93-759: The Kodiak History Museum , until 2019 known as the Baranov Museum , is a history museum at 101 East Marine Way in Kodiak, Alaska . It is located in a National Historic Landmark building known as the Russian-American Magazin [ sic ] and the Erskine House , which also houses the office of the Kodiak Historical Society. Built c. 1810, the building is the oldest of four surviving building constructed by
186-638: A Key to the City from mayor Branson and then made an appearance before a crowd of hundreds at the Coast Guard base. The Weather Channel docu-series Coast Guard Alaska follows the lives of Coast Guard members stationed in Kodiak. Czech carmaker Škoda Auto named their new SUV the Škoda Kodiaq , after the Alaskan brown bear, and in tribute Kodiak was renamed Kodiaq for one day (May 6, 2016). In
279-483: A commercial fishing center which continues to be the mainstay of its economy. A lesser economic influence includes tourism, mainly by those seeking outdoor adventure trips. Salmon , halibut , the unique Kodiak bear , elk , Sitka deer (black tail), and mountain goats attract hunting tourists as well as fishermen to the Kodiak Archipelago. The Alaska Department of Fish and Game maintains an office in
372-528: A humid continental climate ( Dfb ) with cold winters and mild summers. Precipitation is heavy year-round, though markedly less in the summer months, when the Aleutian Low is at its weakest. See or edit raw graph data . Kodiak first appeared on the 1880 U.S. Census as the village of Saint Paul (not to be confused with the city of St. Paul located in the Aleutian Islands). It reported
465-430: A wave shoaling process described below. A tsunami can occur in any tidal state and even at low tide can still inundate coastal areas. On April 1, 1946, the 8.6 M w Aleutian Islands earthquake occurred with a maximum Mercalli intensity of VI ( Strong ). It generated a tsunami which inundated Hilo on the island of Hawaii with a 14-metre high (46 ft) surge. Between 165 and 173 were killed. The area where
558-408: A center for commercial fishing, and canneries dotted the island in the early 20th century until global farm-raised salmon eliminated these businesses. New processing centers emerged and the industry continues to evolve. During the presidency of Theodore Roosevelt , animals such as the mountain goat , Sitka deer (black tail), rabbits , muskrats , beavers , squirrels , and others were introduced to
651-427: A few minutes at a time. The Tauredunum event was a large tsunami on Lake Geneva in 563 CE, caused by sedimentary deposits destabilised by a landslide. In the 1950s, it was discovered that tsunamis larger than had previously been believed possible can be caused by giant submarine landslides . These large volumes of rapidly displaced water transfer energy at a faster rate than the water can absorb. Their existence
744-461: A household in the city was $ 55,142, and the median income for a family was $ 60,484. Males had a median income of $ 37,074 versus $ 30,049 for females. The per capita income for the city was $ 21,522. 7.4% of the population and 3.7% of families were below the poverty line. Out of the total people living in poverty, 8.4% were under the age of 18 and 0.0% were 65 or older. Kodiak is also home for a sizable community of Russian Orthodox Old Believers . Among
837-432: A huge wave. As the tsunami approaches the coast and the waters become shallow, wave shoaling compresses the wave and its speed decreases below 80 kilometres per hour (50 mph). Its wavelength diminishes to less than 20 kilometres (12 mi) and its amplitude grows enormously—in accord with Green's law . Since the wave still has the same very long period , the tsunami may take minutes to reach full height. Except for
930-541: A large problem of awareness and preparedness, as exemplified by the eruption and collapse of Anak Krakatoa in 2018 , which killed 426 and injured thousands when no warning was available. It is still regarded that lateral landslides and ocean-entering pyroclastic currents are most likely to generate the largest and most hazardous waves from volcanism; however, field investigation of the Tongan event , as well as developments in numerical modelling methods, currently aim to expand
1023-542: A log dividing wall that is still extant (with doorways cut through it at a later date), and the material that makes up the stairwell to the second floor also appear to be original. The upstairs has flooring that appears to be typical Russian manufacture. Kodiak, Alaska The City of Kodiak ( Alutiiq : Sun'aq ) is the main city and one of seven communities on Kodiak Island in Kodiak Island Borough , Alaska . All commercial transportation between
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#17327914998811116-474: A major presence in Kodiak, Alaska. The city of Kodiak is home to a number of annual events that draw locals and people from off-island. The most well-known of these is Kodiak Crab Festival. Organized by the Kodiak Chamber of Commerce, the event takes place over Memorial Day weekend. It includes a county fair-style main event, with carnival rides, food and game booths, and group activities. In addition,
1209-538: A massive landslide from Monte Toc entered the reservoir behind the Vajont Dam in Italy. The resulting wave surged over the 262-metre (860 ft)-high dam by 250 metres (820 ft) and destroyed several towns. Around 2,000 people died. Scientists named these waves megatsunamis . Some geologists claim that large landslides from volcanic islands, e.g. Cumbre Vieja on La Palma ( Cumbre Vieja tsunami hazard ) in
1302-490: A museum. The building was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1962, and listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1966. The building is a large rectangular log structure, now resting on a concrete foundation (replacing Erskine's stone foundation). It is 2-1/2 stories in height, 36 feet (11 m) deep and 72 feet (22 m) wide, with a projecting front porch that is partially glassed in. It
1395-443: A new stone foundation for the building and enclosing its porch. He sold it in 1948 to a company which rented it out. After the 1964 Alaska earthquake and tsunami damaged the city, the building was acquired by a government redevelopment authority. Ownership was eventually transferred to the city, which leased it in 1967 to the Kodiak Historical Society. The society has since maintained the property, using it for office space and as
1488-959: A number of events are organized over the three-day weekend that include a kayak race, a marathon , an ultra-marathon , a 9.2-mile (14.8 km) mountain run called the Pillar Mountain Run and others. The official Pardoning of the Crab was added to The Kodiak Crab Fest in 2019. A crab is given a crab themed name, and then saved from the crab pot by a special guest, and then goes to live at the Kodiak Fisheries Research Center Aquarium. 2019: Sheldon, pardoned by US Senator Dan Sullivan (R-AK). 2020: Unknown. 2021: Lenny Crabitz, pardoned by Kodiak City Manager Mike Tvenge. The Kodiak Island Borough School District operates four elementary schools, one middle school and one high school ( Kodiak High School ) serving
1581-414: A population of 288, of which 253 were Alaskan Creoles (a mixture of Russian and Native Alaskans), 20 Whites and 15 Aleuts. In 1890, it would report as "Kadiak" (the then-spelling). In 1900, it returned as "Kadiak Settlement." From 1910 onwards, it reported as Kodiak, and would formally incorporate in 1940. As of the census of 2000, there were 6,334 people, 1,996 households, and 1,361 families residing in
1674-577: A reference sea level. A large tsunami may feature multiple waves arriving over a period of hours, with significant time between the wave crests. The first wave to reach the shore may not have the highest run-up. About 80% of tsunamis occur in the Pacific Ocean, but they are possible wherever there are large bodies of water, including lakes. However, tsunami interactions with shorelines and the seafloor topography are extremely complex, which leaves some countries more vulnerable than others. For example,
1767-462: A ridge and a trough. In the case of a propagating wave like a tsunami, either may be the first to arrive. If the first part to arrive at the shore is the ridge, a massive breaking wave or sudden flooding will be the first effect noticed on land. However, if the first part to arrive is a trough, a drawback will occur as the shoreline recedes dramatically, exposing normally submerged areas. The drawback can exceed hundreds of metres, and people unaware of
1860-467: A significant tsunami, such as the 1977 Sumba and 1933 Sanriku events. Tsunamis have a small wave height offshore, and a very long wavelength (often hundreds of kilometres long, whereas normal ocean waves have a wavelength of only 30 or 40 metres), which is why they generally pass unnoticed at sea, forming only a slight swell usually about 300 millimetres (12 in) above the normal sea surface. They grow in height when they reach shallower water, in
1953-622: A spelling change also intended to honor the indigenous Alutiiq , the city was renamed with a number of signs changed across town, including the port facilities and city limits. The letter Q is a common ending for nouns in the Alutiiq language . The film The Guardian (2006) is partially set in Kodiak, but was not filmed there. Tsunami A tsunami ( /( t ) s uː ˈ n ɑː m i , ( t ) s ʊ ˈ -/ (t)soo- NAH -mee, (t)suu- ; from Japanese : 津波 , lit. 'harbour wave', pronounced [tsɯnami] )
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#17327914998812046-619: A theological school founded in 1972 under the auspices of the Orthodox Church in America . Students from villages all over southern and southwestern Alaska study at St. Herman's in order to become readers or clergy in the Orthodox Church. Kodiak Airport attracts both local and regional airlines, air taxis, and charter floatplanes and helicopters which provide transportation to residents and tourists traveling on and off
2139-655: A transoceanic tsunami has not occurred within recorded history. Susceptible locations are believed to be the Big Island of Hawaii , Fogo in the Cape Verde Islands , La Reunion in the Indian Ocean , and Cumbre Vieja on the island of La Palma in the Canary Islands ; along with other volcanic ocean islands. This is because large masses of relatively unconsolidated volcanic material occurs on
2232-445: A tsunami can be calculated by obtaining the square root of the depth of the water in metres multiplied by the acceleration due to gravity (approximated to 10 m/s ). For example, if the Pacific Ocean is considered to have a depth of 5000 metres, the velocity of a tsunami would be √ 5000 × 10 = √ 50000 ≈ 224 metres per second (730 ft/s), which equates to a speed of about 806 kilometres per hour (501 mph). This
2325-434: A tsunami can be generated when thrust faults associated with convergent or destructive plate boundaries move abruptly, resulting in water displacement, owing to the vertical component of movement involved. Movement on normal (extensional) faults can also cause displacement of the seabed, but only the largest of such events (typically related to flexure in the outer trench swell ) cause enough displacement to give rise to
2418-473: A tsunami, which is that of an extraordinarily high tidal bore . Tsunamis and tides both produce waves of water that move inland, but in the case of a tsunami, the inland movement of water may be much greater, giving the impression of an incredibly high and forceful tide. In recent years, the term "tidal wave" has fallen out of favour, especially in the scientific community, because the causes of tsunamis have nothing to do with those of tides , which are produced by
2511-467: Is a series of waves in a water body caused by the displacement of a large volume of water, generally in an ocean or a large lake . Earthquakes , volcanic eruptions and underwater explosions (including detonations, landslides , glacier calvings , meteorite impacts and other disturbances) above or below water all have the potential to generate a tsunami. Unlike normal ocean waves, which are generated by wind , or tides , which are in turn generated by
2604-620: Is also accustomed to tsunamis, with earthquakes of varying magnitudes regularly occurring off the coast of the island. Tsunamis are an often underestimated hazard in the Mediterranean Sea and parts of Europe. Of historical and current (with regard to risk assumptions) importance are the 1755 Lisbon earthquake and tsunami (which was caused by the Azores–Gibraltar Transform Fault ), the 1783 Calabrian earthquakes , each causing several tens of thousands of deaths and
2697-562: Is also used to refer to the phenomenon because the waves most often are generated by seismic activity such as earthquakes. Prior to the rise of the use of the term tsunami in English, scientists generally encouraged the use of the term seismic sea wave rather than tidal wave . However, like tidal wave , seismic sea wave is not a completely accurate term, as forces other than earthquakes—including underwater landslides , volcanic eruptions, underwater explosions, land or ice slumping into
2790-496: Is designed to help accurately forecast the passage of tsunamis across oceans as well as how tsunami waves interact with shorelines. The term "tsunami" is a borrowing from the Japanese tsunami 津波 , meaning "harbour wave." For the plural, one can either follow ordinary English practice and add an s , or use an invariable plural as in the Japanese. Some English speakers alter the word's initial / ts / to an / s / by dropping
2883-435: Is finished in horizontal redwood siding, which covers older siding which may be Russian in origin. It has a steeply-pitched gable roof, which is pierced on its main (southern) elevation by a single gabled dormer. The building's interior has been extensively altered to accommodate the historical society's uses, but much of its older fabric is still evident. The interior was originally divided into two large chambers separated by
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2976-515: Is not favoured by the scientific community because it might give the false impression of a causal relationship between tides and tsunamis. Tsunamis generally consist of a series of waves, with periods ranging from minutes to hours, arriving in a so-called " wave train ". Wave heights of tens of metres can be generated by large events. Although the impact of tsunamis is limited to coastal areas, their destructive power can be enormous, and they can affect entire ocean basins. The 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami
3069-791: Is now Shakespear Regional Park at the tip of the Whangaparāoa Peninsula in the Auckland Region of New Zealand ; the attempt failed. There has been considerable speculation about the possibility of using nuclear weapons to cause tsunamis near an enemy coastline. Nuclear testing in the Pacific Proving Ground by the United States generated poor results. In Operation Crossroads in July 1946, two 20-kilotonne-of-TNT (84 TJ) bombs were detonated, one in
3162-426: Is the formula used for calculating the velocity of shallow-water waves. Even the deep ocean is shallow in this sense because a tsunami wave is so long (horizontally from crest to crest) by comparison. The reason for the Japanese name "harbour wave" is that sometimes a village's fishermen would sail out, and encounter no unusual waves while out at sea fishing, and come back to land to find their village devastated by
3255-430: The 1883 eruption of Krakatoa , and the 2022 Hunga Tonga–Hunga Ha'apai eruption . Over 20% of all fatalities caused by volcanism during the past 250 years are estimated to have been caused by volcanogenic tsunamis. Debate has persisted over the origins and source mechanisms of these types of tsunamis, such as those generated by Krakatoa in 1883, and they remain lesser understood than their seismic relatives. This poses
3348-688: The 1908 Messina earthquake and tsunami. The tsunami claimed more than 123,000 lives in Sicily and Calabria and is among the deadliest natural disasters in modern Europe. The Storegga Slide in the Norwegian Sea and some examples of tsunamis affecting the British Isles refer to landslide and meteotsunamis , predominantly and less to earthquake-induced waves. As early as 426 BC the Greek historian Thucydides inquired in his book History of
3441-413: The Canary Islands , may be able to generate megatsunamis that can cross oceans, but this is disputed by many others. In general, landslides generate displacements mainly in the shallower parts of the coastline, and there is conjecture about the nature of large landslides that enter the water. This has been shown to subsequently affect water in enclosed bays and lakes, but a landslide large enough to cause
3534-530: The gravitational pull of the Moon and the Sun , a tsunami is generated by the displacement of water from a large event. Tsunami waves do not resemble normal undersea currents or sea waves because their wavelength is far longer. Rather than appearing as a breaking wave , a tsunami may instead initially resemble a rapidly rising tide . For this reason, it is often referred to as a tidal wave , although this usage
3627-427: The "t," since English does not natively permit /ts/ at the beginning of words, though the original Japanese pronunciation is /ts/ . The term has become commonly accepted in English, although its literal Japanese meaning is not necessarily descriptive of the waves, which do not occur only in harbours. Tsunamis are sometimes referred to as tidal waves . This once-popular term derives from the most common appearance of
3720-603: The 1741 Second Kamchatka Expedition. In the early 1750s the Russian fur trading merchant and explorer Stepan Glotov met a Kodiak Islander in the Aleutian Islands, who told him about the island. On his next voyage Glotov sailed to Kodiak Island, arriving in 1763. The Russians called the island Kad’yak ( Кадьяк ), after the Alutiiq word qikertaq . Several other Russians made fur hunting voyages to Kodiak Island in
3813-856: The 1770s. In 1778 the British captain James Cook explored the area and wrote of "Kodiak" in his journals. In 1779 the Spanish explorers Arteaga y Bazán and Bodega y Quadra reached Afognak in the Kodiak Archipelago . In 1792, the Russian Shelikhov-Golikov Company chief manager Alexander Baranov moved the post at Three Saints Bay (established in 1784) to a new site in Paul's Harbor ( Свято-Павловской гавани , Svyato-Pavlovskoy Gavani ). This developed as
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3906-709: The Baranov Museum. Because the First Native cultures revered this animal and would never harm it, the Russians had wars with and enslaved the Aleuts during this era. Eastern Orthodox missionaries settled on the island by the end of the 18th century, continuing European settlement of the island. They held the liturgy in native Tlingit from 1800. The capital of Russian America was moved to Novoarkhangelsk (modern-day Sitka ) in 1804. The Russian-American Company
3999-818: The Great Lakes, the Aegean Sea, the English Channel, and the Balearic Islands, where they are common enough to have a local name, rissaga . In Sicily they are called marubbio and in Nagasaki Bay, they are called abiki . Some examples of destructive meteotsunamis include 31 March 1979 at Nagasaki and 15 June 2006 at Menorca, the latter causing damage in the tens of millions of euros. Meteotsunamis should not be confused with storm surges , which are local increases in sea level associated with
4092-540: The Pacific coasts of the United States and Mexico lie adjacent to each other, but the United States has recorded ten tsunamis in the region since 1788, while Mexico has recorded twenty-five since 1732. Similarly, Japan has had more than a hundred tsunamis in recorded history, while the neighbouring island of Taiwan has registered only two, in 1781 and 1867. All waves have a positive and negative peak; that is,
4185-597: The Peloponnesian War about the causes of tsunami, and was the first to argue that ocean earthquakes must be the cause. The oldest human record of a tsunami dates back to 479 BC , in the Greek colony of Potidaea , thought to be triggered by an earthquake. The tsunami may have saved the colony from an invasion by the Achaemenid Empire . The cause, in my opinion, of this phenomenon must be sought in
4278-620: The Russians when Alaska was a Russian territory . The museum's collections and exhibits are focused on the history of the Kodiak Archipelago and the Aleutian Islands , with particular focus on the Russian and early American periods. The museum's current director is Sarah Harrington. The community now known as Kodiak was established in 1793 as Pavlovsk; it was the first permanent Russian settlement in North America, and served as its territorial capital until 1808. This building
4371-588: The U.S. feared attack from Japanese during World War II , and turned the town into a fortress. Roads, the airport, Fort Abercrombie , and gun fortifications improved the island's infrastructure. When Alaska became a state in 1959, government assistance in housing, transportation, and education added additional benefits. In March 1964, a tectonic tsunami struck the city during the 1964 Alaska earthquake with 30-foot (9.1 m) waves that killed 15 people and caused $ 11 million in damage. Some areas near Kodiak were permanently raised by 30 feet (9.1 m). It wiped out
4464-581: The Walmart store that received the most Facebook "likes" from June 18 to July 15, 2012, would have Pitbull visit and put on a show there. An orchestrated internet campaign urged people to vote for the most remote location imaginable, Kodiak, resulting in a sizable lead for that store. The enthusiasm for voting for Kodiak was also a reference to the lyrics of Pitbull's song " Give Me Everything ", in which he rhymes "Kodak" with "Kodak". Walmart confirmed that Kodiak won. Pitbull visited on July 30, where he received
4557-450: The air over and one underwater within the shallow waters of the 50-metre (164 ft) deep lagoon at Bikini Atoll . The bombs detonated about 6 km (3.7 mi; 3.2 nmi) from the nearest island, where the waves were no higher than 3 to 4 m (9.8 to 13.1 ft) when they reached the shoreline. Other underwater tests, mainly Operation Hardtack I /Wahoo in deep water and Operation Hardtack I/Umbrella in shallow water, confirmed
4650-482: The area's sea otter pelts led to the near extinction of the animal in the following century and led to wars with and enslavement of the natives for over 150 years. The city has experienced two natural disasters in the 20th century: a volcanic ashfall from the 1912 eruption of Novarupta and a tsunami from the 1964 Alaska earthquake . After the Alaska Purchase by the United States in 1867, Kodiak became
4743-464: The city and a website to help hunters and fishermen obtain the proper permits and learn about the laws specific to the Kodiak area. The city has four public elementary schools, a middle and high school, as well as a branch of the University of Alaska . An antenna farm at the summit of Pillar Mountain above the city historically provided communication with the outside world before fiber optic cable
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#17327914998814836-626: The city is provided from the Terror Lake Hydroelectric Generating Station owned by the Kodiak Electrical Association. Substantial amounts of energy are also provided by wind turbines and by diesel generators. There are six wind turbines that supply up to 1.5 MW each and have a blade length of 38.5 meters and overall height of 118.5 meters. In 2012, rapper Pitbull was involved in an advertising campaign with Walmart , in which
4929-426: The city's hotels and businesses have these materials in prominent areas for guests, and licenses can be purchased in the city's main sporting goods store and online. The United States Navy operates a small training base near the city called Naval Special Warfare Cold Weather Detachment Kodiak which trains United States Navy SEALs in cold weather survival and advanced tactics. The United States Coast Guard has
5022-401: The city. The population density was 706.8 people/km (1,831 people/sq mi). There were 2,255 housing units at an average density of 251.6 persons per square kilometre (652 persons/sq mi). The racial makeup of the city was 46.4% White, 0.7% African American , 10.5% Native American , 31.7% Asian , 0.9% Pacific Islander, 4.4% from other races, and 5.4% from two or more races. 8.5% of
5115-500: The companies based in Kodiak is Koniag, Incorporated . Kodiak is an important environmental asset, which affects the fishing industry, particularly salmon fishing. Its wild game is coveted by hunters worldwide for the Kodiak bear and other game animals; there are strict laws governing fishing and hunting activities as well as hiking near spawning streams. Both the department and the city maintain websites and publish brochures in order to help communicate these strictly enforced laws. All of
5208-413: The danger sometimes remain near the shore to satisfy their curiosity or to collect fish from the exposed seabed. A typical wave period for a damaging tsunami is about twelve minutes. Thus, the sea recedes in the drawback phase, with areas well below sea level exposed after three minutes. For the next six minutes, the wave trough builds into a ridge which may flood the coast, and destruction ensues. During
5301-455: The deep ocean has a much larger wavelength of up to 200 kilometres (120 mi). Such a wave travels at well over 800 kilometres per hour (500 mph), but owing to the enormous wavelength the wave oscillation at any given point takes 20 or 30 minutes to complete a cycle and has an amplitude of only about 1 metre (3.3 ft). This makes tsunamis difficult to detect over deep water, where ships are unable to feel their passage. The velocity of
5394-494: The earthquake occurred is where the Pacific Ocean floor is subducting (or being pushed downwards) under Alaska. Examples of tsunamis originating at locations away from convergent boundaries include Storegga about 8,000 years ago, Grand Banks in 1929, and Papua New Guinea in 1998 (Tappin, 2001). The Grand Banks and Papua New Guinea tsunamis came from earthquakes which destabilised sediments, causing them to flow into
5487-408: The earthquake. At the point where its shock has been the most violent the sea is driven back, and suddenly recoiling with redoubled force, causes the inundation. Without an earthquake I do not see how such an accident could happen. The Roman historian Ammianus Marcellinus ( Res Gestae 26.10.15–19) described the typical sequence of a tsunami, including an incipient earthquake, the sudden retreat of
5580-406: The flanks and in some cases detachment planes are believed to be developing. However, there is growing controversy about how dangerous these slopes actually are. Other than by landslides or sector collapse , volcanoes may be able to generate waves by pyroclastic flow submergence, caldera collapse, or underwater explosions. Tsunamis have been triggered by a number of volcanic eruptions, including
5673-494: The gravitational pull of the moon and sun rather than the displacement of water. Although the meanings of "tidal" include "resembling" or "having the form or character of" tides, use of the term tidal wave is discouraged by geologists and oceanographers. A 1969 episode of the TV crime show Hawaii Five-O entitled "Forty Feet High and It Kills!" used the terms "tsunami" and "tidal wave" interchangeably. The term seismic sea wave
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#17327914998815766-409: The harbour at Halifax , Nova Scotia , Canada . There have been studies of the potential for the use of explosives to induce tsunamis as a tectonic weapon . As early as World War II (1939–1945), consideration of the use of conventional explosives was explored, and New Zealand's military forces initiated Project Seal , which attempted to create small tsunamis with explosives in the area of what
5859-557: The intensity of tsunamis were the Sieberg - Ambraseys scale (1962), used in the Mediterranean Sea and the Imamura-Iida intensity scale (1963), used in the Pacific Ocean. The latter scale was modified by Soloviev (1972), who calculated the tsunami intensity " I " according to the formula: where H a v {\displaystyle {\mathit {H}}_{av}} is the "tsunami height" in metres, averaged along
5952-562: The intensively studied tsunamis in 2004 and 2011, a new 12-point scale was proposed, the Integrated Tsunami Intensity Scale (ITIS-2012), intended to match as closely as possible to the modified ESI2007 and EMS earthquake intensity scales. The first scale that genuinely calculated a magnitude for a tsunami, rather than an intensity at a particular location was the ML scale proposed by Murty & Loomis based on
6045-501: The island and the Kodiak National Wildlife Refuge was created. Kodiak was severely impacted by the 1912 eruption of Novarupta . Though situated 160 miles (260 km) southeast of the eruption center, the town was covered with 1 foot (30 cm) of ash over a short period of time. Townspeople sheltered in the U.S. Revenue Cutter Manning which was docked nearby. As Kodiak was incorporated in 1941,
6138-547: The island's communities and the outside world goes through this city via ferryboat or airline. As of the 2020 census , the population of the city is 5,581, down from 6,130 in 2010. It is the tenth-largest city in Alaska . Inhabited by Alutiiq natives for over 7,000 years, Kodiak was settled in 1792 by subjects of the Russian crown . Originally named Paul's Harbor , it was the capital of Russian Alaska . Russian harvesting of
6231-603: The island, and Kodiak Community Health Center with smaller primary care practices in Kodiak. Specialty medical services are intermittently available at Kodiak Area Native Association and at Providence Kodiak Island Medical Center. Hospital and emergency care are provided at Providence Kodiak Island Medical Center, the only hospital on Kodiak Island. Individuals located in the smaller surrounding communities are cared for in small village clinics and, when critically ill, may be airlifted into Kodiak via helicopter or air ambulance due to remoteness and lack of roads. Most electrical energy for
6324-419: The island. The Alaska Marine Highway provides further transportation via two ferries, MV Tustumena and MV Kennicott . These ships can carry 211 and 748 passengers, respectively, and serve routes between Kodiak, Homer , and Whittier , although the ferry system no longer takes passengers to Seward . Floatplane and bush plane companies regularly take tourists to remote areas and wilderness lodges both on
6417-483: The low barometric pressure of passing tropical cyclones, nor should they be confused with setup, the temporary local raising of sea level caused by strong on-shore winds. Storm surges and setup are also dangerous causes of coastal flooding in severe weather but their dynamics are completely unrelated to tsunami waves. They are unable to propagate beyond their sources, as waves do. The accidental Halifax Explosion in 1917 triggered an 18-metre (59 ft) high tsunami in
6510-636: The nearest coastline, with the tsunami height defined as the rise of the water level above the normal tidal level at the time of occurrence of the tsunami. This scale, known as the Soloviev-Imamura tsunami intensity scale , is used in the global tsunami catalogues compiled by the NGDC/NOAA and the Novosibirsk Tsunami Laboratory as the main parameter for the size of the tsunami. This formula yields: In 2013, following
6603-629: The neighboring Native villages of Old Harbor and Kaguyak. The Standard Oil Company , the Alaskan King Crab Company, and much of the fishing fleet were also destroyed. Kodiak is located on the eastern shore of Kodiak Island . According to the United States Census Bureau , the city has a total area of 4.9 square miles (12.6 km ), divided into 3.5 sq mi (9.0 km ) of land and 1.4 sq mi (3.6 km ) (28.66%) of water. Kodiak has
6696-405: The next six minutes, the wave changes from a ridge to a trough, and the flood waters recede in a second drawback. Victims and debris may be swept into the ocean. The process repeats with succeeding waves. As with earthquakes, several attempts have been made to set up scales of tsunami intensity or magnitude to allow comparison between different events. The first scales used routinely to measure
6789-639: The nucleus of modern Kodiak. Baranov considered Three Saints Bay a poor location because it was too indefensible. The relocated settlement was first named Pavlovskaya Gavan ( Павловская гавань – Paul's Harbor). A warehouse was built in what became one of the key posts of the Shelikhov-Golikov Company, a precursor of the Russian-American Company and a center for harvesting the area's vast population of sea otters for their prized pelts. The warehouse still stands as
6882-856: The ocean and generate a tsunami. They dissipated before travelling transoceanic distances. The cause of the Storegga sediment failure is unknown. Possibilities include an overloading of the sediments, an earthquake or a release of gas hydrates (methane etc.). The 1960 Valdivia earthquake ( M w 9.5), 1964 Alaska earthquake ( M w 9.2), 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake ( M w 9.2), and 2011 Tōhoku earthquake ( M w 9.0) are recent examples of powerful megathrust earthquakes that generated tsunamis (known as teletsunamis ) that can cross entire oceans. Smaller ( M w 4.2) earthquakes in Japan can trigger tsunamis (called local and regional tsunamis) that can devastate stretches of coastline, but can do so in only
6975-437: The ocean, meteorite impacts, and the weather when the atmospheric pressure changes very rapidly—can generate such waves by displacing water. The use of the term tsunami for waves created by landslides entering bodies of water has become internationally widespread in both scientific and popular literature, although such waves are distinct in origin from large waves generated by earthquakes. This distinction sometimes leads to
7068-434: The population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. At the 2020 Census, the population had declined to 5,581. There were 1,996 households, out of which 40.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 52.1% were married couples living together, 10.3% had a woman whose husband does not live with her, and 31.8% were non-families. 24.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 5.4% had someone living alone who
7161-482: The possibility of a meteorite causing a tsunami is debated. Tsunamis can be generated when the sea floor abruptly deforms and vertically displaces the overlying water. Tectonic earthquakes are a particular kind of earthquake that are associated with the Earth's crustal deformation; when these earthquakes occur beneath the sea, the water above the deformed area is displaced from its equilibrium position. More specifically,
7254-433: The potential energy. Difficulties in calculating the potential energy of the tsunami mean that this scale is rarely used. Abe introduced the tsunami magnitude scale M t {\displaystyle {\mathit {M}}_{t}} , calculated from, where h is the maximum tsunami-wave amplitude (in m) measured by a tide gauge at a distance R from the epicentre, a , b and D are constants used to make
7347-605: The results. Analysis of the effects of shallow and deep underwater explosions indicate that the energy of the explosions does not easily generate the kind of deep, all-ocean waveforms typical of tsunamis because most of the energy creates steam , causes vertical fountains above the water, and creates compressional waveforms. Tsunamis are hallmarked by permanent large vertical displacements of very large volumes of water which do not occur in explosions. Tsunamis are caused by earthquakes, landslides, volcanic explosions, glacier calvings, and bolides . They cause damage by two mechanisms:
7440-426: The sea and a following gigantic wave, after the 365 AD tsunami devastated Alexandria . The principal generation mechanism of a tsunami is the displacement of a substantial volume of water or perturbation of the sea. This displacement of water is usually caused by earthquakes, but can also be attributed to landslides, volcanic eruptions, glacier calvings or more rarely by meteorites and nuclear tests. However,
7533-400: The smashing force of a wall of water travelling at high speed, and the destructive power of a large volume of water draining off the land and carrying a large amount of debris with it, even with waves that do not appear to be large. While everyday wind waves have a wavelength (from crest to crest) of about 100 metres (330 ft) and a height of roughly 2 metres (6.6 ft), a tsunami in
7626-401: The town of Kodiak and the immediate area surrounding the city of Kodiak. A further 6 schools serve rural sites in the district and are operated as k-12 schools. The city is home to Kodiak College , a satellite campus of the University of Alaska Anchorage . Within the public school district, there are eight rural schools. Kodiak is also home to Saint Herman's Orthodox Theological Seminary ,
7719-457: The transoceanic reach of significant seismic tsunamis, and 2) that the force that displaces the water is sustained over some length of time such that meteotsunamis cannot be modelled as having been caused instantaneously. In spite of their lower energies, on shorelines where they can be amplified by resonance, they are sometimes powerful enough to cause localised damage and potential for loss of life. They have been documented in many places, including
7812-447: The understanding of the other source mechanisms. Some meteorological conditions, especially rapid changes in barometric pressure, as seen with the passing of a front, can displace bodies of water enough to cause trains of waves with wavelengths. These are comparable to seismic tsunamis, but usually with lower energies. Essentially, they are dynamically equivalent to seismic tsunamis, the only differences being 1) that meteotsunamis lack
7905-457: The use of other terms for landslide-generated waves, including landslide-triggered tsunami , displacement wave , non-seismic wave , impact wave , and, simply, giant wave . While Japan may have the longest recorded history of tsunamis, the sheer destruction caused by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami event mark it as the most devastating of its kind in modern times, killing around 230,000 people. The Sumatran region
7998-472: The various islands of the Kodiak Archipelago and the Katmai coast for bear viewing, hunting, and hikes. The city business community also has a fleet of privately owned taxis as well as kayaks, mountain bikes, and all-terrain vehicles (ATVs) for rent. Kodiak has robust primary care, led by Kodiak Area Native Association, a Tribal Health Organization with HRSA support that sees Native and Non-Native persons around
8091-399: The very largest tsunamis, the approaching wave does not break , but rather appears like a fast-moving tidal bore . Open bays and coastlines adjacent to very deep water may shape the tsunami further into a step-like wave with a steep-breaking front. When the tsunami's wave peak reaches the shore, the resulting temporary rise in sea level is termed run up . Run up is measured in metres above
8184-450: Was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.10 and the average family size was 3.64. In the city, the population was spread out, with 29.1% under the age of 18, 8.7% from 18 to 24, 32.2% from 25 to 44, 23.1% from 45 to 64, and 6.8% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 34 years. For every 100 females, there were 114.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 120.6 males. The median income for
8277-576: Was among the deadliest natural disasters in human history, with at least 230,000 people killed or missing in 14 countries bordering the Indian Ocean . The Ancient Greek historian Thucydides suggested in his 5th century BC History of the Peloponnesian War that tsunamis were related to submarine earthquakes , but the understanding of tsunamis remained slim until the 20th century, and much remains unknown. Major areas of current research include determining why some large earthquakes do not generate tsunamis while other smaller ones do. This ongoing research
8370-567: Was built in the first decade of the 19th century as a storage facility (or "magazin") by the Russian American Company . When Alaska came under American control, the building was purchased by the Alaska Commercial Company , which continued the business operations previously engaged in by the Russians. In 1911 the building was sold to W. J. Erskine, who used the building as a private residence, constructing
8463-521: Was confirmed in 1958, when a giant landslide in Lituya Bay , Alaska, caused the highest wave ever recorded, which had a height of 524 metres (1,719 ft). The wave did not travel far as it struck land almost immediately. The wave struck three boats—each with two people aboard—anchored in the bay. One boat rode out the wave, but the wave sank the other two, killing both people aboard one of them. Another landslide-tsunami event occurred in 1963 when
8556-420: Was established in 1799 as a joint-stock company by decree of Emperor Paul to continue the harvest of sea otter and other fur-bearing animals and establish permanent settlements. By the mid-19th century, the sea otter was almost extinct and 85% of the First Native population had disappeared from exposure to European diseases and violence. When Russia sold Alaska to the United States in 1867 , Kodiak developed as
8649-499: Was run. Transportation to and from the island is provided by ferry service on the Alaska Marine Highway as well as local commercial airlines. Archaeological evidence suggests that the Kodiak Archipelago has been home to the Alutiiq for at least 7,000 years. In their language , qikertaq means "island". The first Europeans to sight Kodiak Island were the explorers Vitus Bering and Aleksei Chirikov , during
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