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114-666: From 1640, the space today found between the streets of the Colosseum and Berri, the Avenue des Champs-Élysées and the Rue du Faubourg-Saint-Honoré was occupied by the Royal nursery , which supplied the royal residences with trees, shrubs and flowers. Decommissioned under the Régence to make way for a subdivision planned by John Law , the plan was eventually dropped. In 1755, the land became

228-494: A clear-felled boreal forest site in northeastern Ontario. Similar plants were potted and kept in a greenhouse. In outplanted trees, maximum stomatal conductances (g) were initially low (<0.01 cm/s), and initial base xylem pressure potentials (PSIb) were -2.0 MPa. During the growing season, g increased to about 0.20 cm/s and PSIb to -1.0 MPa. Minimum xylem pressure potential (PSIm) was initially -2.5 MPa, increasing to -2.0 MPa on day 40, and about -1.6 MPa by day 110. During

342-414: A dam, or changing a watercourse.  or building manmade ponds. The water source and water pumps should to be close to fields In this situation, water will need testing for pH, and testing for chemicals in the water to ensure an acceptable water quality.  Two common types of irrigation systems are drip irrigation , and overhead irrigation . Landscape Topography A good slope for a plant nursery

456-625: A few branches of new shoots are cut and often used for charcoal, itself a major driver of deforestation. Since new seeds are not planted, it is cheaper. Additionally, they are much more likely to survive as their root systems already exist and can tap into groundwater during harsher seasons with no rain. While this method has existed for centuries, it is now sometimes referred to as farmer-managed natural regeneration or assisted natural regeneration . Policies that promote reforestation for incentives in return have shown promising results of being an effective and motivative concept to re-plant globally on

570-534: A freezer chest and cooled to some level for some specific duration; a few days after removal, seedlings were assessed for damage using various criteria, including odour, general visual appearance, and examination of cambial tissue (Ritchie 1982). Stock for fall planting must be properly hardened-off. Conifer seedlings are considered to be hardened off when the terminal buds have formed and the stem and root tissues have ceased growth. Other characteristics that in some species indicate dormancy are color and stiffness of

684-462: A greater early season resistance to water-flow through the soil–plant–atmosphere continuum (SPAC) than had containerized outplants. Resistance to water flow through the SPAC decreased in bareroot stock of both species as the season progressed, and was comparable to containerized seedlings 9 to 14 weeks after planting. Bareroot black spruce had greater new-root development than containerized stock throughout

798-695: A high-elevation planting study in southeastern British Columbia. In the larger gaps (≥1.0 ha), height increment by year 6 was ranging from 10 cm to 20 cm. Lajzerrowicz et al. Concluded that plantings of conifers in clearcuts at high elevations in the southern mountains of British Columbia are likely to be successful, even close to timberline; and group selection silvicultural systems based on gaps 0.1 ha or larger are also likely to succeed. Gaps smaller than 0.1 ha do not provide suitable conditions for obtaining adequate survival or for growth of outplanted conifers. Planting stock, "seedlings, transplants, cuttings, and occasionally wildings, for use in planting out,"

912-408: A large share of low-income countries' populations, and argues for prioritized inclusion of "local communities" in forest restoration projects. There are calls for a more selective approach to identifying reforestation areas, taking into account the possible displacement of customary land uses. Reforesting sometimes results in extensive canopy creation that prevents growth of diverse vegetation in

1026-487: A major influence on field performance. The field performance among various stock types in Ontario plantations was examined by Paterson and Hutchison (1989): the white spruce stock types were 2+0, 1.5+0.5, 1.5+1.5, and 3+0. The nursery stock was grown at Midhurst Forest Tree Nursery, and carefully handled through lifting on 3 lift dates, packing, and hot-planting into cultivated weed-free loam. After 7 years, overall survival

1140-418: A mass scale. Some incentives for reforestation can be as simple as a financial compensation. A compensated reduction of deforestation approach has been proposed which would reward developing countries that disrupt any further act of deforestation: Countries that participate and take the option to reduce their emissions from deforestation during a committed period of time would receive financial compensation for

1254-511: A minimized handling and lifting-planting cycle, a system based on specification for nursery stock and minimum morphological standards for acceptable seedlings works tolerably well. In certain circumstances, benefits often accrue from the use of large planting stock of highly ranked morphological grades. Length of leading shoot, diameter of stem, volume of root system, shoot:root ratios, and height:diameter ratios have been correlated with performance under specific site and planting conditions. However,

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1368-418: A morning heat shock increased HSP 73 in the mitochondrial but decreased it in the microsomal fraction. Heat shock increased soluble HSP 72/73 levels in both the morning and afternoon. In all instances, shoot and root heat tolerances were significantly greater in the afternoon than in the morning. Planting stock continues to respire during storage even if frozen. Temperature is the major factor controlling

1482-574: A non-profit organization Ek Kadam Sansthan in Jaipur is leading the development of a module of mass tracking for plantations. The pilot has been done successfully and the organization is hoping to implement nationwide by the end of 2021. The Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fishery explain that about two-thirds of Japanese land is covered with forests, and it was almost unchanged from 1966 to 2012. Japan needs to reduce 26% of green house gas emission from 2013 by 2030 to accomplish Paris Agreement and

1596-450: A percentage of TA was higher in field-planted white spruce than jack pine until the end of the season. The stomata of both white and black spruce were more sensitive to atmospheric evaporative demands and plant moisture stress during the first growing season after outplanting on 2 boreal sites in northern Ontario than were jack pine stomata, physiological differences that favoured growth and establishment being more in jack pine than in

1710-678: A quick succession of names, becoming Rue Lapeyrouse , Rue d'Angoulême once again (1852), Rue de Morny (1863), Rue de la Commune (1871), Rue Mac-Mahon and finally Rue Pierre-Charron in 1871. The area between the Place Saint-Augustin and the Place Chand-Goyon was called Rue de la Pépinière until 1868, and then Rue Abattucci . The street took its current name in 1879, throughout its length, in honour of Étienne de La Boétie (1530–1563), friend moralist of Michel de Montaigne . Plant nursery A nursery

1824-529: A range of different challenges. Reforestation can compete with other land uses, such as food production, livestock grazing, and living space, for further economic growth. Reforestation can also divert large amounts of water from other activities. A map created by the World Resources Institute in collaboration with the IUCN identifies 2 billion hectares for potential forest restoration and

1938-407: A root system to develop new roots or extend existing roots cannot be determined by eye, yet it is the factor that makes or breaks the outcome of an outplanting operation. The post-planting development of roots or root systems of coniferous planting stock is determined by many factors, some physiological, some environmental. Unsatisfactory rates of post-planting survival unrelated to the morphology of

2052-429: A salable size and either sold to other nurseries that may continue to grow the plants out in larger containers or field grow them to desired size. Propagation nurseries may also sell plant material large enough for retail sales and thus sale directly to retail nurseries or garden centers (which rarely propagated their own plants). Nurseries may produce plants for reforestation , zoos, parks, and cities. Tree nurseries in

2166-517: A set of disadvantages, for example biodiversity loss . Lastly, there is also the problem that stored carbon is released at some point. The effects of reforestation will be farther in the future than those of proforestation (the conservation of intact forests). Instead of planting entirely new areas, it might be better to reconnect forested areas and restore the edges of forest. This protects their mature core and makes them more resilient and longer-lasting. It takes much longer − several decades − for

2280-508: A short growing season, low air and soil temperatures, severe winters, and deep snow. The survival and growth of Engelmann spruce and subalpine fir outplanted in 3 silvicultural trials on such sites in gaps of various sizes were compared by Lajzerowicz et al. (2006). Survival after 5 or 6 years decreased with smaller gaps. Height and diameter also decreased with decreasing size of gap; mean heights were 50 cm to 78 cm after 6 years, in line with height expectations for Engelmann spruce in

2394-414: A specific number and size of plant, while others produce a wide range of plants that are offered for sale to other nurseries and landscapers and sold as first come first served. Retail nurseries sell plants ready to be placed in the landscape or used in homes and businesses. Propagation nurseries produce new plants from seeds, cuttings, tissue culture, grafting, or division. The plants are then grown out to

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2508-417: A specific type of plant using a small area of land, or very larger operations covering many acres. They propagate plant material or buy plants from other nurseries which may include rooted or unrooted cuttings, or small rooted plants called plugs, or field ~grown bare root plants, which are planted and grown to a desired size. Some wholesale nurseries produce plants on contract for others which place an order for

2622-415: A yearly subsidy for lost income. In 2015 China announced a plan to plant 26 billion trees by the year 2025; that is, two trees for every Chinese citizen per year. Between 2013 and 2018, China planted 338,000 square kilometres of forests, at a cost of $ 82.88 billion. By 2018, 21.7% of China's territory was covered by forests, a figure the government wants to increase to 26% by 2035. The total area of China

2736-407: Is 1-2 degrees. Any more than 5 degrees will make the nursery susceptible to soil erosion. The nursery stock should be planted in rows running across the slopes.  If the landscape of the nursery has sections of land where erosion could occur, the nursery needs to come up with a solution such as by using erosion prevention structures like rip rap. Topography impacts nursery design and layout and it

2850-411: Is 2-year-old seedling planting stock that has not been transplanted, and Candy's (1929) white spruce 2+2+3 stock had spent 2 years in the seedbed, 2 years in transplant lines, and another 3 years in transplant lines after a second transplanting. Variations have included such self-explanatory combinations, such as 1½+1½, etc. The class of planting stock to use on a particular site is generally selected on

2964-675: Is 9,596,961 square kilometres (see China ), so 412,669 square kilometres more needs to be planted. According to the government's plan, by 2050, 30% of China's territory should be covered by forests. In 2017, the Saihanba Afforestation Community won the UN Champions of the Earth Award in the Inspiration and Action category for their successful reforestation efforts, which began upon discovering

3078-414: Is a factor in strategizing what direction to plant rows.  It also impacts where windbreaks should be planted. If an area has a flat slope and is open, it will need a windbreak . Soil Conditions For a nursery to produce healthy crops, it will need to have healthy soil. The soil should have good drainage and nutrient holding capacity. Soil testing will help a nursery find out its pH levels, and also

3192-576: Is a person who owns or works in a nursery. Some nurseries specialize in certain areas, which may include: propagation and the selling of small or bare root plants to other nurseries; growing out plant materials to a saleable size, or retail sales. Nurseries may also specialize in one type of plant, e.g., groundcovers , shade plants, or rock garden plants. Some produce bulk stock, whether seedlings or grafted trees, of particular varieties for purposes such as fruit trees for orchards or timber trees for forestry. Some producers produce stock seasonally, ready in

3306-501: Is a place where plants are propagated and grown to a desired size. Mostly the plants concerned are for gardening, forestry , or conservation biology , rather than agriculture . They include retail nurseries, which sell to the general public; wholesale nurseries, which sell only to businesses such as other nurseries and commercial gardeners ; and private nurseries, which supply the needs of institutions or private estates. Some will also work in plant breeding . A " nurseryman "

3420-515: Is always subject to a variety of conditions that are never optimal in toto . The effect of sub-optimal conditions is to induce stress in the plants. The nursery manager aims, and is normally able to avoid stresses greater than moderate, i.e., restricting stresses to levels that can be tolerated by the plants without incurring serious damage. The adoption of nursery regimes to equip planting stock with characteristics conferring increased ability to withstand outplanting stresses, by managing stress levels in

3534-434: Is criticized for including 900 million hectares of grasslands. An assessment of the pledges of governments for reforestation found that the sum of global pledges translates to a required land area of 1.2bn hectares, until 2060, which is equal to a tenth of the global land area und thus deemed unrealistic without a significant encroachment on non-forest areas. Experts are calling for a better integration of social data, such as

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3648-433: Is defined as the re-establishment of forest through planting and/or deliberate seeding on land classified as forest. Afforestation on the other hand means establishing new forest on lands that were not forest before (for example, abandoned agriculture). It is the process of restoring and recreating areas of woodlands or forests that may have existed long ago but were deforested or otherwise removed at some point in

3762-515: Is grown under many diverse nursery culture regimes, in facilities ranging from sophisticated computerized greenhouses to open compounds. Types of stock include bareroot seedlings and transplants, and various kinds of containerized stock. For simplicity, both container-grown and bareroot stock are generally referred to as seedlings, and transplants are nursery stock that have been lifted and transplanted into another nursery bed, usually at wider spacing. The size and physiological character of stock vary with

3876-461: Is likely to be well founded. The physiological qualities of planting stock are hidden from the eye and must be revealed by testing. The potential for survival and growth of a batch of planting stock may be estimated from various features, morphological and physiological, of the stock or a sample thereof. The size and shape and general appearance of a seedling can nevertheless give useful indications of PSPP. In low-stress outplanting situations, and with

3990-485: Is nursery stock that has been made ready for outplanting. The amount of seed used in white spruce seedling production and direct seeding varies with method. A working definition of planting stock quality was accepted at the 1979 IUFRO Workshop on Techniques for Evaluating Planting Stock Quality in New Zealand: "The quality of planting stock is the degree to which that stock realizes the objectives of management (to

4104-955: Is planted, undergoes any substantive physiological or physical change. In its present form, RGC testing is silviculturally useful chiefly as a means of detecting planting stock that, while visually unimpaired, is moribund. Seedling moisture content can be increased or decreased in storage, depending on various factors including especially the type of container and the kind and amount of moisture-retaining material present. When seedlings exceed 20 bars PMS in storage, survival after outplanting becomes problematical. The Relative Moisture Content of stock lifted during dry conditions can be increased gradually when stored in appropriate conditions. White spruce (3+0) packed in Kraft bags in northern Ontario increased RMC by 20% to 36% within 40 days. Bareroot 1.5+1.5 white spruce were taken from cold storage and planted early in May on

4218-790: Is reflected by changes in root activity. This is helpful in determining the readiness of stock for lifting and storing and also for outplanting after storage. Navratil (1982) reported a virtually perfect (R² = 0.99) linear relationship in the frequency of 3+0 white spruce white root tips longer than 10 mm with time in the fall at Pine Ridge Forest Nursery, Alberta, decreasing during a 3-week period to zero on October 13 in 1982.Root regenerating research with white spruce in Canada (Hambly 1973, Day and MacGillivray 1975, Day and Breunig 1997) followed similar lines to that of Stone's (1955) pioneering work in California. Simpson and Ritchie (1997) debated

4332-424: Is that forests can turn from sinks to carbon sources. In 2019 forests took up a third less carbon than they did in the 1990s, due to higher temperatures, droughts and deforestation . The typical tropical forest may become a carbon source by the 2060s. Researchers have found that, in terms of environmental services, it is better to avoid deforestation than to allow for deforestation to subsequently reforest, as

4446-401: Is to establish tree plantations , also called plantation forests. They cover about 131 million ha worldwide, which is 3% of the global forest area and 45% of the total area of planted forests. Globally, planted forests increased from 4.1% to 7.0% of the total forest area between 1990 and 2015. Plantation forests made up 280 million ha ( hectare ) in 2015, an increase of about 40 million ha in

4560-822: Is used to refer to tree nurseries and Christmas tree farms . Plantation forestry can produce a high volume of wood in a short period of time. Plantations are grown by state forestry authorities (for example, the Forestry Commission in Britain) and/or the paper and wood industries and other private landowners (such as Weyerhaeuser , Rayonier and Sierra Pacific Industries in the United States or Asia Pulp & Paper in Indonesia). Christmas trees are often grown on plantations, and in southern and southeastern Asia, teak plantations have recently replaced

4674-601: The Green Wall of China project, which aims to halt the expansion of the Gobi desert through the planting of trees. There has been a 47-million-hectare increase in forest area in China since the 1970s. The total number of trees amounted to be about 35 billion and 4.55% of China's land mass increased in forest coverage. The forest coverage was 12% two decades ago and now is 16.55%. China announced two large reforestation programs,

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4788-529: The carbon sequestration benefits of reforestation to become similar to those from mature trees in tropical forests . Therefore, reducing deforestation is usually more beneficial for climate change mitigation than is reforestation. Many countries carry out reforestation programs. For example, in China, the Three Northern Protected Forest Development Program – informally known as the " Great Green Wall " –

4902-498: The greenhouse gas carbon dioxide from the air, forests function as terrestrial carbon sinks , meaning they store large amounts of carbon in the form of biomass, encompassing roots, stems, branches, and leaves. Throughout their lifespan, trees continue to sequester carbon, storing atmospheric CO 2 long-term. Sustainable forest management , afforestation , reforestation are therefore important contributions to climate change mitigation. An important consideration in such efforts

5016-607: The Million Tree Project in Kulun Qi, Inner Mongolia to plant one million trees. China used 24 million hectares of new forest to offset 21% of Chinese fossil fuel emissions in 2000. The Chinese government requires mining companies to restore the environment around exhausted mines by refilling excavated pits and planting crops or trees. Many mining companies use these recovered mines for ecotourism business. Launched in 1978 and scheduled to last until 2050,

5130-884: The Natural Forest Protection Program and the Returning Farmland to Forest program, in late 1998. The programs were piloted in Sichuan , Shaanxi , and Gansu in 1999. They became widely implemented in 2000. The Natural Forest Protection Program called for major reductions in timber harvest, forest conservation, and instituted logging bans in most of Sichuan, Yunnan , Guizhou , and Tibet . The program provided for alternative employment opportunities for former logging industry workers, including hiring them for reforestation work. The Returning Farmland to Forest program paid farmers to plant trees on less productive farmland and provided them with

5244-517: The Three Northern Protected Forest Development Program – informally known as the " Great Green Wall " – aims to eventually plant nearly 90 million acres of new forest in a 2,800-mile stretch of northern China. Over 69.3 million hectares of forest were planted across China from 1999 to 2013. This large-scale reforestation contributed to China’s forests sequestering 1.11 ± 0.38 Gt carbon per yr over

5358-458: The U.S. produce around 1.3 billion seedlings per year for reforestation projects. Nurseries grow plants in open fields, on container fields, in tunnels or greenhouses. In open fields, nurseries grow decorative trees, shrubs and herbaceous perennials. On a containerfield nurseries grow small trees, shrubs and herbaceous plants, usually destined for sales in garden centers. These have proper ventilation, sunlight etc. Plants may be grown by seeds, but

5472-484: The abundance of HSPs depending on protein fraction and time of day. Without heat shock, nuclear membrane-bound HSP 73 was absent from plants in the morning and only weakly present in the afternoon, and heat shock increased the abundance of nuclear membrane. Heat shock also affected the abundance of HSP 73 in the afternoon, and caused HSP 73 to appear in the morning. In the mitochondrial and microsomal protein fractions, an afternoon heat shock reduced HSP 73 , whereas

5586-433: The amounts of nutrients in the soil. To test soil drainage, one method is to dig an 18" deep hole that is at least 4" in diameter. Fill the hole with water, and leave it for an hour. This will allow the soil to saturate. Next, fill the hole with water again but leave the top 2" of soil in the hole without water. Wait an hour then return to the hole with a measurement tool like a ruler to find out how much water has drained from

5700-613: The basis of historical record of survival, growth, and total cost of surviving trees. In the Lake States, Kittredge concluded that good stock of 2+1 white spruce was the smallest size likely to succeed and was better than larger and more expensive stock when judged by final cost of surviving trees. Because age alone is an inadequate descriptor of planting stock, various codes have been developed to describe such components of stock characteristics as height, stem diameter, and shoot:root ratio. A description code may include an indication of

5814-442: The carbon dioxide emissions that they avoided. To raise the payments, the host country would issue government bonds or negotiate some kind of loan with a financial institution that would want to take part in the compensation promised to the other country. The funds received by the country could be invested to help find alternatives to the extensive cutdown of forests. This whole process of cutting emissions would be voluntary, but once

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5928-451: The case of timber species, volumic wood production and stem straightness. Forest genetic resources are the basis for genetic alteration. Selected individuals grown in seed orchards are a good source for seeds to develop adequate planting material. Planting new trees often leads to up to 90% of seedlings failing. However, even in deforested areas, existing root systems often exist. Growth can be accelerated by pruning and coppicing where

6042-399: The concept that larger is better negates the underlying complexities. Schmidt-Vogt (1980), for instance, found that whereas mortality among large outplants is greater than among small in the year of planting, mortality in subsequent growing seasons is higher among small outplants than among large. Much of the literature on comparative seedling performance is clouded by uncertainty as to whether

6156-454: The country has agreed to lower their emissions they would be obligated to reduce their emissions. However, if a country was not able to meet their obligation, their target would get added to their next commitment period. The authors of these proposals see this as a solely government-to-government agreement; private entities would not participate in the compensation trades. Another emerging revenue source to fund reforestation projects deals with

6270-550: The country working on reforestation. Lots of plantation are being carried out in the Indian continent but the survivability is very poor especially for massive plantations, with less than 20% survivability rate. To improve the forest cover and to achieve the national mission of forest cover of 33%, there is a need to improve the methods of plantation. Rather than mass planting, there is a need to work on performance measurement & tracking of trees growth. Taking this into consideration,

6384-480: The dependence of livelihoods on specific land uses, into restoration efforts. Possible solutions include the integration of other land uses into forests through agroforestry , such as growing coffee plants under trees, reducing the delineation between forests and other land uses. A study found that almost 300 million people live on tropical forest restoration opportunity land in the Global South , constituting

6498-413: The depletion of biodiversity which can hinder medicinal discoveries, and alter gene flow in organisms. A debated issue in managed reforestation is whether the succeeding forest will have the same biodiversity as the original forest. If the forest is replaced with only one species of tree and all other vegetation is prevented from growing back, a monoculture forest similar to agricultural crops would be

6612-487: The diurnal variability in heat tolerance of roots and shoots in black spruce seedlings 14 to 16 weeks old found in all 4 trials that shoot heat tolerance was significantly greater in the afternoon than in the morning. The trend in root heat tolerance was similar to that found in the shoots; root systems exposed to 47 °C for 15 minutes in the afternoon averaged 75 new roots after a 2-week growth period, whereas only 28 new roots developed in root systems similarly exposed in

6726-425: The electrical conductivity of which depends on the degree to which cell membranes have been ruptured by freezing releasing electrolyte. A −15 °C frost hardiness level has been used to determine the readiness of container stock to be moved outside from the greenhouse, and −40 °C has been the level determining readiness for frozen storage (Colombo 1997). In an earlier technique, potted seedlings were placed in

6840-399: The end of the rotation or achievement of specified sought benefits) at minimum cost. Quality is fitness for purpose." Clear expression of objectives is therefore prerequisite to any determination of planting stock quality. Not only does performance have to be determined, but performance has to be rated against the objectives of management. Planting stock is produced in order to give effect to

6954-440: The first half of the growing season, PSIm was below turgor loss point. The osmotic potential at turgor loss point decreased after planting to -2.3 MPa 28 days later. In the greenhouse, minimum values of PSIT were -2.5 MPa (in the first day after planting. the maximum bulk modulus of elasticity was greater in white spruce than in similarly treated jack pine and showed greater seasonal changes. Relative water content (RWC) at turgor loss

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7068-657: The forest policy of the organization. A distinction needs to be made between "planting stock quality" and "planting stock performance potential" (PSPP). The actual performance of any given batch of outplanted planting stock is determined only in part by the kind and condition, i.e., the intrinsic PSPP, of the planting stock. The PSPP is impossible to estimate reliably by eye because outward appearance, especially of stock withdrawn from refrigerated storage, can deceive even experienced foresters, who would be offended if their ability were questioned to recognize good planting stock when they saw it. Prior to Wakeley's (1954) demonstration of

7182-613: The forest to be replanted after felling . In such circumstances, the industry can cut the trees in a way to allow easier reforestation. Reforestation, if several indigenous species are used, can provide other benefits in addition to financial returns, including restoration of the soil , rejuvenation of local flora and fauna, and the capturing and sequestering of 38 tons of carbon dioxide per hectare per year. There are four primary ways in which reforestation and reducing deforestation can increase carbon sequestration and thus help with climate change mitigation. First, by increasing

7296-494: The former leads to irreversible effects in terms of biodiversity loss and soil degradation . The effects reforestation has on biodiversity is not limited to just other forms of vegetation, it can affect all forms of living organisms all contained in the present ecosystem. Due to the major role trees have on ecosystems it is important to better understand components like the ecosystem, waterways, and species present in areas that are being re-planted. Prior research helps limit

7410-831: The future than keeping existing forests intact. It takes much longer − several decades − for the benefits for global warming to manifest to the same carbon sequestration benefits from mature trees in tropical forests and hence from limiting deforestation. Therefore, scientists consider "the protection and recovery of carbon-rich and long-lived ecosystems, especially natural forests" to be "the major climate solution ". Plantation forests are intensively managed, composed of one or two species, even-aged, planted with regular spacing, and established mainly for productive purposes. Other planted forests, which comprise 55 percent of all planted forests, are not intensively managed, and they may resemble natural forests at stand maturity. The purposes of other planted forests may include ecosystem restoration and

7524-484: The government has encouraged companies to promote reforestation tactics through the promises of a tax break. As many landholders seek to earn carbon credits through sequestration, their participation also encourages biodiversity and provides ecosystem services for crops and livestock. There is often insufficient integration between the different purposes of reforestation, namely economic utilization, enhancement of biodiversity and carbon sequestration. This can lead to

7638-515: The growing season. The greater efficiency of water use in newly transplanted 3-year-old white spruce seedlings under low levels of absolute humidity difference in water-stressed plants immediately after planting helps explain the commonly observed favourable response of young outplants to the nursing effect of a partial canopy. Silvicultural treatments promoting higher humidity levels at the planting microsite should improve white spruce seedling photosynthesis immediately after planting. Planting stock

7752-448: The hole. The corresponding measurements will allow the tester to decide what type of drainage capacity their soil has. If the water level drops 1/2" or less it is poor draining. If water drops 1/2" to 1", it drains at a medium rate. 1"< means that the soil drains quickly. Seedlings vary in their susceptibility to injury from frost. Damage can be catastrophic if "unhardened" seedlings are exposed to frost. Frost hardiness may be defined as

7866-563: The importance of the physiological state of planting stock in determining the ability of the stock to perform after outplanting, and to a considerable extent even afterwards, morphological appearance has generally served as the basis for estimating the quality of planting stock. Gradually, however, a realization developed that more was involved. Tucker et al. (1968), for instance, after assessing 10-year survival data from several experimental white spruce plantations in Manitoba noted that "Perhaps

7980-488: The intended planting season. Reforestation Reforestation is the practice of restoring previously existing forests and woodlands that have been destroyed or damaged. The prior forest destruction might have happened through deforestation , clearcutting or wildfires . Three important purposes of reforestation programs are for harvesting of wood , for climate change mitigation , and for ecosystem and habitat restoration purposes. One method of reforestation

8094-425: The latter leads to irreversible effects in terms of biodiversity loss and soil degradation . Furthermore, the probability that legacy carbon will be released from soil is higher in younger boreal forest. Global greenhouse gas emissions caused by damage to tropical rainforests may have been substantially underestimated until around 2019. Additionally, the effects of afforestation and reforestation will be farther in

8208-407: The length of growing period and with growing conditions. Until the technology of raising containerized nursery stock bourgeoned in the second half of the twentieth- century, bareroot planting stock classified by its age in years was the norm. The number of years spent in the nursery seedbed by any particular lot of planting stock is indicated by the 1st of a series of numbers. The 2nd number indicates

8322-417: The lower end of the scale are usually culled to an arbitrary limit, but, especially among bareroot stock, the range in size is commonly considerable. Dobbs (1976) and McMinn (1985a) examined how the performance of 2+0 bareroot white spruce related to differences in initial size of planting stock. The stock was regraded into large, medium, and small fractions according to fresh weight. The small fraction (20% of

8436-508: The minimum temperature at which a certain percentage of a random seedling population will survive or will sustain a given level of damage (Siminovitch 1963, Timmis and Worrall 1975). The term LT 50 (lethal temperature for 50% of a population) is commonly used. Determination of frost hardiness in Ontario is based on electrolyte leakage from mainstem terminal tips 2 cm to 3 cm long in weekly samplings (Colombo and Hickie 1987). The tips are frozen then thawed, immersed in distilled water,

8550-463: The morning. HSP 73 was detected in black spruce nuclear, mitochondrial, microsomal, and soluble protein fractions, while HSP 72 was observed only in the soluble protein fraction. Seedlings exhibited constitutive synthesis of HSP 73 at 26 °C in all except the nuclear membrane fraction in the morning; HSP levels at 26 °C in the afternoon were higher than in the morning in the mitochondrial and microsomal protein factions. Heat shock affected

8664-560: The most common method is by planting cuttings, which can be taken from shoot tips or roots. With the objective of fitting planting stock more able to withstand stresses after outplanting, various nursery treatments have been attempted or developed and applied to nursery stock. Buse and Day (1989), for instance, studied the effect of conditioning of white spruce and black spruce transplants on their morphology, physiology, and subsequent performance after outplanting. Root pruning, wrenching, and fertilization with potassium at 375 kg/ha were

8778-443: The most important point revealed here is that certain lots of transplants performed better than others", even though all transplants were handled and planted with care. The intuitive "stock that looks good must be good" is a persuasive, but potentially dangerous maxim. That greatest of teachers, Bitter Experience, has often enough demonstrated the fallibility of such assessment, even though the corollary "stock that looks bad must be bad"

8892-473: The natural forest. Industrial plantations are actively managed for the commercial production of forest products. Industrial plantations are usually large-scale. Individual blocks are usually even-aged and often consist of just one or two species. These species can be exotic or indigenous. The plants used for the plantation are often genetically altered for desired traits such as growth and resistance to pests and diseases in general and specific traits, for example in

9006-457: The needles, but these are not apparent in white spruce. Whether in the forest or in the nursery, seedling growth is fundamentally influenced by soil fertility , but nursery soil fertility is readily amenable to amelioration, much more so than is forest soil. Nitrogen , phosphorus , and potassium are regularly supplied as fertilizers, and calcium and magnesium are supplied occasionally. Applications of fertilizer nitrogen do not build up in

9120-413: The nursery to "condition" planting stock to increase tolerance to various post-planting environmental stresses, has become widespread, particularly with containerized stock. Outplanted stock that is unable to tolerate high temperatures occurring at soil surfaces will fail to establish on many forest sites, even in the far north. Factors affecting heat tolerance were investigated by Colombo et al. (1995);

9234-536: The original stock) had barely one-quarter of the dry matter mass of the large fraction at the time of outplanting. Ten years later, in the blade-scarified site, seedlings of the large fraction had almost 50% greater stem volume than had seedlings of the small fraction. Without site preparation, large stock were more than twice the size of small stock after 10 years. Similar results were obtained with regraded 2+1 transplants sampled to determine root growth capacity. The large stock had higher RGC as well as greater mass than

9348-412: The past or lacked it naturally (for example, natural grasslands ). Reforestation is not only used for recovery of accidentally destroyed forests. In some countries, such as Finland , many of the forests are managed by the wood products and pulp and paper industry . In such an arrangement, like other crops, trees are planted to replace those that have been cut. The Finnish Forest Act from 1996 obliges

9462-526: The peatlands in Central Africa, which house an abundance of carbon in the mud called peat. Much like the forest fire or insect outbreak which can harm tropical rainforests, money can also be seen an incentive to harm forests and be paid off to protect it. The global greenhouse gas emissions caused by damage to tropical rainforests may be underestimated by a factor of six. Also the possible harvesting and utilization of wood from reforested areas, limits

9576-771: The period 2010 to 2016. This amounted to about 45 percent of the yearly greenhouse gas emissions during that period in China. Jadav Payeng had received national awards for reforestation efforts, known as the " Molai forest ". He planted 1400 hectares of forest on the bank of river Brahmaputra alone. There are active reforestation efforts throughout the country. In 2016, India had more than 50 million trees planted in Uttar Pradesh and in 2017, more than 66 million trees planted in Madhya Pradesh . In addition to this and individual efforts, there are startup companies, such as Afforest, that are being created over

9690-506: The permanence of carbon sequestered through reforestation. For example, it was found that nearly half of the pledges under the Bonn Challenge were areas earmarked for commercial wood use. Additionally the effects of afforestation and reforestation will be farther in the future than those of proforestation (the conservation of intact forests). It takes much longer − several decades − for the benefits for global warming to manifest to

9804-468: The previous ten years. Of the planted forests worldwide, 18% of that area consists of exotic or introduced species while the rest consist of species native to the country where they are planted. There are limitations and challenges with reforestation projects, especially if they are in the form of tree plantations. Firstly, there can be competition with other land uses and displacement risk. Secondly, tree plantations are often monocultures which comes with

9918-441: The previous ten years. Of the planted forests worldwide, 18% of that planted area consists of exotic or introduced species while the rest consist of species native to the country where they are planted. A tree plantation, forest plantation , plantation forest, timber plantation or tree farm is a forest planted for high volume production of wood, usually by planting one type of tree as a monoculture forest. The term tree farm also

10032-406: The prince to cut through land from the Rue d'Angoulême with a width of 30 feet (9.1 m), and to name it in honour of his eldest son Louis Antoine, Duke of Angoulême (1775–1844). New letters patent of 4 April 1778 approved the opening of the Rue de Ponthieu, Rue Neuve-de-Berri (current Rue de Berri), Rue Neuve-de-Poitiers (current Rue d'Artois) and Rue d'Angoulême-Saint-Honoré. An alignment report

10146-433: The production and roles of heat shock proteins (HSPs) are important in this regard. HSPs, present constitutively in black spruce and many other, perhaps most, higher plants are important both for normal cell functioning and in a stress response mechanism following exposure to high, non-lethal temperature. In black spruce at least, there is an association between HSPs and increased levels of heat tolerance. Investigation of

10260-586: The property of Louis Phélypeaux, comte de Saint-Florentin , who was then Secretary of State of the Maison du Roi , who ceded it in 1764 to his mistress, Marie-Madeleine de Cusacque the Countess of Langeac (1725–1778). She then sold it in 1772 to the Comte d'Artois , who later became King Charles X , Louis XVI 's younger brother. Planning approval via letters patent was given on 29 November 1777, which allowed

10374-402: The proposition that root growth potential of planting stock predicts field performance; their conclusion was that root growth potential, as a surrogate for seedling vigor, can predict field performance, but only under such situations as site conditions permit. Survival after planting is only partly a function of an outplant's ability to initiate roots in test conditions; root growth capacity is not

10488-529: The protection of soil and water values. Plantation forests cover about 131 million ha, which is 3 percent of the global forest area and 45 percent of the total area of planted forests. Over 90% of the world's forests regenerate organically, and more than half are covered by forest management plans or equivalents. Globally, planted forests increased from 4.1% to 7.0% of the total forest area between 1990 and 2015. Plantation forests made up 280 million ha ( hectare ) in 2015, an increase of about 40 million ha in

10602-476: The rate, and care must be taken to avoid overheating. Navratil (1982) found that closed containers in cold storage averaged internal temperatures 1.5 °C to 2.0 °C above the nominal storage temperature. Depletion of reserves can be estimated from the decrease in dry weight. Cold-stored 3+0 white spruce nursery stock in northern Ontario had lost 9% to 16% of dry weight after 40 days of storage. Carbohydrates can also be determined directly. The propensity of

10716-463: The result. However, most reforestation involves the planting of different selections of seedlings taken from the area, often of multiple species. There is also the risk that, through a forest fire or insect outbreak , much of the stored carbon in a reforested area could make its way back to the atmosphere. Furthermore, the probability that legacy carbon will be released from soil is higher in younger boreal forests. An example of this can be seen in

10830-402: The rigors of the outplant site. Nutrients in oversupply can reduce growth or the uptake of other nutrients. As well, an excess of nutrient ions can prolong or weaken growth to interfere with the necessary development of dormancy and hardening of tissues in time to withstand winter weather. Nursery stock size typically follows the normal curve when lifted for planting stock. The runts at

10944-432: The sale of carbon sequestration credits, which can be sold to companies and individuals looking to compensate their carbon footprint. This approach allows for private landowners and farmers to gain a revenue from the reforestation of their lands, while simultaneously benefiting from improved soil health and increased productivity. Alongside past financial incentive strategies, reforestation tax benefits have been another way

11058-418: The same carbon sequestration benefits from mature trees in tropical forests and hence from limiting deforestation. Some researchers note that instead of planting entirely new areas, reconnecting forested areas and restoring the edges of forest, to protect their mature core and make them more resilient and longer-lasting, should be prioritized. There are some implementation challenges China has introduced

11172-435: The shadowed areas and generating soil conditions that hamper other types of vegetation. Trees used in some reforesting efforts (for example, Eucalyptus globulus ) tend to extract large amounts of moisture from the soil, preventing the growth of other plants. The European Commission found that, in terms of environmental services, it is better to avoid deforestation than to allow for deforestation to subsequently reforest, as

11286-401: The site. Irrigation Plants need water to grow. Water needs will vary depending on plant species, weather, and soil. An example is in Ontario, irrigation water is used most in late spring and in summer, when plants need water most, and based on climate patterns in Ontario, this time is also when there is the least amount of rainfall.  Some nurseries will create water sources by building

11400-485: The small stock fraction. The value of large size at the time of planting is especially apparent when outplants face strong competition from other vegetation, although high initial mass does not guarantee success. That the growth potential of planting stock depends on much more than size seems clear from the indifferent success of the transplanting of small 2+0 seedlings for use as 2+1 "reclaim" transplants. The size of bareroot white spruce seedlings and transplants also had

11514-496: The soil to develop any appreciable storehouse of available nitrogen for future crops. Phosphorus and potassium, however, can be accumulated as a storehouse available for extended periods. Fertilization permits seedling growth to continue longer through the growing season than unfertilized stock; fertilized white spruce attained twice the height of unfertilized. High fertility in the rooting medium favours shoot growth over root growth, and can produce top-heavy seedlings ill-suited to

11628-444: The sole predictor of plantation performance. Some major problems militate against greater use of RGC in forestry, including: unstandardized techniques; unstandardized quantification; uncertain correlation between quantified RGC and field performance; variability within given, nominally identical, kinds of planting stock; and the irrelevance of RGC test values determined on a sub-sample of a parent population that subsequently, before it

11742-487: The spring for export to colder regions where propagation could not have been started so early or to regions where seasonal pests prevent profitable growing early in the season. There are a number of different types of nurseries, broadly grouped as wholesale or retail nurseries, with some overlap depending on the specific operation. Wholesale nurseries produce plants in large quantities which are sold to retail nurseries Wholesale nurseries may be small operations that produce

11856-574: The spruces. With black spruce and jack pine, but not with white spruce, Grossnickle and Blake's (1987) findings warrant mention in relation to the bareroot-containerized debate. During the first growing season after outplanting, containerized seedlings of both species had greater needle conductance than bareroot seedlings over a range of absolute humidity deficits. Needle conductance of containerized seedlings of both species remained high during periods of high absolute humidity deficits and increasing plant moisture stress. Bareroot outplants of both species had

11970-435: The stock, led to attempts to test the physiological condition of planting stock, particularly to quantify the propensity to produce new root growth. New root growth can be assumed to be necessary for successful establishment of stock after planting, but although the thesis that RGC is positively related to field performance would seem to be reasonable, supporting evidence has been meager. The physiological condition of seedlings

12084-475: The stocks being compared share the same physiological condition; differences invalidate such comparisons. Height and root-collar diameter are generally accepted as the most useful morphological criteria and are often the only ones used in specifying standards. Quantification of root system morphology is difficult but can be done, e.g. by using the photometric rhizometer to determine intercept area, or volume by displacement or gravimetric methods. Planting stock

12198-602: The survival of a single tree. From 2016 to 2021, 3976 square kilometers of forests were planted in the Tibet Autonomous Region , with plans for 20 million trees to be planted before 2023. In the years 2012–2022 China restored more than 70 million hectares (700,000 km ) of forests. China committed to plant and conserve 70 billion trees by the year 2030 as part of the Trillion Tree Campaign . The Jane Goodall Institute launched

12312-436: The treatments applied. Root pruning and wrenching modified stock in the nursery by decreasing height, root collar diameter, shoot:root ratio, and bud size, but did not improve survival or growth after planting. Fertilization reduced root growth in black spruce but not of white spruce. For a nursery to produce healthy crops, they must manage many factors, a few of them being irrigation, landscape topography, and soil conditions of

12426-535: The volume of existing forest. Second, by increasing the carbon density of existing forests at a stand and landscape scale. Third, by expanding the use of forest products that will sustainably replace fossil-fuel emissions. Fourth, by reducing carbon emissions that are caused from deforestation and degradation. Forests are an important part of the global carbon cycle because trees and plants absorb carbon dioxide through photosynthesis . Therefore, they play an important role in climate change mitigation . By removing

12540-406: The years subsequently spent in the transplant line, and a zero is shown if indeed there has been no transplanting. A 3rd number, if any, would indicate the years subsequently spent after a second lifting and transplanting. The numbers are sometimes separated by dashes, but separation by plus sign is more logical inasmuch as the sum of the individual numbers gives the age of the planting stock. Thus 2+0

12654-430: Was 80-87%. Available turgor (TA), defined as the integral of turgor over the range of RWC between PSIb and xylem pressure potential at the turgor loss point) was 4.0% for white spruce at the beginning of the season compared with 7.9% for jack pine, but for the rest of the season TA for jack pine was only 2%, to 3% that of white spruce. Diurnal turgor (Td), the integral of turgor over the range of RWC between PSIb and PSIm, as

12768-586: Was 97%, with no significant differences in survival among stock types. The 1.5+1.5 stock with a mean height of 234 cm was significantly taller by 18% to 25% than the other stock types. The 1.5+1.5 stock also had significantly greater dbh than the other stock types by 30-43%. The best stock type was 57 cm taller and 1 cm greater in dbh than the poorest. Lifting date had no significant effect on growth or survival. High elevation sites in British Columbia's southern mountains are characterized by

12882-551: Was drawn up by the office of the City of Paris on 24 November 1778, allowing a ministerial decision to be taken on 6 Nivôse XII (27 December 1803), which set the width of the street to 10 metres (33 ft). During the French Revolution and until 1815, the street bore the name Rue de l'Union (Union Street). It then resumed its original name until 1830, when it became Rue de la Charte (Charter Street). It then underwent

12996-610: Was launched in 1978 and scheduled to last until 2050. It aims to eventually plant nearly 90 million acres of new forest in a 2,800-mile stretch of northern China. Such programs often blur the boundaries between reforestation and afforestation (the latter being the establishment of a forest in an area where there was no forest before). Reforestation according to the IPCC means the "conversion to forest of land that has previously contained forests but that has been converted to some other use". According to FAO terminology, reforestation

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