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60-715: Waiapu Valley , also known as the Waiapu catchment , Waiapu River valley or simply Waiapu , is a valley in the north of the Gisborne Region on the East Coast of the North Island of New Zealand. It is the catchment area for the Waiapu River and its tributaries , and covers 1,734 square kilometres (670 sq mi). The Raukumara Range forms the western side of the valley, with Mount Hikurangi in

120-501: A NZ$ 110 million financial redress, and the return of sites culturally significant to the iwi totally approximately 5,898 hectares (14,570 acres). Ngāti Porou have a number of whakataukī or pēpeha (sayings or proverbs) relating to Waiapu Valley. These include: NB: This section is based on text from Mackay, Joseph Angus (1949). Historic Poverty Bay and the East Coast, N.I., N.Z , available here at The New Zealand Electronic Text Centre . There were several “ gold rushes ” in

180-597: A Ngāpuhi war party, and been made their slave in the Bay of Islands . He escaped several years later, and was protected by the missionaries , who introduced him to Christianity , and taught him to read and write. When he returned to the Waiapu Valley in 1834, he introduced his people to the religion. Richard Taylor's drawing of the church, done after visiting in April 1839, can be viewed here . Whakawhitirā Pā , in which

240-440: A bridge was built from Tikitiki to Waiomatatini , to the protest of local Māori who were concerned that it would disturb the taniwha. The night before the bridge was completed, a storm came washing the bridge away — the weather till then had been calm. From then, one person would drown in the river nearly every year. If it did not happen one year, two would drown the next. A local tohunga , George Gage (Hori Te Kou-o-rehua Keeti)

300-414: A broader floodplain may result. Deposition dominates over erosion. A typical river basin or drainage basin will incorporate each of these different types of valleys. Some sections of a stream or river valleys may have vertically incised their course to such an extent that the valley they occupy is best described as a gorge , ravine , or canyon . Rapid down-cutting may result from localized uplift of

360-533: A cirque glacier. During glacial periods, for example, the Pleistocene ice ages, it is in these locations that glaciers initially form and then, as the ice age proceeds, extend downhill through valleys that have previously been shaped by water rather than ice. Abrasion by rock material embedded within the moving glacial ice causes the widening and deepening of the valley to produce the characteristic U or trough shape with relatively steep, even vertical sides and

420-594: A narrow valley with steep sides. Gill is used to describe a ravine containing a mountain stream in Cumbria and the Pennines . The term combe (also encountered as coombe ) is widespread in southern England and describes a short valley set into a hillside. Other terms for small valleys such as hope, dean, slade, slack and bottom are commonly encountered in place-names in various parts of England but are no longer in general use as synonyms for valley . The term vale

480-404: A number of bridges in the valley have had to be raised to accommodate their rising riverbeds. As the riverbed rises, so does the river, which is causing extensive riverbank erosion. The banks eroded at a rate of 8 metres (26 ft) per year between 1988 and 1997. By the 2003 to 2008 period this rate had doubled, with 22 metres (72 ft) per year eroding in 2005 and 2006. This erosion threatens

540-432: A relatively flat bottom. Interlocking spurs associated with the development of river valleys are preferentially eroded to produce truncated spurs , typical of glaciated mountain landscapes. The upper end of the trough below the ice-contributing cirques may be a trough-end . Valley steps (or 'rock steps') can result from differing erosion rates due to both the nature of the bedrock (hardness and jointing for example) and

600-549: A safe place. When it turned out that the metal was only mundic, Reupane became an object of ridicule, and, afterwards, was known as “Tommy Poorfellow.” The area was home to politician Sir Āpirana Ngata , and Te Moananui-a-Kiwa Ngārimu — the second of three Māori to receive a Victoria Cross . Valley At lower latitudes and altitudes, these glacially formed valleys may have been created or enlarged during ice ages but now are ice-free and occupied by streams or rivers. In desert areas, valleys may be entirely dry or carry

660-465: A slower rate than that of the main valley floor; thus the difference in the two valleys' depth increases over time. The tributary valley, composed of more resistant rock, then hangs over the main valley. Trough-shaped valleys also form in regions of heavy topographic denudation . By contrast with glacial U-shaped valleys, there is less downward and sideways erosion. The severe downslope denudation results in gently sloping valley sides; their transition to

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720-427: A valley between its sides is referred to as the valley floor. The valley floor is typically formed by river sediments and may have fluvial terraces . The development of a river valley is affected by the character of the bedrock over which the river or stream flows, the elevational difference between its top and bottom, and indeed the climate. Typically the flow will increase downstream and the gradient will decrease. In

780-510: A variety of transitional forms between V-, U- and plain valleys can form. The floor or bottom of these valleys can be broad or narrow, but all valleys have a shoulder. The broader a mountain valley, the lower its shoulders are located in most cases. An important exception is canyons where the shoulder almost is near the top of the valley's slope. In the Alps – e.g. the Tyrolean Inn valley –

840-670: A watercourse only rarely. In areas of limestone bedrock , dry valleys may also result from drainage now taking place underground rather than at the surface. Rift valleys arise principally from earth movements , rather than erosion. Many different types of valleys are described by geographers, using terms that may be global in use or else applied only locally. Valleys may arise through several different processes. Most commonly, they arise from erosion over long periods by moving water and are known as river valleys. Typically small valleys containing streams feed into larger valleys which in turn feed into larger valleys again, eventually reaching

900-405: Is a tributary valley that is higher than the main valley. They are most commonly associated with U-shaped valleys, where a tributary glacier flows into a glacier of larger volume. The main glacier erodes a deep U-shaped valley with nearly vertical sides, while the tributary glacier, with a smaller volume of ice, makes a shallower U-shaped valley. Since the surfaces of the glaciers were originally at

960-582: Is extracted at approximately 12 different sites, predominantly for use on nearby rural and forestry roads. The water quality of the river's tributaries is often much higher, as they are closer to the native vegetation cover of the Raukumura Range. In lower areas, much of the eroded gravel from the catchment area settles on the riverbed of the Waiapu River, making it rise rapidly. The riverbed rose 1 metre (3.3 ft) between 1986 and 2007, and

1020-405: Is of immense cultural, spiritual, economic, and traditional significance to the local iwi , Ngāti Porou , and in 2002 approximately 90% of its 2,000 inhabitants were Māori . Waiapu Valley is sparsely inhabited, with a population density in 2002 of approximately 1.15/km (3.0/sq mi) — less than 8% of the national average at the time (approximately 14.71/km or 38.09/sq mi). The population of

1080-501: Is only 50 meters (160 ft) deep while the main fjord is around 1,300 meters (4,300 ft) at the same point. Glaciated terrain is not the only site of hanging streams and valleys. Hanging valleys are also simply the product of varying rates of erosion of the main valley and the tributary valleys. The varying rates of erosion are associated with the composition of the adjacent rocks in the different valley locations. The tributary valleys are eroded and deepened by glaciers or erosion at

1140-511: Is the iwi's most important icon, and in Māori mythology , was the first part of the North Island to emerge when Māui , an ancestor of Ngāti Porou, pulled it as a giant fish from the ocean. According to these beliefs, his waka , Nukutaimemeha , became stranded on the mountain, and lies petrified near the mountain's summit. Nine whakairo (carvings) depicting Māui and his whānau were erected on

1200-488: Is the word cwm borrowed from Welsh . The word dale occurs widely in place names in the north of England and, to a lesser extent, in southern Scotland. As a generic name for a type of valley, the term typically refers to a wide valley, though there are many much smaller stream valleys within the Yorkshire Dales which are named "(specific name) Dale". Clough is a word in common use in northern England for

1260-629: Is used in England and Wales to describe a wide river valley, usually with a particularly wide flood plain or flat valley bottom. In Southern England, vales commonly occur between the outcrops of different relatively erosion-resistant rock formations, where less resistant rock, often claystone has been eroded. An example is the Vale of White Horse in Oxfordshire. Some of the first human complex societies originated in river valleys, such as that of

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1320-654: The Latin terms for 'valley, 'gorge' and 'ditch' respectively. The German term ' rille ' or Latin term 'rima' (signifying 'cleft') is used for certain other elongate depressions on the Moon. See also: Waitahaia River The Waitahaia River is a river in the Waiapu Valley of the Gisborne Region of New Zealand 's North Island . It flows northeast from the southern end of the Raukumara Range to reach

1380-498: The Mata River 20 kilometres (12 mi) west of Te Puia Springs . Brown trout , a European species of fish, was introduced into New Zealand for fishing in the late 1860s. "Place name detail: Waitahaia River" . New Zealand Gazetteer . New Zealand Geographic Board . Retrieved 12 July 2009 . 38°01′S 178°04′E  /  38.017°S 178.067°E  / -38.017; 178.067 This article about

1440-504: The Nile , Tigris-Euphrates , Indus , Ganges , Yangtze , Yellow River , Mississippi , and arguably the Amazon . In prehistory , the rivers were used as a source of fresh water and food (fish and game), as well as a place to wash and a sewer. The proximity of water moderated temperature extremes and provided a source for irrigation , stimulating the development of agriculture . Most of

1500-668: The first civilizations developed from these river valley communities. Siting of settlements within valleys is influenced by many factors, including the need to avoid flooding and the location of river crossing points. Numerous elongate depressions have been identified on the surface of Mars , Venus , the Moon , and other planets and their satellites and are known as valles (singular: 'vallis'). Deeper valleys with steeper sides (akin to canyons) on certain of these bodies are known as chasmata (singular: 'chasma'). Long narrow depressions are referred to as fossae (singular: 'fossa'). These are

1560-483: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand calls an "awe-inspiring vista". The valley receives a high level of rainfall — from 1,600 mm (63 in) per year at the coast, to more than 4,000 mm (160 in) per year in the Raukumura Range. This water drains into a large number of streams and rivers, which flow to Waiapu River , the main stem in the north-east of the valley. The Waiapu River flows north-east from

1620-524: The Scandinavian ice sheet during the various ice ages advanced slightly uphill against the lie of the land. As a result, its meltwaters flowed parallel to the ice margin to reach the North Sea basin, forming huge, flat valleys known as Urstromtäler . Unlike the other forms of glacial valleys, these were formed by glacial meltwaters. Depending on the topography , the rock types , and the climate ,

1680-417: The Waiapu River, which continues to be one of the most sediment laden rivers in the world. The annual suspended sediment load is 36 million tonnes, and 90.47 m (3,195 cu ft) of sediment flows into the sea every second. Anecdotal evidence suggests that this sediment may have adversely affected nearby coastal and marine environments. Gravel deposited by the river onto shingle beaches near its mouth

1740-478: The Waiapu Valley in the early days of European settlement. In 1874 about 100 Māori went prospecting on and around Mount Hikurangi. Sir James Hector , who examined the locality, found no signs of gold . In 1875 “Scotty” Siddons, mate of the Beautiful Star , claimed to have met, on the East Coast, a Māori who had a few ounces of gold. He and a mate named Hill found a lot of mundic on the north-west side of

1800-511: The actual valley bottom is unclear. Trough-shaped valleys occur mainly in periglacial regions and in tropical regions of variable wetness. Both climates are dominated by heavy denudation. Box valleys have wide, relatively level floors and steep sides. They are common in periglacial areas and occur in mid-latitudes, but also occur in tropical and arid regions. Rift valleys, such as the Albertine Rift and Gregory Rift are formed by

1860-449: The area, and this, combined with the development, resulted in widespread erosion and large amounts of sediment being deposited in the Waiapu River and its tributaries. This has changed the landscape significantly. Since the late 1960s, much work has been done to repair the area by planting exotic forests in eroding areas, and encouraging the return of native scrub. However, by 2002 the catchment area had few natural habitats remaining. It

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1920-472: The area. In 1840, Ngāti Porou extensively cultivated the area around the river. The valley was a place where they could live, offering safe refuge during periods of war, and supplies of fresh water and various species of fish. The first Māori church in New Zealand was built on the banks of Waiapu River sometime between 1834 and 1839. The previous decade, Taumata-a-Kura of Ngāti Porou had been captured by

1980-733: The central west. The towns of Ruatoria and Tikitiki are in the north-east of the valley. The vast majority of the catchment area lies within the Waiapu and Matakaoa wards of the Gisborne District Council , with the southernmost area in the Waikohu and Uawa wards . Some of the most Western points fall within the Coast Ward of the Opotiki District Council in the Bay of Plenty Region . The area

2040-426: The church was located, was described to Taylor as the largest in the region. Just prior to 1840, the pā had approximately 3,000 inhabitants. Many Ngāti Porou hapū still live in the valley, which has a large number of marae . In 2002, the valley's population was approximately 90% Māori, and traditional culture is still practised in the area — though it has changed significantly in the last 150 years. Since they arrived,

2100-612: The expansion of the Earth 's crust due to tectonic activity beneath the Earth's surface. There are many terms used for different sorts of valleys. They include: Similar geographical features such as gullies , chines , and kloofs , are not usually referred to as valleys. The terms corrie , glen , and strath are all Anglicisations of Gaelic terms and are commonly encountered in place-names in Scotland and other areas where Gaelic

2160-443: The flow slower and both erosion and deposition may take place. More lateral erosion takes place in the middle section of a river's course, as strong currents on the outside of its curve erode the bank. Conversely, deposition may take place on the inside of curves where the current is much slacker, the process leading to the river assuming a meandering character. In the lower valley, gradients are lowest, meanders may be much broader and

2220-462: The highest sediment yields in the world (20,520 t /km/year in 2000), more than two and a half times that of the adjacent catchment area of the Waipaoa River . The high level of sediment in Waiapu River means it is undesirable as a source of drinking water, and very little of the river's water is used. Approximately one sixth of the annual sediment flow in all New Zealand river systems is in

2280-772: The joining of the Mata River and the Tapuaeroa River near Ruatoria, and reaches the Pacific Ocean near Rangitukia . Other tributaries in the valley include the Mangaoporo , Poroporo , Wairoa , Maraehara rivers , and the Paoaruku stream . A tributary of the Mata River, the Waitahaia River , is renowned for its brown trout — a European species of fish introduced into New Zealand for fishing in

2340-427: The land surface or rejuvenation of the watercourse as a result for example of a reduction in the base level to which the river is eroded, e.g. lowered global sea level during an ice age . Such rejuvenation may also result in the production of river terraces . There are various forms of valleys associated with glaciation. True glacial valleys are those that have been cut by a glacier which may or may not still occupy

2400-404: The late 1860s. In 1840, approximately 80% of the Waiapu Valley was native forest, with a rich array of native flora and fauna . There was a small area to the east of the river covered in coastal forest and scrub due to partial clearance and burning. Between 1890 and 1930 there was large-scale clearing, felling and burning of native forests for pastoralism . Floods and heavy rainfall are common to

2460-478: The many hapū that live alongside the Waiapu River have been responsible for preserving the mauri (life principle or special nature) of the river, and the hapū of the valley act as kaitiakitanga (guardians) of the river and its tributaries. The techniques the iwi use to catch Kahawai at the mouth of the river are unique to that river, and are considered sacred. According to an affidavit of Hapukuniha Te Huakore Karaka, two taniwha were placed in strategic locations in

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2520-468: The mountain to commemorate the millennium in 2000 ( photo ). Another of Ngāti Porou's mythological ancestors, Paikea , is also associated with the mountain. According to myth, Paikea's younger half-brother, Ruatapu, attempted to kill about 70 of his older kin ("brothers") at sea in Hawaiki to exact revenge on his father for belittling him as a low-born son of a slave. The massacre, called Te Huripūreiata ,

2580-419: The mountain, but only outcrops of limestone on the higher slopes. In 1886 Reupane te Ana, of Makarika , discovered what he fondly imagined was an enormous deposit of gold. With what Joseph Angus Mackay called “noble unselfishness”, he let all his friends into the secret. Drays , wheelbarrows and receptacles of all kinds were rushed to the scene, and large quantities of the “precious metal” were removed to

2640-463: The ocean or perhaps an internal drainage basin . In polar areas and at high altitudes, valleys may be eroded by glaciers ; these typically have a U-shaped profile in cross-section, in contrast to river valleys, which tend to have a V-shaped profile. Other valleys may arise principally through tectonic processes such as rifting . All three processes can contribute to the development of a valley over geological time. The flat (or relatively flat) portion of

2700-436: The power of the moving ice. In places, a rock basin may be excavated which may later be filled with water to form a ribbon lake or else by sediments. Such features are found in coastal areas as fjords . The shape of the valley which results from all of these influences may only become visible upon the recession of the glacier that forms it. A river or stream may remain in the valley; if it is smaller than one would expect given

2760-497: The river since the time of Māui, which serves to unite those who live on either side of it. Ngāti Porou believe that taniwha dwell in and protect the river, in turn protecting the valley and its hapū . Taniwha believed to be in Waiapu River include Kotuwainuku, Kotuwairangi, Ohinewaiapu, and Ngungurutehorowhatu. Māori settlement of Waiapu Valley was widespread until the 1880s, while in March 1874 there were only 20 Pākehā living in

2820-466: The river to protect the hapū from invading tribes — one near Paoaruku (a locality at 37°49′38″S 178°20′21″E  /  37.82716138°S 178.3390364°E  / -37.82716138; 178.3390364 ) and one at the Wairoa River (a small creek at 37°50′13″S 178°24′00″E  /  37.83695267°S 178.3998781°E  / -37.83695267; 178.3998781 ). Karaka said that

2880-446: The same elevation , the shallower valley appears to be 'hanging' above the main valley. Often, waterfalls form at or near the outlet of the upper valley. Hanging valleys also occur in fjord systems underwater. The branches of Sognefjord are much shallower than the main fjord. The mouth of Fjærlandsfjord is about 400 meters (1,300 ft) deep while the main fjord nearby is 1,200 meters (3,900 ft) deep. The mouth of Ikjefjord

2940-550: The shoulders are quite low (100–200 meters above the bottom). Many villages are located here (esp. on the sunny side) because the climate is very mild: even in winter when the valley's floor is filled with fog, these villages are in sunshine . In some stress-tectonic regions of the Rocky Mountains or the Alps (e.g. Salzburg ), the side valleys are parallel to each other, and are hanging . Smaller streams flow into rivers as deep canyons or waterfalls . A hanging valley

3000-849: The size of its valley, it can be considered an example of a misfit stream . Other interesting glacially carved valleys include: A tunnel valley is a large, long, U-shaped valley originally cut under the glacial ice near the margin of continental ice sheets such as that now covering Antarctica and formerly covering portions of all continents during past glacial ages. Such valleys can be up to 100 km (62 mi) long, 4 km (2.5 mi) wide, and 400 m (1,300 ft) deep (its depth may vary along its length). Tunnel valleys were formed by subglacial water erosion . They once served as subglacial drainage pathways carrying large volumes of meltwater. Their cross-sections exhibit steep-sided flanks similar to fjord walls, and their flat bottoms are typical of subglacial glacial erosion. In northern Central Europe,

3060-449: The town of Ruatoria , and groynes have been installed in an attempt to divert the river away from the town. The Waiapu Valley, called Te Riu o Waiapu in te reo Māori, lies within the rohe of Ngāti Porou , the largest iwi on the East Coast, and second largest in New Zealand. Mount Hikurangi, Waiapu River, and the Waiapu Valley itself are of immense cultural, spiritual, economic, and traditional value to Ngāti Porou. Mount Hikurangi

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3120-407: The upper valley, the stream will most effectively erode its bed through corrasion to produce a steep-sided V-shaped valley. The presence of more resistant rock bands, of geological faults , fractures , and folds may determine the course of the stream and result in a twisting course with interlocking spurs . In the middle valley, as numerous streams have coalesced, the valley is typically wider,

3180-407: The valley at the present day. Such valleys may also be known as glacial troughs. They typically have a U-shaped cross-section and are characteristic landforms of mountain areas where glaciation has occurred or continues to take place. The uppermost part of a glacial valley frequently consists of one or more 'armchair-shaped' hollows, or ' cirques ', excavated by the rotational movement downslope of

3240-520: The valley is centred in Ruatoria , though the area contains a large number of small settlements. In the 2006 census , Ruatoria had a population of 756 — down 9.7% since 2001, and 94.8% of its population were Māori , with 46% of the population able to speak te reo Māori . The second largest town, Tikitiki , is the easternmost point on the New Zealand state highway network . The western border of

3300-465: The valley is the Raukumara Range , and has a relief ranging from 500 to 1,500 m (1,600 to 4,900 ft). Moving east, the middle and lower parts of the valley are hilly, with a relief of 100–500 m (330–1,640 ft), and the eastern side is made of lower sets of terraces and floodplains just above sea level. There are many large mountains in the Raukumara Range on the west of

3360-478: The valley, the most prominent of which is Mount Hikurangi , on a spur of the Raukumura Range inland from Ruatoria. At 1,752 m (5,748 ft) above sea level, it is the highest non- volcanic peak in the North Island . Other summits in the area include Whanokao (1,428 m or 4,685 ft), Aorangi (1,272 m or 4,173 ft), Wharekia (1,106 m or 3,629 ft) and Taitai (678 m or 2,224 ft). Together, these mountains provide what Te Ara -

3420-400: Was 37% pasture, 26% exotic Pinus radiata forest, 21% native forest, and about 12% kānuka and mānuka scrub. It was highly degraded and modified, and had extensive and serious erosion problems. About half of the pasture area could be considered erosion-prone and unsustainable. Many of the catchment's rivers were full of sediment, and classed as highly degraded. The Waiapu River had one of

3480-486: Was approached to help the situation, and after that there were no similar drownings. The deforestation and land development of the area, largely planned and managed by non-Maori groups, have had a huge negative impact on Māori. In December 2010, Ngāti Porou signed a settlement deal with the New Zealand Government for various grievances, some of which relate to the Waiapu Valley. The settlement included

3540-414: Was once widespread. Strath signifies a wide valley between hills, the floor of which is either level or slopes gently. A glen is a river valley which is steeper and narrower than a strath. A corrie is a basin-shaped hollow in a mountain. Each of these terms also occurs in parts of the world formerly colonized by Britain . Corrie is used more widely by geographers as a synonym for (glacial) cirque , as

3600-443: Was survived only by Paikea, who called on the sea gods and ancestors to save him. Paikea travelled to New Zealand on the back of a whale, but Ruatapu sent a great flood to kill the survivors in New Zealand, called Te Tai a Ruatapu . Mt. Hikurangi became a refuge for the people from this deluge. The Waiapu River is also of great significance to Ngāti Porou. According to traditional beliefs, they have had an undisturbed relationship with

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