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147-628: The Wonderful Parliament was a session of the English parliament held from October to November 1386 in Westminster Abbey . Originally called to address King Richard II 's need for money, it quickly refocused on pressing for the reform of his administration. The King had become increasingly unpopular because of excessive patronage towards his political favourites combined with the unsuccessful prosecution of war in France . Further, there

294-599: A pro forma bill as a symbol of the right of parliament to give priority to matters other than the monarch's speech (always written by the cabinet of the day). In the parliament of the United Kingdom , prorogation is immediately preceded by a speech to both legislative chambers, with procedures similar to the Throne Speech. The monarch usually approves the oration—which recalls the prior legislative session, noting major bills passed and other functions of

441-484: A commission upon the King in an effort to reform the royal household and especially its expenditure. This commission was effectively a regency council for the King. However, Richard limited the duration of the council's powers to one year, and it had expired by the time of the 1386 parliament. This commission criticised the King's distribution of patronage and also attempted to prevent him from elevating his choice of men to

588-609: A dynastic conflict , the war inspired French and English nationalism. The broader introduction of weapons and tactics supplanted the feudal armies where heavy cavalry had dominated, and artillery became important. The war precipitated the creation of the first standing armies in Western Europe since the Western Roman Empire and helped change their role in warfare . Civil wars, deadly epidemics, famines, and bandit free-companies of mercenaries reduced

735-554: A vassal of the King of France . As a result, the crown of England was held by a succession of nobles who already owned lands in France, which put them among the most influential subjects of the French king, as they could now draw upon the economic power of England to enforce their interests in the mainland. To the kings of France, this threatened their royal authority, and so they would constantly try to undermine English rule in France, while

882-409: A "staunch loyalist"; he had been elevated to the peerage as Earl of Suffolk only the previous year, the first of his family to receive a peerage . He advocated peace overtures to the French. Tuck has argued that, while probably the most sensible policy the government could have adopted, pacificism was unpopular with much of the English nobility , as a martial career such as their fathers had enjoyed

1029-487: A favourite who had unfairly benefited from the King's largesse , and the minister responsible for the King's failures, parliament demanded the earl's impeachment . At first, the King refused to attend the parliament, instead attempting—unsuccessfully—to dissolve the sitting. Richard requested the Commons send a delegation to negotiate with him at Eltham Palace ; they, fearing an ambush, sent two lords instead. One of them,

1176-510: A flanking movement with his horsemen, cutting off the French retreat and successfully capturing King John and many of his nobles. With John held hostage, his son the Dauphin (later to become Charles V ) assumed the powers of the king as regent . After the Battle of Poitiers, many French nobles and mercenaries rampaged, and chaos ruled. A contemporary report recounted: ... all went ill with

1323-576: A form of conciliar government based on the models described in 1385 and 1386. One member of the Wonderful Parliament was Geoffrey Chaucer , elected as shire knight for Kent . Chaucer by that point was well known both as a poet and as a public servant. Although his personal position regarding the events he witnessed is unknown, it has been suggested that he used the experience of this and the Merciless Parliament (which he

1470-770: A gradual rise in tension between the kings of France and England over territory; the official pretext was the interruption of the direct male line of the Capetian dynasty . Tensions between the French and English crowns had gone back centuries to the origins of the English royal family, which was French ( Norman , and later, Angevin ) in origin through William the Conqueror , the Norman duke who became King of England in 1066. English monarchs had, therefore, historically held titles and lands within France , which made them vassals to

1617-483: A kitchen scullion on the grounds that parliament asked him to. According to the author of another chronicle, the Eulogium Historiarum , he even tried to dissolve parliament at this point, but the Commons refused to leave. Richard's behaviour at this point, says the medievalist Phil Bradford , was "strongly reminiscent" of Edward II's attempts to frustrate his own parliaments earlier in the 14th century,

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1764-663: A large naval fleet off Marseilles as part of an ambitious plan for a crusade to the Holy Land . However, the plan was abandoned and the fleet, including elements of the Scottish navy, moved to the English Channel off Normandy in 1336, threatening England. To deal with this crisis, Edward proposed that the English raise two armies, one to deal with the Scots "at a suitable time" and the other to proceed at once to Gascony. At

1911-475: A point not lost on the noble opposition in 1386. Until now, Richard had a good record in attending parliament: he had only missed one day in 1379, and now the Commons reported to him that they could achieve little without his presence. In response, the King sent for a deputation of forty of them to finalise discussions at Eltham. However, the St Albans Chronicler, Thomas Walsingham , reports that

2058-610: A political controversy in Parliament into a legal dispute to be resolved in court. The King's campaign received further encouragement when Archbishop Neville resigned from the parliamentary council and re-pledged his allegiance to Richard, and by August 1387, de la Pole had returned to his position as the King's closest adviser, entering London with the King on his return to the capital in November that year. The Wonderful Parliament has been described as setting "the political stage for

2205-442: A prorogation during which legislators could return to their constituencies . In more recent times, development in transportation technology has permitted these individuals to journey with greater ease and frequency from the legislative capital to their respective electoral districts (sometimes called ridings , electorate, division) for short periods, meaning that parliamentary sessions typically last for more than one year, though

2352-447: A result of poor preparation, the most general charges were unprovable. Others (for example, the conduct of the war with France) were shown to be the joint responsibility of the royal council, and so not solely Suffolk's fault; N. B. Lewis has questioned the validity of the claims against de la Pole, suggesting that they were "trivial or unfounded...   merely pretexts for dismissing the chief minister of an unpopular King". In any case,

2499-410: A set stipend, meet only part of the year. State constitutions, statutes or legislative rules may set deadlines for adjournment sine die per session or term, depending on whether a state constitution defines entire time allowed for a session as "legislative days" (any day from when either house meets quorum until the speaker gavels the body into adjournment) or "calendar days" (any specific 24-hour day on

2646-488: A single session. When the leaders of the majority party in each house have determined that no more business will be conducted by that house during that term of Congress, a motion is introduced to adjourn sine die , effectively dissolving that house. Typically, this is done at some point after the general congressional election in November of even-numbered years. If the party in power is retained, it may happen as early as mid-November and members return to their districts for

2793-589: A single session. (There were only four prorogations since 1961, twice to allow the visiting Queen to "open" Parliament, once after the 1967 death of Prime Minister Harold Holt and for political reasons in 2016.) Since 1990, it has been the practice for the parliament to be prorogued on the same day that the House is dissolved so that the Senate will not be able to sit during the election period. However, on 21 March 2016, Prime Minister Malcolm Turnbull announced that

2940-497: A sum been demanded, and it was this that precipitated Suffolk's fall. There was an immediate—and concerted—assault by the Commons and the Lords , who were "with one mind...   complaining grievously". The Commons, to some degree representing public opinion, "demanded a scapegoat", says May McKisack . The Lords, encouraged by their most powerful members such as Thomas Beauchamp, Earl of Warwick and Richard Fitzalan, Earl of Arundel ,

3087-572: A treaty was signed between France and Scotland during the reign of Philip the Fair , known as the Auld Alliance. Charles IV formally renewed the treaty in 1326, promising Scotland that France would support the Scots if England invaded their country. Similarly, France would have Scotland's support if its own kingdom were attacked. Edward could not succeed in his plans for Scotland if the Scots could count on French support. Philip VI had assembled

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3234-491: A way to avoid investigations into the Afghan detainees affair and triggered citizen protests . In October 2012, the provincial legislature of Ontario was prorogued under similar circumstances, allegedly to avoid scrutiny of the provincial Government on a number of issues. Bills are numbered within each session. For example, in the federal House of Commons each session's government bills are numbered from C-2 to C-200, and

3381-519: A year; between general elections; there are usually anywhere from one to six sessions of parliament before a dissolution by either the Crown-in-Council or the expiry of a legally mandated term limit. Each session begins with a speech from the throne , read to the members of both legislative chambers either by the reigning sovereign or a viceroy or other representative. Houses of parliament in some realms will, following this address, introduce

3528-536: Is most convenient, but a "good faith exercise of the power" to prorogue parliament does not include preventing it from frustrating the prime minister's agenda. When the Parliament of the Kingdom of Italy conquered the power to decide on its recalling, the MP Modigliani spoke of a coup d'état , if the right to prorogue or close the session was exercised immediately after Parliament had recalled itself. During

3675-438: Is still constituted – i.e. no general election takes place and all Members of Parliament thus retain their seats. In many legislatures, prorogation causes all orders of the body – bills, motions , etc. – to be expunged. Prorogations should thus not be confused with recesses, adjournments, or holiday breaks from legislation, after which bills can resume exactly where they left off. In

3822-488: The 44th Parliament , elected in 2013, would be prorogued on 15 April and that a second session would begin on 18 April. Prorogation is now a procedural device, the effect of which is to call the Parliament back on a particular date (especially the Senate, which the government did not control), and to wipe clean all matters before each House, without triggering an election. In the Parliament of Canada and its provinces,

3969-551: The Archbishop of Canterbury and the Bishops of Winchester and Exeter , would have, it has been said, "presented a formidable opposition to a boy of nineteen", as the King was. The precise political manoeuvrings of the various parties are now obscured, but no royal business was transacted. At some point the discussions moved from the question of tax to that of the King's chancellor. However it came about, it certainly resulted in

4116-507: The Battle of Radcot Bridge on 19 December 1387 between troops loyal to Richard, led by de Vere, and an army captained by Henry Bolingbroke , Earl of Derby . Bolingbroke won, and de Vere fled into exile. Then the following year's Parliament ordained the exile or executions of several royal supporters. Palmer has commented that "it is generally recognised that all the constitutional and political troubles of Richard II's reign can be traced back to

4263-679: The Duchy of Brittany set off the War of the Breton Succession , in which Edward backed John of Montfort and Philip backed Charles of Blois. Action for the next few years focused on a back-and-forth struggle in Brittany. The city of Vannes in Brittany changed hands several times, while further campaigns in Gascony met with mixed success for both sides. The English-backed Montfort finally took

4410-517: The Duke of Gloucester (Richard's uncle) threatened Richard with deposition unless the King agreed to return to Westminster and do parliament's bidding. He was forced to sack the unpopular de la Pole and was restricted to advisers vetted and appointed by parliament. The King was incensed at what he perceived to be an unnatural restriction on his God-given right to appoint his own ministers and advisers; he left Westminster almost immediately. He spent much of

4557-421: The English monarchs would struggle to protect and expand their lands. This clash of interests was the root cause of much of the conflict between the French and English monarchies throughout the medieval era. The Anglo-Norman dynasty that had ruled England since the Norman conquest of 1066 was brought to an end when Henry , the son of Geoffrey of Anjou and Empress Matilda , and great-grandson of William

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4704-485: The French royal domain ; by 1337, however, only Guyenne and Gascony were English. In 1328, Charles IV of France died without any sons or brothers, and a new principle, Salic law , disallowed female succession. Charles's closest male relative was his nephew Edward III of England , whose mother, Isabella , was Charles's sister. Isabella claimed the throne of France for her son by the rule of proximity of blood , but

4851-478: The Low Countries . His supporters could claim that they were loyal to the "true" King of France and did not rebel against Philip. In February 1340, Edward returned to England to try to raise more funds and also deal with political difficulties. Relations with Flanders were also tied to the English wool trade since Flanders' principal cities relied heavily on textile production, and England supplied much of

4998-482: The Parliament Rolls of Medieval England project, that for the rest of Richard's reign, England "witnessed a political crisis such as had not been seen since the reign of Edward II". The councils imposed by Parliament on Richard set a precedent which continued into the reign of his successor Henry IV , who deposed Richard in 1399. Henry was frequently ill in his later years which led to the reintroduction of

5145-605: The Trojan Court scene in his later epic poem , Troilus and Criseyde , in which it is the assembled Parliament, rather than the King or the Trojan princes, that is responsible for the subsequent political calamity. Recent commentators have suggested that his depictions show how Chaucer was "astounded at the vindictiveness of some of [the King's] political adversaries". This work is a more cynical treatment of parliamentary affairs than his previous Parliament of Foules . Chaucer

5292-689: The University of Paris assemblies decided that males who derive their right to inheritance through their mother should be excluded from consideration. Therefore, excluding Edward, the nearest heir through the male line was Charles IV's first cousin, Philip, Count of Valois , and it was decided that he should take the throne. He was crowned Philip VI in 1328. In 1340, the Avignon papacy confirmed that, under Salic law , males would not be able to inherit through their mothers. Eventually, Edward III reluctantly recognized Philip VI and paid him homage for

5439-423: The War of Saint-Sardos (1324), the English king's holdings on the continent, as Duke of Aquitaine , were limited roughly to provinces in Gascony. The dispute over Guyenne is even more important than the dynastic question in explaining the outbreak of the war. Guyenne posed a significant problem to the kings of France and England: Edward III was a vassal of Philip VI of France because of his French possessions and

5586-416: The electoral campaign , this break takes place so as to prevent the upper house from sitting and to purge all upper chamber business before the start of the next legislative session. It is not uncommon for a session of parliament to be put into recess during holidays and then resumed a few weeks later exactly where it left off. In Commonwealth realms , legislative sessions can last from a few weeks to over

5733-418: The head of state , or a representative thereof, will address the legislature in an opening ceremony . In both parliamentary and presidential systems , sessions are referred to by the name of the body and an ordinal number  – for example, the 2nd Session of the 39th Canadian Parliament or the 1st Session of the 109th United States Congress . Governments today end sessions whenever it

5880-587: The planned French invasion of England of 1386 . Further, France had recently renewed the Auld Alliance with Scotland, by which the former promised the latter an expeditionary force and 40,000 gold florins . Gaunt was the wealthiest man in England besides the king, and had often put his money to Richard's use. With Gaunt absent in Spain, he could use neither his wealth nor his retinue in defence of his nephew

6027-399: The 1386 parliament had already been complained of in that of 1385. Little had been done to resolve them by either King or chancellor, and when the 1386 parliament convened, continues Palmer, it "nursed a number of very substantial grievances". In terms of domestic politics, there was a financial crisis; this was blamed on Suffolk and the King's perceived extravagance. Regarding foreign policy,

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6174-417: The 1388 assembly. Although the Parliament of 1386 was described by Favent as having "wrought wonders," recent scholarship has been more critical. John McCall and George Rudisill have argued that the Parliament demonstrated the "inanity of the proceedings and the vindictiveness that motivated them, the weakness of the King's government and the inability of anyone to do anything about it". It is no surprise, argues

6321-404: The 1st session of the 114th Congress commenced on January 3, 2015, and the 2nd session commenced on January 3, 2016, with the same members and no intervening election. All legislative business, however, is cleared at the end of each session. It is common for bills to be reintroduced in the second session that were not passed in the first session, and the restrictions on reconsideration only apply to

6468-708: The Burgundians and her subsequent execution (1431), a series of crushing French victories concluded the siege, favoring the Valois dynasty. Notably, Patay (1429), Formigny (1450), and Castillon (1453) proved decisive in ending the war. England permanently lost most of its continental possessions, with only the Pale of Calais remaining under its control on the continent until the Siege of Calais (1558). Local conflicts in neighbouring areas, which were contemporarily related to

6615-502: The Burgundians raised the prospects of an ultimate English triumph and persuaded the English to continue the war over many decades. A variety of factors prevented this, however. Notable influences include the deaths of both Henry and Charles in 1422, the emergence of Joan of Arc (which boosted French morale), and the loss of Burgundy as an ally (concluding the French civil war). The Siege of Orléans (1429) made English aspirations for conquest all but infeasible. Despite Joan's capture by

6762-597: The Commons had requested; this was described as a "great and continual council," composed of eleven peers and three principal officials. They included Alexander Neville , Archbishop of York , William Courtenay , Archbishop of Canterbury , the Bishops Wykeham and Brantingham , Abbot Morice of Waltham Abbey , the Dukes of York and Gloucester, the Earl of Arundel, and Lords Cobham, Scrope and Devereaux. However, Richard

6909-459: The Commons' petitions. In a final political misjudgement, the King had promoted de Vere from Earl of Oxford to Marquess of Dublin on 13 October. This enraged people all the more: Chris Given-Wilson , for example, argues that "there can be little doubt that few thought him worthy of the honour". The King eventually dismissed de la Pole as Chancellor ten days later, and appointed the Bishop of Ely

7056-578: The Conqueror , became the first of the Angevin kings of England in 1154 as Henry II. The Angevin kings ruled over what was later known as the Angevin Empire , which included more French territory than that under the kings of France . The Angevins still owed homage to the French king for these territories. From the 11th century, the Angevins had autonomy within their French domains, neutralizing

7203-523: The Crown was particularly strong. Richard ignored his Parliament-imposed council and, while he was out of London, held councils of his own. Since the royal commission was unable to follow him everywhere, this had the effect of removing the royal household from their oversight. By August 1387, Richard was in Shrewsbury , where he summoned the royal justices . Presenting to them a number of "Questions for

7350-494: The Crown. Parliament had concluded, almost immediately, that Richard was denouncing the appointed council when he made it clear that he would consult only when absolutely necessary, and preferably not at all. Following his impeachment, de la Pole had his royal grants of land reversed (although retaining his earldom) and was sentenced to imprisonment, probably in Corfe Castle . The King soon overturned these judgments; not only

7497-536: The French delayed the return of the lands, which helped Philip VI. On 6 June 1329, Edward III finally paid homage to the King of France. However, at the ceremony, Philip VI had it recorded that the homage was not due to the fiefs detached from the duchy of Guyenne by Charles IV (especially Agen). For Edward, the homage did not imply the renunciation of his claim to the extorted lands. In the 11th century, Gascony in southwest France had been incorporated into Aquitaine (also known as Guyenne or Guienne ) and formed with it

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7644-456: The French forces under the House of Valois ultimately retained control over the Kingdom of France. The French and English monarchies thereafter remained separate, despite the monarchs of England (later Britain ) styling themselves as sovereigns of France until 1802 . The root causes of the conflict can be traced to the crisis of 14th-century Europe . The outbreak of war was motivated by

7791-562: The French king, and rather submit us unto him, then unto our owne subjectes. Lordes aunswered, Sir that counsaile is not best, but a way rather to bring you into daunger: For it is well knowen that the French king is your auncient enemie, and your greatest adversarie. And if he set foote once within your realme, he will rather dispoyle you, and invade you, and depose you from your estate royall, then put any hande to helpe you. The lords reminded Richard that both Richard's father and grandfather had "toke great laboures uppon them...   to conquere

7938-554: The French nobility rejected this, maintaining that Isabella could not transmit a right she did not possess . An assembly of French barons decided that a native Frenchman should receive the crown, rather than Edward. The throne passed to Charles's patrilineal cousin instead, Philip , Count of Valois . Edward protested but ultimately submitted and did homage for Gascony. Further French disagreements with Edward induced Philip, during May 1337, to meet with his Great Council in Paris. It

8085-490: The French throne was raised after the death of Louis X in 1316. Louis left behind a young daughter, Joan II of Navarre , and a son, John I of France , although he only lived for five days. However, Joan's paternity was in question, as her mother, Margaret of Burgundy , was accused of being an adulterer in the Tour de Nesle affair . Given the situation, Philip, Count of Poitiers and brother of Louis X, positioned himself to take

8232-852: The French. A conference was held at Brétigny that resulted in the Treaty of Brétigny (8 May 1360). The treaty was ratified at Calais in October. In return for increased lands in Aquitaine, Edward renounced Normandy, Touraine, Anjou and Maine and consented to reduce King John's ransom by a million crowns. Edward also abandoned his claim to the crown of France. The French king, John II , was held captive in England for four years. The Treaty of Brétigny set his ransom at 3 million crowns and allowed for hostages to be held in lieu of John. The hostages included two of his sons, several princes and nobles, four inhabitants of Paris, and two citizens from each of

8379-575: The Good), who had outflanked him near Poitiers but refused to surrender himself as the price of their acceptance. This led to the Battle of Poitiers (19 September 1356) where the Black Prince's army routed the French. During the battle, the Gascon noble Jean de Grailly , captal de Buch led a mounted unit that was concealed in a forest. The French advance was contained, at which point de Grailly led

8526-489: The Gregorian calendar). Constitutional limits on the length of sessions may lead legislative leaders to change rules or pass statutes which define a day on the legislative calendar, such as extending a calendar day beyond 24 hours or defining what legislative business counts against a maximum number of legislative days. Depending upon limitations of the state's constitution, if business arises that must be addressed before

8673-457: The Judges", Richard intended establishing once and for all the parameters and extents of the liberties and prerogatives of the Crown. Moreover, he wanted an explicit condemnation that those responsible for the weakening of his power should be regarded as traitors with a ruling that, therefore, they should die as traitors. Michael de la Pole was personally involved in both drawing up the questions for

8820-426: The King making a spirited defence of his right to choose his own ministers and of the royal prerogative . Conversely, the Commons demanded that the King appoint his councillors in parliament, effectively placing them under parliamentary oversight. It is possible that the original plan was to impeach Robert de Vere , who was felt to have at least as much influence with the King as Suffolk, if not more. However, that

8967-500: The King was forced to withdraw them. De Vere's elevation was not ratified until December, perhaps further indicating its controversy. Parliament was dissolved on 28 November. The remainder of the session was taken up with the establishment of another commission to oversee the King. PROME notes that "Richard was furious, and not surprisingly: at the age of nineteen, he was in effect being placed back in tutelage". The Parliament had long-ranging consequences which would reverberate through

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9114-483: The King was planning to have the parliamentary group arrested or even ambushed and killed, and that the Mayor of London , Nicholas Exton had discovered the plan and warned them. This was described by Henry Knighton as the " occultus rumor ", whereby the King intended to invite forty members of that parliament to a dinner—and then destroy them. This may well have merely been a rumour, as Knighton suggests—perhaps reflecting

9261-408: The King when the attacks of the Wonderful Parliament came. Either way, the war with France, being both exorbitantly expensive and producing few military successes for it, was the immediate cause of the parliament. For Richard, as historian J. S. Roskell put it, it also had the result of creating an "adversely critical attitude towards the government" that reflected negatively upon the King. On top of

9408-509: The King would have been anachronistic. Rather, it was regarding whose attitude towards Parliament would prevail: the King, who saw Parliament as being a tool of royal authority, or Parliament, who saw themselves in an advisory role to the King. In 1388, a number of men close to the King, including Burley and the Mayor of London, Nicholas Brembre were hanged at Tyburn , while Tresilian was discovered hiding in sanctuary in Westminster Abbey . He

9555-419: The King's hands because Edward III was in breach of his obligations as a vassal and had sheltered the King's "mortal enemy" Robert d'Artois . Edward responded to the confiscation of Aquitaine by challenging Philip's right to the French throne. When Charles IV died, Edward claimed the succession of the French throne through the right of his mother, Isabella (Charles IV's sister), daughter of Philip IV. His claim

9702-479: The King. From there—with royal permission—he made his way to Hull and took ship for Dordrecht . Arriving in Paris by December 1387, he died there in 1389 and, in the same year, Richard resumed his personal authority. Although the epithet 'wonderful' is widely applied to this Parliament—stemming from the use of the Latin mirabilis by a contemporary chronicler to describe it—the term was originally coined to refer to

9849-421: The United Kingdom, however, the practice of terminating all bills upon prorogation has slightly altered; public bills may be re-introduced in the next legislative session, and fast-tracked directly to the stage they reached in the prorogued legislative session. A new session will often begin on the same day that the previous session ended. In most cases, when a parliament reconvenes for a new legislative session,

9996-515: The War of Saint-Sardos, Charles of Valois , father of Philip VI, invaded Aquitaine on behalf of Charles IV and conquered the duchy after a local insurrection, which the French believed had been incited by Edward II of England . Charles IV grudgingly agreed to return this territory in 1325. Edward II had to compromise to recover his duchy: he sent his son, the future Edward III , to pay homage. The King of France agreed to restore Guyenne, minus Agen , but

10143-535: The Wise and the leadership of Bertrand du Guesclin , the French had reconquered most of the lands ceded to King Edward in the Treaty of Brétigny (signed in 1360), leaving the English with only a few cities on the continent. In the following decades, the weakening of royal authority, combined with the devastation caused by the Black Death of 1347–1351 (which killed nearly half of France and 20–33% of England ) and

10290-411: The Wonderful Parliament". Although the court party was swept from power in 1386—when, as J. S. Roskell put it, "the exercise of royal authority was virtually handed over to a parliamentary commission"—Richard had a "violent reaction" to the proceedings. Roskell also suggests that the affair was not so much an argument about who should rule, King or Parliament, as the answer to that being anyone other than

10437-516: The accusation of corruption personally targeted him. And for asmoch as wee remembre, that the moost easy, redy and prone payment, of any charge to be born within this Reame, by the Commens of the same, is by Graunt of Xvcs and xcs all the Levie whereof amongs your people is so useuell. Legislative session Historically, each session of a parliament would last less than one year, ceasing with

10584-452: The advent of rapid transcontinental travel. More recently, prorogations have triggered speculation that they were advised by the sitting prime minister for political purposes: for example, in the 40th Parliament , the first prorogation occurred in the midst of a parliamentary dispute , in which the opposition parties expressed intent to defeat the minority government, and the second was suspected by opposition Members of Parliament to be

10731-449: The attack on the King's prerogative. One petition, for example, presented to the Parliament demanded that customs controllers of the ports be dismissed from their posts on account of their "manifest corruption". Chaucer was customs controller of the Port of London , from which the leader of the opposition, Gloucester, was owed £500; as a result, speculates Peter Ackroyd , Chaucer may have felt

10878-459: The attack was eventually launched on the chancellor is probably down to the simple fact that he was seen as more of a parvenu and thus, of the two, the easier target. Whatever the original tactics, the plan that was finally acted upon were to impeach de la Pole, and thus to attack the King indirectly; but the articles of impeachment were sloppily prepared—although the charges themselves were neither inconsequential nor insignificant, argues Roskell. As

11025-525: The biggest issue was the threat of imminent French invasion. King Charles VI of France had, after six years of siege, finally taken Ghent and crushed its revolt in December 1385. His victory now gave him the time and resources to plan an invasion of England, and in March 1386 he began gathering a large fleet at Sluys . By September it was reckoned in England to be on the verge of sailing. The King convened

11172-409: The city for five weeks, but the defences held and there was no coronation. Edward moved on to Paris, but retreated after a few skirmishes in the suburbs. Next was the town of Chartres . Disaster struck in a freak hailstorm on the encamped army, causing over 1,000 English deaths – the so-called Black Monday at Easter 1360. This devastated Edward's army and forced him to negotiate when approached by

11319-581: The crossings destroyed. He moved further south, worryingly close to Paris until he found the crossing at Poissy. This had only been partially destroyed, so the carpenters within his army were able to fix it. He then continued to Flanders until he reached the river Somme. The army crossed at a tidal ford at Blanchetaque, stranding Philip's army. Edward, assisted by this head start, continued on his way to Flanders once more until, finding himself unable to outmaneuver Philip, Edward positioned his forces for battle, and Philip's army attacked. The Battle of Crécy of 1346

11466-452: The crown, advancing the stance that women should be ineligible to succeed to the French throne. He won over his adversaries through his political sagacity and succeeded to the French throne as Philip V . When he died in 1322, leaving only daughters behind, the crown passed to his younger brother, Charles IV . Charles IV died in 1328, leaving behind his young daughter and pregnant wife, Joan of Évreux . He decreed that he would become king if

11613-508: The customary opening speech; it would be the last occasion on which he would do so. In his speech, he claimed that it had been decided in Oxfordshire that the King would personally lead a foreign expedition to defend his claim to the French throne and prosecute the war with France with increased vigour. He also covered a number of other topics, including the possibility of revaluing the currency—on account, supposedly, of it being taken out of

11760-499: The dominant kingdom in Western Europe. The war had a lasting effect on European history: both sides produced innovations in military technology and tactics, including professional standing armies and artillery, that permanently changed European warfare. Chivalry , which reached its height during the conflict, subsequently declined. Stronger national identities took root in both kingdoms, which became more centralized and gradually emerged as global powers . The term "Hundred Years' War"

11907-530: The duchy but not until 1364. In July 1346, Edward mounted a major invasion across the channel, landing on Normandy's Cotentin Peninsula at St Vaast . The English army captured the city of Caen in just one day, surprising the French. Philip mustered a large army to oppose Edward, who chose to march northward toward the Low Countries, pillaging as he went. He reached the river Seine to find most of

12054-404: The duchy free of French suzerainty . The French rejected this argument, so in 1329, the 17-year-old Edward III paid homage to Philip VI. Tradition demanded that vassals approach their liege unarmed, with heads bare. Edward protested by attending the ceremony wearing his crown and sword. Even after this pledge of homage, the French continued to pressure the English administration. Gascony was not

12201-467: The duchy of Aquitaine and Gascony in 1329. He made concessions in Guyenne but reserved the right to reclaim territories arbitrarily confiscated. After that, he expected to be left undisturbed while he made war on Scotland . Tensions between the French and English monarchies can be traced back to the 1066 Norman Conquest of England, in which the English throne was seized by the Duke of Normandy ,

12348-535: The early years of Richard's reign to defend English territory, but they were almost all military and political failures. In spite of these setbacks, parliament faced requests from the King for increased subsidies to pay for the war. The King was also unpopular because of his choice of advisers, particularly de la Pole, the chancellor , who was felt to exert too much influence on foreign policy and so became inextricably linked with its failure. One 20th-century historian , Clementine Oliver , has described de la Pole as

12495-469: The execution of many of his supporters. In 1386 ...   when the king should have first blossomed into manhood, a certain archbishop of York called Alexander Neville, Robert de Vere, Duke of Ireland, Michael de la Pole, earl of Suffolk and chancellor of England, Robert Tresilian, the king's chief justice, and Sir Nicholas Brembre, formerly mayor of the city of London, were the king's rulers and closest advisers. They were men of vicious character who deceived

12642-461: The expense and failure of the campaign in France, the King urgently needed funds to defend the border with Scotland, and the kingdom from a possible French invasion. Medievalist Nigel Saul has argued that due to these threats, in summer 1386 "panic was taking hold of the south-eastern counties". The chronicler Thomas Walsingham described how like "timid mice they scurried hither and thither...   This behaviour from men, who had showed up well in

12789-705: The extent to which the King's reputation had declined—but parliament was taking no chances: they sent the King's uncle, the Duke of Gloucester and the Bishop of Ely in their stead. This indicates that parliament agreed that the King's absence would emasculate its negotiating power. Gloucester and the bishop spoke, in Saul's words, "eloquently, if fictitiously" to the King on how they perceived his duty, which they supported by reference to ahistoric—"fictitious"—statutes and traditions. Saul describes these as "outrageous remarks"—they claimed to have these statutes in their possession at

12936-480: The following year gathering support, ignoring his parliament-imposed council, and taking legal advice on how to annul the constraints on his rule. During this time de la Pole was returned to royal favour. Although the King managed to overturn most of the restrictions the Wonderful Parliament placed upon him, within a few years the crisis had resurged, even worse than in 1386. Armed conflict broke out between crown and nobility, eventually resulting in de la Pole's exile, and

13083-689: The government —but rarely delivers it in person, Queen Victoria being the last to do so. Instead, the speech is presented by the Lords Commissioners and read by the Leader of the House of Lords . When King Charles I dissolved the Parliament of England in 1628, after the Petition of Right , he gave a prorogation speech that effectively cancelled all future meetings of the legislature, at least until he again required finances. Prior to 1977, it

13230-469: The holiday season. However, when the party in power is ousted or if important business, such as approval of appropriation bills , has not been completed, Congress will often meet in a lame-duck session , adjourning as late as December 31, before the newly elected Congress takes office on January 3. In the United States , most state legislatures , most of which are part-time paid legislatures with

13377-516: The issue. King John of England inherited the Angevin domains from his brother Richard I . However, Philip II of France acted decisively to exploit the weaknesses of John, both legally and militarily, and by 1204 had succeeded in taking control of much of the Angevin continental possessions . Following John's reign, the Battle of Bouvines (1214), the Saintonge War (1242), and finally

13524-421: The judges and subsequently attesting to them. Most importantly, he intended to establish whether the law passed imposing a council upon him was "derogatory...   to the lord King." Richard clearly intended, despite the constraints Parliament had set on his authority, to regain political pre-eminence. The judges gave him the answers he required, although the role that Chief Justice Robert Tresilian played in

13671-409: The king, having an eye to the business neither of the king nor kingdom, but they grasped to themselves the riches of iniquity by many evil deeds. The impoverished king was put into the shadow of their sin, and so the realm was smitten by the levying of a great plague of tenths and subsidies. Thomas Favent's short chronicle of the parliament, probably composed c. 1388, describes the background to

13818-492: The kingdom and the State was undone. Thieves and robbers rose up everywhere in the land. The Nobles despised and hated all others and took no thought for usefulness and profit of lord and men. They subjected and despoiled the peasants and the men of the villages. In no wise did they defend their country from its enemies; rather did they trample it underfoot, robbing and pillaging the peasants' goods ... Edward invaded France, for

13965-492: The kings of France. The status of the English king's French fiefs was a significant source of conflict between the two monarchies throughout the Middle Ages. French monarchs systematically sought to check the growth of English power, stripping away lands as the opportunity arose, mainly whenever England was at war with Scotland , an ally of France . English holdings in France had varied in size, at some points dwarfing even

14112-620: The legislature is typically prorogued upon the completion of the agenda set forth in the Speech from the Throne (called the legislative programme in the UK). It remains in recess until the monarch, governor general , or lieutenant governor summons parliamentarians again. Historically, long prorogations allowed legislators to spend part of their year in the capital city and part in their home ridings . However, this reason has become less important with

14259-401: The length of sessions varies. Legislatures plan their business within a legislative calendar , which lays out how bills will proceed before a session ceases, although related but unofficial affairs may be conducted by legislators outside a session or during a session on days in which parliament is not meeting. While a parliament is prorogued, between two legislative sessions, the legislature

14406-593: The loss of their continental landholdings, as well as the general shock at losing a war in which investment had been so significant, helped lead to the Wars of the Roses (1455–1487). The economic consequences of the Hundred Years' War not only produced a decline in trade but also led to a high collection of taxes from both countries, which played a significant role in civil disorder. The question of female succession to

14553-609: The middle Edward [Edward II] was judged, and under pain of that statute they compelled the king to attend. The chronicler alleged that Richard even threatened to appeal to the King of France for aid against his domestic enemies, until the Duke and the Bishop said that the King of France himself was England's greatest enemy. According to Richard Grafton 's chronicle: The king aunswered by these wordes: Well, we do consider that our people and Commons go about to rise against us: wherefore we thinke we can do no better then to aske ayde of our Cosyn

14700-607: The next day. Also dismissed alongside de la Pole were the Treasurer —the Bishop of Durham —and the Keeper of the Privy Seal , Walter Skirlaw . The Parliament Rolls of Medieval England (PROME) project, notes that at least two of Richard's proposed creations— John, Lord Neville and the under chamberlain to the royal household, Simon Burley , to the earldoms of Cumberland and of Huntingdon respectively—were so unpopular that

14847-430: The next regular session, the governor may call a special session . In many states, a special session may be called by petition from two-thirds of both houses. The few state legislatures which meet year-round, with the exception of North Carolina , are usually full-time paid legislatures. Hundred Years%27 War Kingdom of England The Hundred Years' War ( French : Guerre de Cent Ans ; 1337–1453)

14994-574: The numbering returns again to C-2 following a prorogation ( Bill C-1 is a pro-forma bill). The Congress is renewed every two years as required by the US Constitution , with all members of the House of Representatives up for reelection and one-third of the members of the US Senate up for reelection. (Senators serve a six-year term; House members serve a two-year term). Each Congress sits in two sessions lasting approximately one year. Thus,

15141-520: The only part of Aquitaine that remained in his hands was the Duchy of Gascony. The term Gascony came to be used for the territory held by the Angevin ( Plantagenet ) kings of England in southwest France, although they still used the title Duke of Aquitaine. For the first 10 years of Edward III's reign, Gascony had been a significant friction point. The English argued that, as Charles IV had not acted properly towards his tenant, Edward should be able to hold

15288-433: The only sore point. One of Edward's influential advisers was Robert III of Artois . Robert was an exile from the French court, having fallen out with Philip VI over an inheritance claim. He urged Edward to start a war to reclaim France, and was able to provide extensive intelligence on the French court. France was an ally of the Kingdom of Scotland as English kings had tried to subjugate the country for some time. In 1295,

15435-469: The parliament itself became increasingly focused on personally attacking the earl and the perceived abuse of the authority of the chancellorship, even down to the supposed theft of a charter from Dover Castle . The affair ended up "dragg[ing] on for at least a month [and] degenerated into three badly sustained and trivial charges, behind each of which motives of malice or private interest may be suspected," one commentator has written. De la Pole's main defence

15582-588: The plague had passed and England was able to recover financially, King Edward's son and namesake, the Prince of Wales , later known as the Black Prince , led a Chevauchée from Gascony into France, during which he pillaged Avignonet , Castelnaudary , Carcassonne , and Narbonne . The next year during another Chevauchée he ravaged Auvergne , Limousin , and Berry but failed to take Bourges . He offered terms of peace to King John II of France (known as John

15729-522: The point of foolishness" by a biographer, historian Anthony Tuck . Parliament was also coming to the view that the King needed to rule as economically as was possible, and they observed with displeasure the King's distribution of extravagant patronage to a limited circle, the greatest recipient of which was Michael de la Pole, Earl of Suffolk . Furthermore, the Hundred Years' War was going poorly for England. Several expeditions had left for France in

15876-424: The population drastically in France. But at the end of the war, the French had the upper hand due to their better supply, such as small hand-held cannons, weapons, etc. In England, political forces over time came to oppose the costly venture. After the war, England was left insolvent, leaving the conquering French in complete control of all of France except Calais. The dissatisfaction of English nobles , resulting from

16023-410: The proceedings is unclear. According to one contemporary, de la Pole personally threatened Tresilian with execution if he refused to seal the document. On the other hand, argues Saul, Tresilian's subsequent loyalty to the King suggests it was Tresilian who drafted the questions to his judges. Saul describes him as "a thinker of some originality", who deliberately turned what had up until then been solely

16170-440: The province of Guyenne and Gascony (French: Guyenne-et-Gascogne ). The Angevin kings of England became dukes of Aquitaine after Henry II married the former Queen of France, Eleanor of Aquitaine , in 1152, from which point the lands were held in vassalage to the French crown. By the 13th century the terms Aquitaine , Guyenne and Gascony were virtually synonymous. At the beginning of Edward III's reign on 1 February 1327,

16317-506: The ranks of the upper nobility. The King did not approve of the commission or its advice that he listen to more judicious counsellors, and ignored it. By the time parliament sat in October 1386, an atmosphere of political crisis was apparent to all. No military successes had been achieved since the previous parliament, despite an extensive—and expensive—campaign in 1385 . For the King personally, not only did he fall out badly with his uncle, John of Gaunt, but his financial and military impotence

16464-520: The raw material they needed. Edward III had commanded that his chancellor sit on the woolsack in council as a symbol of the pre-eminence of the wool trade. At the time there were about 110,000 sheep in Sussex alone. The great medieval English monasteries produced large wool surpluses sold to mainland Europe. Successive governments were able to make large amounts of money by taxing it. France's sea power led to economic disruptions for England, shrinking

16611-495: The realm and circulation too often—and moving the Calais Staple to Westminster. But de la Pole had severely misread his audience. The first—and for the King, most important—item of business on the parliamentary agenda was his request for a subsidy, or tax of movable goods , of four fifteenths and two-tenths , which was calculated to bring in the large sum of around £155,000. Saul has argued that "never before had such

16758-466: The realme of France", rather than appealing to it for assistance. Knighton also relates how, in parliament, the Lords sent for "the statute by which Edward [II] had been adjudged", which had forced the choice upon Edward in 1327 of either resigning the throne or his son, later Edward III, being disinherited. As a result of this manoeuvre Richard became melancholic, and agreed to return to parliament and accept

16905-498: The rest of Richard's reign". As the first outright conflict between the King and his magnates, Richard, looking back in 1397, personally saw it as more damaging to him than the 1388 Merciless Parliament . While it was the King's first political defeat, it was not to be his last. Richard's defiant response to the 1386 parliament, and attempts to convict its promoters of treason, turned, says the scholar Alison McHardy, "the king's critics from angry into desperate men". This ultimately led to

17052-473: The rest of Richard's reign. Saul has described it as "the worst political crisis of the reign to date" and a direct assault on the traditional principle that medieval kings governed by personal prerogative. It marks the first stage in an ongoing power struggle between Richard and a set of magnates who became known as the Lords Appellant . On 19 November, Richard appointed his councillors in Parliament as

17199-545: The royal council to Osney Abbey , in Oxfordshire in August and it was decided to summon a parliament in face of this threat. Writs of summons were issued to the Lords Spiritual and Lords Temporal (including Richard's newly elevated favourites), as well as nearly 300 commoners , the same month. In the meantime an army of 10,000 men had been gathered to surround London and protect it from the expected invasion, and it

17346-502: The same time, ambassadors were to be sent to France with a proposed treaty for the French king. At the end of April 1337, Philip of France was invited to meet the delegation from England but refused. The arrière-ban , a call to arms, was proclaimed throughout France starting on 30 April 1337. Then, in May 1337, Philip met with his Great Council in Paris. It was agreed that the Duchy of Aquitaine, effectively Gascony, should be taken back into

17493-477: The session. List of parliaments of England List of acts of the Parliament of England Richard II succeeded to the throne in 1377 on the death of his grandfather, Edward III , but his unpopularity had been growing since Richard's suppression of the Peasants' Revolt in 1381. He was increasingly criticised for his patronage of a few select royal favourites , to an extent that has been described as "lavish to

17640-462: The significant economic crisis that followed, led to a period of civil unrest in both countries. These crises were resolved in England earlier than in France. The newly crowned Henry V of England seized the opportunity presented by the mental illness of Charles VI of France and the French civil war between Armagnacs and Burgundians to revive the conflict. Overwhelming victories at Agincourt (1415) and Verneuil (1424), as well as an alliance with

17787-401: The sister of the dead Charles IV, but the question arose whether she could transmit a right to inherit that she did not possess. Moreover, the French nobility balked at the prospect of being ruled by an Englishman, especially one whose mother, Isabella, and her lover, Roger Mortimer , were widely suspected of having murdered the previous English king, Edward II . The French barons, prelates, and

17934-434: The third and last time, hoping to capitalise on the discontent and seize the throne. The Dauphin's strategy was that of non-engagement with the English army in the field. However, Edward wanted the crown and chose the cathedral city of Reims for his coronation (Reims was the traditional coronation city). However, the citizens of Reims built and reinforced the city's defences before Edward and his army arrived. Edward besieged

18081-564: The threat from Scotland. In France, Edward proceeded north unopposed and besieged the city of Calais on the English Channel, capturing it in 1347. This became an important strategic asset for the English, allowing them to keep troops safely in northern France. Calais would remain under English control, even after the end of the Hundred Years' War, until the successful French siege in 1558 . The Black Death , which had just arrived in Paris in 1348, ravaged Europe. In 1355, after

18228-561: The time—while Tuck notes the implicit threat. Gloucester appears ultimately to have made a threat of deposition against Richard or at least raised the spectre of Edward II (under a supposedly "ancient law" which dictated that, without a King's presence in an annual parliament, the Commons could go home, facing no punishment for leaving parliamentary business unfinished—in this case, Richard's war tax). The Eulogium Historiarum chronicler also describes these events: The king did not want to come to parliament. They even sent for that statute by which

18375-456: The tranquillity of peace with their fierce bravery, did not set an example to be followed of what should be done when they thought that battle was at hand and danger imminent." The absence of Gaunt probably increased the sense of hysteria. Gaunt was not to return to England for another three years, and Richard took advantage of Gaunt's absence to advance his favoured courtiers further up the peerage. The previous parliament had attempted to force

18522-418: The unborn child were male. If not, Charles left the choice of his successor to the nobles. Joan gave birth to a girl, Blanche of France (later Duchess of Orleans). With Charles IV's death and Blanche's birth, the main male line of the House of Capet was rendered extinct. By proximity of blood , the nearest male relative of Charles IV was his nephew, Edward III of England . Edward was the son of Isabella ,

18669-463: The war typically charts it as taking place over 116 years. However, it was an intermittent conflict which was frequently interrupted by external factors, such as the Black Death , and several years of truces . The Hundred Years' War was a significant conflict in the Middle Ages . During the war, five generations of kings from two rival dynasties fought for the throne of France, which was then

18816-688: The war, including the War of the Breton Succession (1341–1364), the Castilian Civil War (1366–1369), the War of the Two Peters (1356–1369) in Aragon , and the 1383–1385 crisis in Portugal , were used by the parties to advance their agendas. By the war's end, feudal armies had mainly been replaced by professional troops, and aristocratic dominance had yielded to a democratization of the manpower and weapons of armies. Although primarily

18963-486: The wool trade to Flanders and the wine trade from Gascony. On 22 June 1340, Edward and his fleet sailed from England and arrived off the Zwin estuary the next day. The French fleet assumed a defensive formation off the port of Sluis . The English fleet deceived the French into believing they were withdrawing. When the wind turned in the late afternoon, the English attacked with the wind and sun behind them. The French fleet

19110-435: Was a complete disaster for the French, largely credited to the English longbowmen and the French king, who allowed his army to attack before it was ready. Philip appealed to his Scottish allies to help with a diversionary attack on England. King David II of Scotland responded by invading northern England, but his army was defeated, and he was captured at the Battle of Neville's Cross on 17 October 1346. This greatly reduced

19257-522: Was a conflict between the kingdoms of England and France and a civil war in France during the Late Middle Ages . It emerged from feudal disputes over the Duchy of Aquitaine and was triggered by a claim to the French throne made by Edward III of England . The war grew into a broader military, economic, and political struggle involving factions from across Western Europe , fuelled by emerging nationalism on both sides. The periodisation of

19404-515: Was a popular fear that England was soon to be invaded, as a French fleet had been gathering in Flanders for much of the year. Discontent with Richard peaked when he requested an unprecedented sum to raise an army with which to invade France. Instead of granting the King's request, the houses of the Lords and the Commons effectively united against him and his unpopular chancellor , Michael de la Pole, 1st Earl of Suffolk . Seeing de la Pole as both

19551-696: Was adopted by later historians as a historiographical periodisation to encompass dynastically related conflicts, constructing the longest military conflict in European history . The war is commonly divided into three phases separated by truces: the Edwardian War (1337–1360), the Caroline War (1369–1389), and the Lancastrian War (1415–1453). Each side drew many allies into the conflict, with English forces initially prevailing; however,

19698-424: Was agreed that Gascony should be taken back into Philip's hands, which prompted Edward to renew his claim for the French throne, this time by force of arms. In the early years of the war, the English, led by their king and his son Edward, the Black Prince , saw resounding successes, notably at Crécy (1346) and at Poitiers (1356), where King John II of France was taken prisoner. By 1378, under King Charles V

19845-473: Was almost destroyed in what became known as the Battle of Sluys . England dominated the English Channel for the rest of the war, preventing French invasions . At this point, Edward's funds ran out and the war probably would have ended were it not for the death of the Duke of Brittany in 1341 precipitating a succession dispute between the duke's half-brother John of Montfort and Charles of Blois , nephew of Philip VI. In 1341, this inheritance dispute over

19992-475: Was also able to limit their terms of office to a year only, as well as to ensure that the majority of the members were men who already had a history of loyalty to him. This amounted to a concession from Parliament; further, except for the Duke of Gloucester and the Earl of Arundel, none of the future Appellants were appointed. The Commons did not appear to believe the King to be sufficiently restrained by these measures and continued to call for further concessions from

20139-481: Was also elected to attend) as a basis for his work The Parliament of Foules . Literary scholar Britton Harwood has suggested that Chaucer based his character Symkyn—who is portrayed as "absurdly pretentious" before public humiliation—in The Reeve's Tale on de la Pole, who, like Chaucer, had a non-aristocratic background before attaining gentility . Chaucer's attendance has also been suggested as having influenced

20286-422: Was common for the federal Parliament to have up to three sessions, with Parliament being prorogued at the end of each session and recalled at the beginning of the next. This was not always the case, for instance the 10th Parliament (1926–1928) went full term without prorogation. The practice of having multiple sessions in the same parliament gradually fell into disuse, and all parliaments from 1978 to 2013 had

20433-540: Was considered invalidated by Edward's homage to Philip VI in 1329. Edward revived his claim and in 1340 formally assumed the title "King of France and the French Royal Arms". On 26 January 1340, Edward III formally received homage from Guy, half-brother of the Count of Flanders . The civic authorities of Ghent , Ypres , and Bruges proclaimed Edward King of France. Edward aimed to strengthen his alliances with

20580-525: Was de la Pole released, he joined the King for the Christmas festivities at Windsor later that year. Richard is recorded as having treated him with "ostentatious warmth". In New Year 1387, the King left London for a prolonged period on what contemporaries called his "gyration" around the country. His priority was to consolidate and expand his support in the regions, mostly in the Midlands where loyalty to

20727-482: Was dragged into court with cries of 'We have him!' from the mob and, having already been convicted by the Lords Appellant, was summarily hanged naked before his throat was cut. De la Pole avoided such a fate. Even before Radcot Bridge, he had escaped to Calais , where his brother Edmund was Captain . This was to no avail, as the governor of the town, Sir William Beauchamp , returned him under armed escort to

20874-545: Was expected to be financially and chivalrically profitable. Some young nobles—such as the Earls of Arundel and Warwick —had "been kept in good humour since 1376 only by a lavish distribution of crown perquisites and war salaries", argues scholar M. V. Clarke ". In the event, as Tuck has said, subsequent royal attempts at a "policy of rapprochement with France made little headway". This may, combined with his uncle John of Gaunt 's 1385 invasion of Castile , have provoked

21021-420: Was exposed to all and sundry. If the campaign had been a success, on the other hand, then the king, as a returning conqueror would have drawn comparisons in martial prowess with his father and grandfather. By 1386, "the Commons had no good reason to overlook the excessive generosity of the King or to acquiesce in his government's arbitrary taxation" as historian John Palmer put it. Most of the criticisms raised by

21168-413: Was probably personally affected by the goings-on of the 1386 parliament and particularly its bloody consequences, it has been argued, as he was not only a royal appointee to his post of London customs' controller, but also a personal friend to some of those under attack, such as Burley, with whom Chaucer had worked since 1376 and was probably a close friend. Chaucer may also have felt personally endangered by

21315-492: Was required to recognize the suzerainty of the King of France over them. In practical terms, a judgment in Guyenne might be subject to an appeal to the French royal court. The King of France had the power to revoke all legal decisions made by the King of England in Aquitaine, which was unacceptable to the English. Therefore, sovereignty over Guyenne was a latent conflict between the two monarchies for several generations. During

21462-402: Was that army, and the concomitant necessity for urgent funds, that provided the main reason for parliament being called. Parliament opened on 1 October 1386, with a notably small number of ecclesiastics attending. Those that did—such as Bishop Courtenay, brother of one of Richard's most outspoken critics—were regarded by the King as partisans against him. Michael de la Pole, as chancellor, made

21609-494: Was two-pronged: on the one hand, he accused his accusers of expecting a higher morality from him than from the King's other advisers, and on the other hand, that he could not be held solely responsible for what were collective decisions. King Richard had not attended the parliament in person, having retired—possibly in anger—to the royal palace at Eltham, and he refused to obey its demands for impeachment. According to one contemporary chronicler , he declared he would not get rid of

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