shortly afterward, in 1840. The six original wards of Houston are the progenitors of the 11 modern-day geographically oriented Houston City Council districts, though the city abandoned the ward system in 1905 in favor of a commission government , and, later, the existing mayor–council government . Locations in Houston are generally classified as either being inside or outside
17328-573: The same even if the honest services theory had never been presented, and Skilling's conviction was confirmed. The case in the Fifth Circuit is United States of America v. Jeffrey K. Skilling , 06-20885. Skilling appealed this new decision to the Supreme Court, but was denied certiorari . In 2013, Skilling's lawyers and the Justice Department reached a deal that called for Skilling's sentence to be reduced to 14 years. The reduction
17480-474: The school closed. At the time River Oaks had mainly older families. At the time the remaining families who did have children had the money to send their children to private school and preferred to do so. Between 1986 and 1996, River Oaks Elementary School only admitted magnet school students from other areas of the city. The community was divided between the attendance zones of Woodrow Wilson Elementary School (opened in 1925, now Ella Baker Montessori School ),
17632-465: The second edition of the Insiders' Guide to Houston (2012), wrote that "Many children in [River Oaks] attend [Lamar]". In 1974 most of River Oaks was assigned to River Oaks Elementary School. Prior to desegregation, it had around 800 children. After desegregation, many parents removed their children from River Oaks Elementary, and the school was far below capacity. In 1986 the neighborhood component of
17784-481: The second-most Fortune 500 headquarters of any U.S. municipality within its city limits. The Port of Houston ranks first in the United States in international waterborne tonnage handled and second in total cargo tonnage handled. Nicknamed the "Bayou City", "Space City", "H-Town", and "the 713 ", Houston has become a global city , with strengths in culture, medicine, and research. The city's population comprises various ethnic and religious backgrounds, as well as
17936-438: The seventh most expensive housing blocks in the United States. In 2017 Hurricane Harvey caused some flooding in River Oaks. Located within the 610 Loop and between Downtown and Uptown , River Oaks spans 1,100 acres (450 ha). The community is located in a region bounded on the north by Buffalo Bayou , on the east by South Shepherd Drive, on the west by Willowick Road, and on the south by Westheimer Road . River Oaks
18088-515: The south half of the lower league [2,214-acre (896 ha) tract] granted to her by her late husband. They paid $ 5,000 total, but only $ 1,000 of this in cash; notes made up the remainder." This was financed by assets inherited by Augustus's wife, Charlotte Baldwin Allen . The Allen brothers ran their first advertisement for Houston just four days later in the Telegraph and Texas Register , naming
18240-475: The south of Houston and Downtown Houston. The ship channel continues past Galveston and then into the Gulf of Mexico. Houston is a flat, marshy area where an extensive drainage system has been built. The adjoining prairie land drains into the city, which is prone to flooding. Underpinning Houston's land surface are unconsolidated clays, clay shales, and poorly cemented sands up to several miles deep. The region's geology developed from river deposits formed from
18392-426: The staff and two and one half times the size of the previous facility. Friends of Neighborhood Libraries raised one million dollars in four months, and around $ 2.5 million in total to help fund the new library. The 21,000 square feet (2,000 m) library, designed by Jackson & Ryan Architects, houses over 60,000 books and is the first city LEED-certified facility. It includes a 120-seat multipurpose meeting room and
18544-481: The subdivision comprises approximately 1,600 homes, mostly detached single family homes. In 1990, the Houston Chronicle said that "[t]he grandest streets are probably River Oaks Boulevard and Lazy Lane. Some of the houses are monstrosities, but many show taste and grace and also have lovely gardens." River Oaks is within the Houston Super Neighborhood #23 Afton Oaks/River Oaks, a division of
18696-421: The summer, temperatures reach or exceed 90 °F (32 °C) an average of 106.5 days per year, including a majority of days from June to September. Additionally, an average of 4.6 days per year reach or exceed 100 °F (37.8 °C). Houston's characteristic subtropical humidity often results in a higher apparent temperature , and summer mornings average over 90% relative humidity . Air conditioning
18848-466: The surrounding porous sands. The thick, rich, sometimes black, surface soil is suitable for rice farming in suburban outskirts where the city continues to grow. The Houston area has over 150 active faults (estimated to be 300 active faults ) with an aggregate length of up to 310 miles (500 km), including the Long Point–Eureka Heights fault system which runs through the center of
19000-480: The time that the criminal case was brought. The SEC case was stayed, however, pending resolution of the criminal case. On December 8, 2015, federal judge Melinda Harmon granted summary judgment to the SEC and permanently barred Skilling from serving as an officer or director of a public company. Skilling was released from federal custody on February 21, 2019. Prior to the trial, attorneys for Skilling requested that
19152-599: The urban core. In addition to Interstate 610, two additional loop highways encircle the city: Beltway 8 , with a radius of approximately 10 miles (16 km) from Downtown, and State Highway 99 (the Grand Parkway), with a radius of 25 miles (40 km). Approximately 470,000 people lived within the Interstate 610 loop, while 1.65 million lived between Interstate 610 and Beltway 8 and 2.25 million lived within Harris County outside Beltway 8 in 2015. Though Houston
19304-464: The wealthy of the city. River Oaks has been the subject matter of scholarly studies, primarily because its significant contributions to Houston's history and development as an elite suburban community. The community was the site of the 1972 murder of Dr. John Hill (later described in Thomas Thompson's novel, Blood and Money ). River Oaks was the home of Jeff Skilling before he began serving
19456-417: The youngest partners in the history of McKinsey. As a consultant for McKinsey, Skilling worked with Enron during 1987, helping the company create a forward market in natural gas . Skilling impressed Kenneth Lay in his capacity as a consultant, and was hired by Lay during 1990 as chairman and chief executive officer of Enron Finance Corp. In 1991, he became the chairman of Enron Gas Services Co., which
19608-536: The zip codes 77027 and 77019. The post office sits on a 109,160 square feet (10,141 m) property with a gross building area of 18,100 square feet (1,680 m). In addition the Julius Melcher Post Office is near River Oaks. In January 2009 the USPS announced that it will put the River Oaks Post Office property up for sale. In October of that year the USPS announced that it, for now, will not sell
19760-775: Was 16 years old, he worked at WLXT-TV (channel 60), a UHF television station in Aurora. He graduated from West Aurora High School and received a full scholarship to Southern Methodist University in Dallas, Texas , where he was a member of the Beta Theta Pi fraternity. Skilling initially studied engineering before changing to business. After graduating in 1975, he went to work as a corporate planner for First City Bancorporation of Houston, Texas. He quit by 1977 to attend Harvard Business School . According to Skilling, during his admissions interview for Harvard Business School, he
19912-481: Was 33.1, up from 32.9 in 2017 and down from 33.5 in 2014; the city's youthfulness has been attributed to an influx of an African American New Great Migration , Hispanic and Latino American, and Asian immigrants into Texas. For every 100 females, there were 98.5 males. There were 987,158 housing units in 2019 and 876,504 households. An estimated 42.3% of Houstonians owned housing units, with an average of 2.65 people per household. The median monthly owner costs with
20064-484: Was 5 °F (−15 °C) on January 18, 1930. The last time Houston saw single digit temperatures was on December 23, 1989. The temperature dropped to 7 °F (−14 °C) at Bush Airport, marking the coldest temperature ever recorded there. 1.7 inches of snow fell at George Bush Intercontinental Airport the previous day. Houston generally receives ample rainfall, averaging about 49.8 in (1,260 mm) annually based on records between 1981 and 2010. Many parts of
20216-631: Was a result of the merger of Enron Gas Marketing and Enron Finance Corp. Skilling was named CEO and managing director of Enron Capital and Trade Resources, which was the subsidiary responsible for energy trading and marketing. He was promoted to president and chief operating officer of Enron during 1997, second only to Lay, while remaining the manager of Enron Capital and Trade Resources. During Skilling's management, Enron adopted " mark-to-market " accounting , in which anticipated future profits from any deal were accounted for by estimating their present value rather than historical cost. Skilling began advocating
20368-502: Was also named the most expensive neighborhood in Houston in 2013. The community is home to River Oaks Country Club , which includes a golf course designed by architect Donald Ross and redesigned in 2015 by Tom Fazio . In 1923, Thomas William House, Jr., Thomas H. Ball , and Junius W. Reynolds founded the Country Club Estates Company. This firm acquired two large tracts west of Houston totalling 360 acres for
20520-428: Was asked if he was smart, to which he replied, "I'm fucking smart." This apparently so impressed the interviewer that it secured his place at the school. He earned his MBA from Harvard Business School in 1979, graduating in the top 5% of his class as a Baker Scholar. After graduation, Skilling became a consultant at McKinsey & Company in the energy and chemical consulting practices. He eventually became one of
20672-539: Was based on the idea that, even though Skilling committed illegal financial maneuvers, he did so in order to save the company and did not profit from it. This was cited as a possible basis for overturning some or all of his convictions; however, the chances of this were considered to be very narrow. Experts believed Skilling's best chance was in citing a parallel appeals court decision that had dismissed guilty verdicts on three Merrill Lynch bankers accused of helping Enron to inflate profits. On October 30, 2008, Skilling
20824-542: Was confirmed; however, the court ruled Skilling should be resentenced. Skilling appealed this new decision to the Supreme Court, but the appeal was denied. In 2013, following a further appeal, and earlier accusations that prosecutors had concealed evidence from Skilling's lawyers prior to his trial, the United States Department of Justice reached a deal with Skilling, which resulted in ten years being cut from his sentence, reducing it to 14 years. He
20976-426: Was convicted of federal felony charges relating to the Enron scandal . Skilling, who was CEO of Enron during the company's collapse, was eventually sentenced to 24 years in prison, of which he served 12 after multiple appeals. Skilling was indicted on 35 counts of crimes related to the Enron scandal. In 2006 he was found guilty of conspiracy , insider trading , making false statements , and securities fraud . He
21128-538: Was demolished in February 2006. The previous Looscan branch had around 61,000 visitors in the fiscal year 2005. The original plans for Looscan called for the library to get a $ 5.4 million renovation. An Upper Kirby group proposed a new site near the Upper Kirby YMCA . Around that period the group Friends of Neighborhood Libraries began raising funds. The replacement library, costing $ 6.2 million, has twice
21280-532: Was denied by Judge Patrick Higginbotham of the Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals on December 12, 2006. In ordering Skilling's immediate imprisonment, the judge wrote, "Skilling raises no substantial question that is likely to result in the reversal of his convictions on all of the charged counts," although the order also noted "serious frailties" were possible in some (but not all) of the convictions. Skilling began his sentence on December 13, 2006, and
21432-418: Was driven in part by a 2009 appeals court ruling that ordered a recalculation of Mr. Skilling’s sentence because of a mistake made by the judge in interpreting the federal sentencing guidelines. In exchange for his reduced sentence, Mr. Skilling gave up about $ 42 million, to be distributed to victims of Enron’s fraud. He also agreed not to pursue any further legal appeals, including a claim that would have accused
21584-446: Was founded by land investors on August 30, 1836, at the confluence of Buffalo Bayou and White Oak Bayou (a point now known as Allen's Landing ) and incorporated as a city on June 5, 1837. The city is named after former General Sam Houston , who was president of the Republic of Texas and had won Texas's independence from Mexico at the Battle of San Jacinto 25 miles (40 km) east of Allen's Landing. After briefly serving as
21736-582: Was founded in 1942 to build ships for the U.S. Navy during World War II. Due to the boom in defense jobs, thousands of new workers migrated to the city, both black, and white people competing for the higher-paying jobs. President Roosevelt had established a policy of nondiscrimination for defense contractors, and black people gained some opportunities, especially in shipbuilding, although not without resistance from white people and increasing social tensions that erupted into occasional violence. Economic gains of black people who entered defense industries continued in
21888-442: Was himself, and that he would be able to survive a long prison term as long as he is given "something to do, something to accomplish" while in prison. On October 23, 2006, Skilling was sentenced to 24 years and four months in prison, and was fined US$ 45,000,000 (equivalent to $ 68,012,545 in 2023). All of his convictions save one were ultimately upheld on appeal, as was his sentence. Skilling's request to remain free during appeal
22040-528: Was housed at the Montgomery Federal Prison Camp , Maxwell Air Force Base , Montgomery, Alabama until 2018. According to the Federal Bureau of Prisons , he was scheduled for release on February 21, 2019, but on August 30, 2018 Skilling was released from prison and sent to a halfway house in Texas to serve out his prison sentence. The Securities and Exchange Commission had sued Skilling for his misdeeds in February 2004, around
22192-616: Was moved to a halfway house in 2018 and released from custody in 2019, after serving 12 years. Jeffrey Keith Skilling was born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania , on November 25, 1953, the second of four children of Betty ( née Clarke) and Thomas Ethelbert Skilling, Jr. His father was a sales manager for an Illinois valve company. His older brother, Tom Skilling , later became chief meteorologist at WGN-TV in Chicago . Skilling grew up between New Jersey and Aurora, Illinois . When he
22344-411: Was moved to a low-security prison near Littleton, Colorado , as his original prison, FCI Waseca , was being converted to an all-female facility. Richard Dawkins ' book The Selfish Gene was Skilling's favorite book and served as the foundation of his managerial philosophy. Skilling held, by his own interpretation, a Darwinian view of what makes the world work. He believed that money and fear were
22496-400: Was nearly one-third of Houston's residents. President Woodrow Wilson opened the deep-water Port of Houston in 1914, seven years after digging began. By 1930, Houston had become Texas's most populous city and Harris County the most populous county. In 1940, the U.S. Census Bureau reported Houston's population as 77.5% White and 22.4% black. When World War II started, tonnage levels at
22648-417: Was ranked first in the list of healthiest housing markets for 2009. In 2019, home sales reached a new record of $ 30 billion. In referendums in 1948, 1962, and 1993, voters rejected efforts to establish separate residential and commercial land-use districts. Consequently, rather than a single central business district as the center of the city's employment, multiple districts and skylines have grown throughout
22800-430: Was sentenced to 24 years in prison and fined $ 45 million. The US Supreme Court heard arguments in the appeal of the case in 2010, vacated part of Skilling's conviction, and transferred the case back to the lower court for resentencing. In 2011, a three-judge panel of the Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals ruled that the verdict would have been the same despite the legal issues being discussed, and Skilling's conviction
22952-627: Was whether or not the federal "honest services fraud" statute (title 18 of the United States Code , section 1346) required the government to prove that Skilling's conduct was intended to achieve "private gain" (instead of being intended to advance his employer's interests); and, if not, if this statute is unconstitutionally vague. The Court heard two other cases about the same statute on December 8, several months before it heard Skilling's appeal: Black v. United States and Weyhrauch v. United States . The second issue – "in-house judging" –
23104-412: Was whether or not, when a presumption of jury prejudice arises because of the widespread, community effect of the defendant's alleged conduct, plus, widespread, inflammatory pretrial publicity, the government may rebut that presumption; and, if so, if the government must prove beyond a reasonable doubt that no juror was actually prejudiced. In the arguments on March 1, the issue of jury selection received
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