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109-553: Warao use canoes as their main form of transportation. Other modes, such as walking, are hampered by the hundreds of streams, rivulets, marshes, and high waters by the Orinoco River. Warao babies, toddlers, and small children are famed for their ability to hold tight to their mothers' necks, as well as to paddle. They often learn to swim before they learn to walk. The Warao use two types of canoes. Bongos , which carry up to 5 people, are built in an arduous process that starts with

218-523: A 2002 study has supported the protocol of precautionary administration of PEP where a child or mentally compromised individual has been alone with a bat, especially in sleep areas, where a bite or exposure may occur with the victim being unaware. Once rabies develops, death almost certainly follows. Palliative care in a hospital setting is recommended with administration of large doses of pain medication, and sedatives in preference to physical restraint. Ice fragments can be given by mouth for thirst, but there

327-441: A beach empty and clean, the animal having already died. Empty seashells are often picked up by beachcombers. However, the majority of seashells which are offered for sale commercially have been collected alive (often in bulk) and then killed and cleaned, specifically for the commercial trade. This type of large-scale exploitation can sometimes have a strong negative impact on local ecosystems , and sometimes can significantly reduce

436-461: A conjugate, to bind to and allow the visualisation of rabies antigen using fluorescent microscopy techniques. Microscopic analysis of samples is the only direct method that allows for the identification of rabies virus-specific antigen in a short time and at a reduced cost, irrespective of geographical origin and status of the host. It has to be regarded as the first step in diagnostic procedures for all laboratories. Autolysed samples can, however, reduce

545-495: A few Daubenton's bats . There has been one fatal case of EBLV-2 transmission to a human. There have been four deaths from rabies, transmitted abroad by dog bites, since 2000. The last infection in the UK occurred in 1922, and the last death from indigenous rabies was in 1902. Sweden and mainland Norway have been free of rabies since 1886. Bat rabies antibodies (but not the virus) have been found in bats. On Svalbard, animals can cross

654-441: A few live animals, most responsible collectors do not often over-collect or otherwise disturb ecosystems. The study of the entire molluscan animal (as well as the shell) is known as malacology ; a person who studies mollusks is known as a malacologist . Seashells are commonly found in beach drift, which is natural detritus deposited along strandlines on beaches by the waves and the tides . Shells are very often washed up onto

763-473: A few titles on this subject in the US, see the list of books at the foot of this article.) Identifications to the species level are generally achieved by examining illustrations and written descriptions, rather than by the use of Identification keys , as is often the case in identifying plants and other phyla of invertebrates. The construction of functional keys for the identification of the shells of marine mollusks to

872-501: A flexible hinge. The animal's body is held protectively inside these two shells. Bivalves that do not have two shells either have one shell or they lack a shell altogether. The shells are made of calcium carbonate and are formed in layers by secretions from the mantle. Bivalves, also known as pelecypods, are mostly filter feeders; through their gills, they draw in water, in which is trapped tiny food particles. Some bivalves have eyes and an open circulatory system. Bivalves are used all over

981-462: A gastropod seashell is a reference to the sacred chank shell Turbinella pyrum of India. In 2003, Maggi Hambling designed a striking 13 ft (4 m) high sculpture of a scallop shell which stands on the beach at Aldeburgh , in England. The goddess of love, Venus or Aphrodite , is often traditionally depicted rising from the sea on a seashell. In The Birth of Venus , Botticelli depicted

1090-422: A girdle, usually come apart not long after death, so they are almost always found as disarticulated plates. Plates from larger species of chitons are sometimes known as "butterfly shells" because of their shape. Only a few species of cephalopods have shells (either internal or external) that are sometimes found washed up on beaches. Some cephalopods such as Sepia , the cuttlefish, have a large internal shell,

1199-666: A goal of eliminating deaths from rabies by 2030. India has the highest rate of human rabies in the world, primarily because of stray dogs, whose number has greatly increased since a 2001 law forbade the killing of dogs. Effective control and treatment of rabies in India is hindered by a form of mass hysteria known as puppy pregnancy syndrome (PPS). Dog bite victims with PPS, male as well as female, become convinced that puppies are growing inside them, and often seek help from faith healers rather than medical services. An estimated 20,000 people die every year from rabies in India, more than

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1308-409: A hard "test" or shell. After the animal dies, the flesh rots out and the spines fall off, and then fairly often the empty test washes up whole onto a beach, where it can be found by a beachcomber. These tests are fragile and easily broken into pieces. The brachiopods , or lamp shells, superficially resemble clams, but the phylum is not closely related to mollusks. Most lines of brachiopods ended during

1417-494: A larger, rabid animal, and would, therefore, not be carriers. The Virginia opossum (a marsupial, unlike the other mammals named in this paragraph, which are all eutherians / placental ), has a lower internal body temperature than the rabies virus prefers and therefore is resistant but not immune to rabies. Marsupials , along with monotremes ( platypuses and echidnas ), typically have lower body temperatures than similarly sized eutherians . In 2024, reports emerged that rabies

1526-431: A major natural history or zoology museum at some point, however, shells with little or no collecting data are usually of no value to science, and are likely not to be accepted by a major museum. Apart from any damage to the shell that may have happened before it was collected, shells can also suffer damage when they are stored or displayed. For an example of one rather serious kind of damage see Byne's disease . There are

1635-616: A medium of exchange in various places, including many Indian Ocean and Pacific Ocean islands, also in North America, Africa and the Caribbean. Seashells have often been used as tools , because of their strength and the variety of their shapes. Because seashells are in some areas a readily available bulk source of calcium carbonate, shells such as oyster shells are sometimes used as soil conditioners in horticulture . The shells are broken or ground into small pieces in order to have

1744-537: A minority presence in the Surinamese villages of Cupido and Post Utrecht . Seashell A seashell or sea shell , also known simply as a shell , is a hard, protective outer layer usually created by an animal or organism that lives in the sea. Most seashells are made by mollusks , such as snails , clams , and oysters to protect their soft insides. Empty seashells are often found washed up on beaches by beachcombers . The shells are empty because

1853-428: A muscle or nerve cell, the virus undergoes replication. The L protein then transcribes five mRNA strands and a positive strand of RNA all from the original negative strand RNA using free nucleotides in the cytoplasm. These five mRNA strands are then translated into their corresponding proteins (P, L, N, G and M proteins) at free ribosomes in the cytoplasm. Some proteins require post-translational modifications. For example,

1962-457: A number of books about land and freshwater mollusks, the majority of popular books emphasize, or focus exclusively on, the shells of marine mollusks. Both the science of studying mollusk shells and the hobby of collecting and classifying them are known as conchology . The line between professionals and amateur enthusiasts is often not well defined in this subject, because many amateurs have contributed to, and continue to contribute to, conchology and

2071-522: A number of clubs or societies which consist of people who are united by a shared interest in shells. In the US, these clubs are more common in southerly coastal areas, such as Florida and California , where the marine fauna is rich in species. Seashells are usually identified by consulting general or regional shell-collecting field guides , and specific scientific books on different taxa of shell-bearing mollusks ( monographs ) or "iconographies" (limited text – mainly photographs or other illustrations). (For

2180-545: A person with rabies or contact with non-infectious fluid or tissue (urine, blood, feces), does not constitute an exposure and does not require post-exposure prophylaxis. But as the virus is present in sperm and vaginal secretions, it might be possible for rabies to spread through sex. There are only a small number of recorded cases of human-to-human transmission of rabies, and all occurred through organ transplants , most frequently with corneal transplantation , from infected donors. Rabies can be difficult to diagnose because, in

2289-581: A population of people in Peru with a self-reported history of one or more bites from vampire bats (commonly infected with rabies), found that out of 73 individuals reporting previous bat bites, seven people had rabies virus-neutralizing antibodies (rVNA). Since only one member of this group reported prior vaccination for rabies, the findings of the research suggest previously undocumented cases of infection and viral replication followed by an abortive infection. This could indicate that people may have an exposure to

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2398-559: A practice that has successfully reduced rabies in rural areas of Canada , France , and the United States . In Montreal , Quebec, Canada, baits are successfully used on raccoons in the Mount-Royal Park area. Vaccination campaigns may be expensive, but cost-benefit analysis suggests baits may be a cost-effective method of control. In Ontario , a dramatic drop in rabies was recorded when an aerial bait-vaccination campaign

2507-404: A protein present in the cytoplasm of nerve cells. Once the virus reaches the cell body it travels rapidly to the central nervous system (CNS), replicating in motor neurons and eventually reaching the brain. After the brain is infected, the virus travels centrifugally to the peripheral and autonomic nervous systems, eventually migrating to the salivary glands, where it is ready to be transmitted to

2616-440: A set of symptoms in the later stages of an infection in which the person has difficulty swallowing, shows panic when presented with liquids to drink, and cannot quench their thirst. Saliva production is greatly increased, and attempts to drink, or even the intention or suggestion of drinking, may cause excruciatingly painful spasms of the muscles in the throat and larynx . Since the infected individual cannot swallow saliva and water,

2725-401: A site distant from the vaccination site. People who have previously been vaccinated against rabies do not need to receive the immunoglobulin—only the postexposure vaccinations on days 0 and 3. The side effects of modern cell-based vaccines are similar to the side effects of flu shots. The old nerve-tissue-based vaccination required multiple injections into the abdomen with a large needle but

2834-433: A sturdy, and usually readily available, "free" resource which is often easily found on beaches, in the intertidal zone , and in the shallow subtidal zone. As such they are sometimes used second-hand by animals other than humans for various purposes, including for protection (as in hermit crabs ) and for construction. There are numerous popular books and field guides on the subject of shell-collecting. Although there are

2943-541: A teenage girl from Wisconsin , who subsequently became the first human known to have survived rabies without receiving post-exposure prophylaxis before symptom onset. Giese did require extensive rehabilitation afterward, and her balance and neural function remained impaired. The protocol has been enacted on many rabies victims since, but has been adjudged a failure; some survivors of the acute initial phase later died of rabies. Concerns have also been raised about its monetary costs and its ethics. Antiviral therapy to combat

3052-580: A third of the global total. Australia has an official rabies-free status, although Australian bat lyssavirus (ABLV), discovered in 1996, is a rabies-causing virus related to the rabies virus prevalent in Australian native bat populations. Canine-specific rabies has been eradicated in the United States, but rabies is common among wild animals, and an average of 100 dogs become infected from other wildlife each year. High public awareness of

3161-593: A tribe. As of 2021, an estimated 2,500 refugees have settled in Guyana in Warao communities near Mabaruma and Port Kaituma . Whitewater near Maburuma has limited infrastructure, however it does have a recognised local government. About 250 have settled in Anabisi near Port Kaituma which is remote, lacks infrastructure, and has no access to clean water. Anabisi is part of the hunting and fishing grounds of Citrus Grove which

3270-461: A wooden (usually octagonal) hinged box-frame. The patterns used often featured heart-shaped designs, or included a sentimental expression of love spelled out in small shells. The making of shell work artifacts is a practice of Aboriginal women from La Perouse in Sydney , dating back to the 19th century. Shell work objects include baby shoes, jewelry boxes and replicas of famous landmarks, including

3379-465: Is World Rabies Day , which promotes the information, prevention, and elimination of the disease. In Asia and in parts of the Americas and Africa, dogs remain the principal host. Mandatory vaccination of animals is less effective in rural areas. Especially in developing countries, pets may not be privately kept and their destruction may be unacceptable. Oral vaccines can be safely distributed in baits,

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3488-465: Is an example of a viral pathogen modifying the behavior of its host to facilitate its transmission to other hosts. After a typical human infection by bite, the virus enters the peripheral nervous system . It then travels retrograde along the efferent nerves toward the central nervous system . During this phase, the virus cannot be easily detected within the host, and vaccination may still confer cell-mediated immunity to prevent symptomatic rabies. When

3597-459: Is classified as a neglected tropical disease . The global cost of rabies is estimated to be around US$ 8.6 billion per year including lost lives and livelihoods, medical care and associated costs, as well as uncalculated psychological trauma . The name rabies is derived from the Latin rabies , meaning "madness". The Greeks derived the word lyssa , from lud or "violent"; this root is used in

3706-495: Is expensive and makes up most of the cost of post-exposure treatment, ranging as high as several thousand dollars. In the UK, one dose of HRIG costs the National Health Service £1,000, although this is not flagged as a "high-cost medication". A full course of vaccine costs £120–180. As much as possible of HRIG should be injected around the bites, with the remainder being given by deep intramuscular injection at

3815-551: Is felt to be severely threatened. In the summer of 2008, indigenous leaders and researchers from the University of California, Berkeley issued a report detailing the deaths of 38 Warao in the Delta Amacuro state from a mysterious illness. The disease, which causes "partial paralysis , convulsions and an extreme fear of water" is believed to be a form of rabies transmitted by bats . Upon reaching Caracas to inform

3924-414: Is inexpensive. It is being phased out and replaced by affordable World Health Organization intradermal-vaccination regimens. In children less than a year old, the lateral thigh is recommended. Thoroughly washing the wound as soon as possible with soap and water for approximately five minutes is effective in reducing the number of viral particles. Povidone-iodine or alcohol is then recommended to reduce

4033-457: Is no good evidence intravenous hydration is of benefit. A treatment known as the Milwaukee protocol, which involves putting people with rabies symptoms into a chemically induced coma and using antiviral medications in an attempt to protect their brain until their body has had time to produce rabies antibodies, has been occasionally used. It was initially attempted in 2004 on Jeanna Giese,

4142-413: Is packed as a ribonucleoprotein complex in which RNA is tightly bound by the viral nucleoprotein. The RNA genome of the virus encodes five genes whose order is highly conserved: nucleoprotein (N), phosphoprotein (P), matrix protein (M), glycoprotein (G), and the viral RNA polymerase (L). To enter cells, trimeric spikes on the exterior of the membrane of the virus interact with a specific cell receptor,

4251-478: Is spreading in South African seals, possibly making it the first outbreak documented in marine mammals . The virus is usually present in the nerves and saliva of a symptomatic rabid animal. The route of infection is usually, but not always, by a bite. In many cases, the infected animal is exceptionally aggressive, may attack without provocation, and exhibits otherwise uncharacteristic behavior. This

4360-938: The International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN). Large numbers of new species are published in the scientific literature each year. There are currently an estimated 100,000 species of mollusks worldwide. The term seashell is also applied loosely to mollusk shells that are not of marine origin, for example by people walking the shores of lakes and rivers using the term for the freshwater mollusk shells they encounter. Seashells purchased from tourist shops or dealers may include various freshwater and terrestrial shells as well. Non-marine items offered may include large and colorful tropical land snail shells, freshwater apple snail shells, and pearly freshwater unionid mussel shells. This can be confusing to collectors, as non-marine shells are often not included in their reference books. Seashells have been used as

4469-483: The Permian-Triassic extinction event , and their ecological niche was filled by bivalves. A few of the remaining species of brachiopods occur in the low intertidal zone and thus can be found live by beachcombers. Some polychaetes , marine annelid worms in the family Serpulidae , secrete a hard tube made of calcium carbonate, adhering to stones or other shells. This tube resembles, and can be confused with,

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4578-716: The Sydney Harbour Bridge and the Sydney Opera House . The shellwork tradition began as an Aboriginal women's craft which was adapted and tailored to suit the tourist souvenir market, and which is now considered high art. Small pieces of colored and iridescent shell have been used to create mosaics and inlays , which have been used to decorate walls, furniture and boxes. Large numbers of whole seashells, arranged to form patterns, have been used to decorate mirror frames, furniture and human-made shell grottos . A very large outdoor sculpture at Akkulam of

4687-400: The cuttlefish bone , and this often washes up on beaches in parts of the world where cuttlefish are common. Spirula spirula is a deep water squid-like cephalopod. It has an internal shell which is small (about 1 in or 24 mm) but very light and buoyant. This chambered shell floats very well and therefore washes up easily and is familiar to beachcombers in the tropics. Nautilus is

4796-532: The rabies virus and Australian bat lyssavirus . Duvenhage lyssavirus may cause a rabies-like infection. The rabies virus is the type species of the Lyssavirus genus , in the family Rhabdoviridae , order Mononegavirales . Lyssavirions have helical symmetry, with a length of about 180  nm and a cross-section of about 75 nm. These virions are enveloped and have a single-stranded RNA genome with negative sense . The genetic information

4905-469: The G protein travels through the rough endoplasmic reticulum , where it undergoes further folding, and is then transported to the Golgi apparatus , where a sugar group is added to it ( glycosylation ). When there are enough viral proteins, the viral polymerase will begin to synthesize new negative strands of RNA from the template of the positive-strand RNA. These negative strands will then form complexes with

5014-467: The N, P, L and M proteins and then travel to the inner membrane of the cell, where a G protein has embedded itself in the membrane. The G protein then coils around the N-P-L-M complex of proteins taking some of the host cell membrane with it, which will form the new outer envelope of the virus particle. The virus then buds from the cell. From the point of entry, the virus is neurotropic , traveling along

5123-439: The United States to prevent outbreaks of rabies in undomesticated animals. Immunization before exposure has been used in both human and nonhuman populations, where, as in many jurisdictions, domesticated animals are required to be vaccinated. The Missouri Department of Health and Senior Services Communicable Disease Surveillance 2007 Annual Report states the following can help reduce the risk of contracting rabies: 28 September

5232-525: The United States, 62 (70%) were attributed to bats. The most recent rabies death in the United States was in November 2021, where a Texas child was bitten by a bat in late August 2021 but his parents failed to get him treatment. He died less than three months later. Either no or very few cases of rabies are reported each year in Europe; cases are contracted both during travel and in Europe. In Switzerland

5341-460: The animal from which the bite was received should also be examined for rabies. Some light microscopy techniques may also be used to diagnose rabies at a tenth of the cost of traditional fluorescence microscopy techniques, allowing identification of the disease in less-developed countries. A test for rabies, known as LN34, is easier to run on a dead animal's brain and might help determine who does and does not need post-exposure prevention. The test

5450-597: The animal has died and the soft parts have decomposed or been eaten by another organism. A seashell is usually the exoskeleton of an invertebrate (an animal without a backbone), and is typically composed of calcium carbonate or chitin. Most shells that are found on beaches are the shells of marine mollusks, partly because these shells are usually made of calcium carbonate, and endure better than shells made of chitin. Apart from mollusk shells , other shells that can be found on beaches are those of barnacles , horseshoe crabs and brachiopods . Marine annelid worms in

5559-559: The brain and meninges , symptoms can include slight or partial paralysis , anxiety , insomnia , confusion , agitation , abnormal behavior, paranoia , terror , and hallucinations . The person may also have fear of water. The symptoms eventually progress to delirium and coma . Death usually occurs two to ten days after first symptoms. Survival is almost unknown once symptoms have presented, even with intensive care. Rabies has also occasionally been referred to as hydrophobia ("fear of water") throughout its history. It refers to

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5668-504: The class Malacostraca (crabs, shrimps and lobsters, for instance), the plates of the exoskeleton may be fused to form a more or less rigid carapace . Moulted carapaces of a variety of marine malacostraceans often wash up on beaches. The horseshoe crab is an arthropod of the family Limulidae . The shells or exuviae of these arachnid relatives are common in beach drift in certain areas of the world. Some echinoderms such as sea urchins , including heart urchins and sand dollars , have

5777-720: The deaths occurred in Asia and Africa. As of 2015 , India (approximately 20,847), followed by China (approximately 6,000) and the Democratic Republic of the Congo (5,600), had the most cases. A 2015 collaboration between the World Health Organization, World Organization of Animal Health (OIE), Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nation (FAO), and Global Alliance for Rabies Control has

5886-399: The desired effect of raising the pH and increasing the calcium content in the soil. Seashells have played a part in religion and spirituality, sometimes even as ritual objects. Seashells have been used as musical instruments, wind instruments for many hundreds if not thousands of years. Most often the shells of large sea snails are used, as trumpets, by cutting a hole in the spire of

5995-409: The difficulty of choosing to stay with the Warao traditions and life or to leave to gain an education among the "Creoles". The film includes a detailed look at Warao culture and life along the river. Tourism has come to the Warao which brings relative wealth for some. Several individuals have set up rough and ready tourist accommodation in their own homes. They offer canoe trips (hand and power) to see

6104-402: The disease if given within 10 days. The rabies vaccine is 100% effective if given before symptoms of rabies appear. Every year, more than 15 million people get vaccinated after potential exposure. While this works well, the cost is significant. In the US it is recommended people receive one dose of human rabies immunoglobulin (HRIG) and four doses of rabies vaccine over a 14-day period. HRIG

6213-580: The disease was virtually eliminated after scientists placed chicken heads laced with live attenuated vaccine in the Swiss Alps . Foxes, proven to be the main source of rabies in the country, ate the chicken heads and became immunized. Italy, after being declared rabies-free from 1997 to 2008, has witnessed a reemergence of the disease in wild animals in the Triveneto regions ( Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol , Veneto and Friuli-Venezia Giulia ) due to

6322-424: The distance the virus must travel along peripheral nerves to reach the central nervous system . Rabies is caused by lyssaviruses , including the rabies virus and Australian bat lyssavirus . It is spread when an infected animal bites or scratches a human or other animals. Saliva from an infected animal can also transmit rabies if the saliva comes into contact with the eyes, mouth, or nose. Globally, dogs are

6431-421: The distribution of rare species . Seashells are created by the molluscs that use them for protection. Molluscs have an outside layer of tissues on their bodies – the mantle – which creates the shell material and which connects the shell to the mollusc. The specialized cells in the mantle form the shell using different minerals and proteins . The proteins are then used to create the framework that supports

6540-514: The domesticated and cultivated Palm orchards of the delta. In July and August, Warao feast on crabs when they come to the delta from the beach. Hunting is generally avoided due to cultural taboos. They occasionally also eat grubs found in the moriche palm tree. Pith of the palm was also eaten, but contemporary consumption is more likely to have it added as an additional ingredient for cassava bread. The Warao are, according to their own reports, descended from an adventurous heavenly figure —

6649-509: The early stages, it is easily confused with other diseases or even with a simple aggressive temperament. The reference method for diagnosing rabies is the fluorescent antibody test (FAT), an immunohistochemistry procedure, which is recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO). The FAT relies on the ability of a detector molecule (usually fluorescein isothiocyanate) coupled with a rabies-specific antibody, forming

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6758-555: The effects of rabies has also been researched; favipiravir , for example, has shown potential at inhibiting the development of encephalitis. It has been suggested that such therapy in combination with immunotherapy and neuroprotective measures could be beneficial. Vaccination after exposure, PEP, is highly successful in preventing rabies. In unvaccinated humans, rabies is almost certainly fatal after neurological symptoms have developed. In 2010, an estimated 26,000 people died from rabies, down from 54,000 in 1990. The majority of

6867-426: The family Serpulidae create shells which are tubes made of calcium carbonate cemented onto other surfaces. The shells of sea urchins are called " tests ", and the moulted shells of crabs and lobsters are exuviae . While most seashells are external, some cephalopods have internal shells. Seashells have been used by humans for many different purposes throughout history and prehistory. However, seashells are not

6976-531: The first inhabitants of Guyana, predating the arrival of Arawak and Caribs. The Warao of eastern Venezuela's Orinoco first had contact with Europeans when, soon after Christopher Columbus reached the Orinoco river delta, Alonso de Ojeda decided to navigate the river upstream. There, in the delta, Ojeda saw the distinctively stilted Warao huts, balanced over the water. Similar architecture in Sinamaica far to

7085-457: The genus name of the rabies virus, Lyssavirus . The period between infection and the first symptoms (incubation period) is typically one to three months in humans. This period may be as short as four days or longer than six years, depending on the location and severity of the wound and the amount of virus introduced. Initial symptoms of rabies are often nonspecific, such as fever and headache. As rabies progresses and causes inflammation of

7194-401: The goddess Venus rising from the ocean on a scallop shell. Sea shells found in the creek and backwater of the coast of west India are used as an additive to poultry feed. They are crushed and mixed with jowar maize and dry fish. Seashells, namely from bivalves and gastropods, are fundamentally composed of calcium carbonate. In this sense, they have potential to be used as raw material in

7303-570: The government of the outbreak and request assistance, the leaders and researchers were "met with disrespect on every level, as if the deaths of indigenous people are not even worth anything." The Crisis in Venezuela in the early 21st century has resulted into a migration of Warao into neighbouring countries. The refugees in Boa Vista , Brazil are not recognised by the Brazilian government as

7412-527: The growing shell. Calcium carbonate is the main compound of shell structure, aiding in adhesion . The word seashell is often used to mean only the shell of a marine mollusk . Marine mollusk shells that are familiar to beachcombers and thus most likely to be called "seashells" are the shells of marine species of bivalves (or clams ), gastropods (or snails ), scaphopods (or tusk shells ), polyplacophorans (or chitons ), and cephalopods (such as nautilus and spirula ). These shells are very often

7521-492: The hole in the floor made by the bird and looked through. He saw lush and fertile land (Earth) and resolved to descend to it to partake of its pleasures: beauty, abundant game, fruit, et cetera. The hunter took a long rope of heavenly cotton, tied it to a tree, and threw it through the hole and lowered himself through the clouds to what is now Earth, forsaking his sky world. The Warao have shamans, who perform music such as rain dances and songs. The Warao have been considered to be

7630-658: The larger science of malacology . Many shell collectors belong to "shell clubs" where they can meet others who share their interests. A large number of amateurs collect the shells of marine mollusks, and this is partly because many shells wash up empty on beaches, or live in the intertidal or sub-tidal zones, and are therefore easily found and preserved without much in the way of specialized equipment or expensive supplies. Some shell collectors find their own material and keep careful records, or buy only "specimen shells", which means shells which have full collecting data : information including how, when, where, in what habitat, and by whom,

7739-521: The most common animal involved. In countries where dogs commonly have the disease, more than 99% of rabies cases in humans are the direct result of dog bites . In the Americas , bat bites are the most common source of rabies infections in humans, and less than 5% of cases are from dogs. Rodents are very rarely infected with rabies. The disease can be diagnosed only after the start of symptoms. Animal control and vaccination programs have decreased

7848-414: The most common seashells that wash up on large sandy beaches or in sheltered lagoons . They can sometimes be extremely numerous. Very often the two valves become separated. There are more than 15,000 species of bivalves that live in both marine and freshwater. Examples of bivalves are clams, scallops, mussels, and oysters. The majority of bivalves consist of two identical shells that are held together by

7957-399: The most commonly encountered, both in the wild, and for sale as decorative objects. Marine species of gastropods and bivalves are more numerous than land and freshwater species, and the shells are often larger and more robust. The shells of marine species also often have more sculpture and more color, although this is by no means always the case. In the tropical and sub-tropical areas of

8066-401: The most likely one being the acetylcholine receptor. The cellular membrane pinches in a procession known as pinocytosis and allows entry of the virus into the cell by way of an endosome . The virus then uses the acidic environment, which is necessary, of that endosome and binds to its membrane simultaneously, releasing its five proteins and single-strand RNA into the cytoplasm. Once within

8175-399: The mouth" effect, caused by the accumulation of saliva, is also commonly associated with rabies in the public perception and in popular culture. The remaining 20% may experience a paralytic form of rabies that is marked by muscle weakness , loss of sensation, and paralysis ; this form of rabies does not usually cause fear of water. Rabies is caused by a number of lyssaviruses including

8284-459: The neural pathways into the central nervous system . The virus usually first infects muscle cells close to the site of infection, where they are able to replicate without being 'noticed' by the host's immune system. Once enough virus has been replicated, they begin to bind to acetylcholine receptors at the neuromuscular junction. The virus then travels through the nerve cell axon via retrograde transport , as its P protein interacts with dynein ,

8393-513: The next host. All warm-blooded species, including humans, may become infected with the rabies virus and develop symptoms. Birds were first artificially infected with rabies in 1884; however, infected birds are largely, if not wholly, asymptomatic, and recover. Other bird species have been known to develop rabies antibodies , a sign of infection, after feeding on rabies-infected mammals. The virus has also adapted to grow in cells of cold-blooded vertebrates. Most animals can be infected by

8502-399: The only genus of cephalopod that has a well-developed external shell. Females of the cephalopod genus Argonauta create a papery egg case which sometimes washes up on tropical beaches and is referred to as a "paper nautilus". The largest group of shelled cephalopods, the ammonites , are extinct, but their shells are very common in certain areas as fossils . Empty molluscan seashells are

8611-455: The only kind of shells; in various habitats, there are shells from freshwater animals such as freshwater mussels and freshwater snails , and shells of land snails . When the word "seashells" refers only to the shells of marine mollusks, then studying seashells is part of conchology . Conchologists or serious collectors who have a scientific bias are in general careful not to disturb living populations and habitats: even though they may collect

8720-422: The person receives the treatment before the start of rabies symptoms. Washing bites and scratches for 15 minutes with soap and water, povidone-iodine , or detergent may reduce the number of viral particles and may be somewhat effective at preventing transmission. As of 2016 , only fourteen people were documented to have survived a rabies infection after showing symptoms. However, research conducted in 2010 among

8829-695: The planet, there are far more species of colorful, large, shallow water shelled marine mollusks than there are in the temperate zones and the regions closer to the poles. Although there are a number of species of shelled mollusks that are quite large, there are vast numbers of extremely small species too, see micromollusks . Not all mollusks are marine. There are numerous land and freshwater mollusks, see for example snail and freshwater bivalves . In addition, not all mollusks have an external shell: some mollusks such as some cephalopods (squid and octopuses) have an internal shell, and many mollusks have no shell, see for example slug and nudibranch . Bivalves are often

8938-430: The primordial hunter. This man originally dwelt in a sky world which had men, but was completely devoid of all animals except birds. Hunting these heavenly birds, the founding man used his bow and arrow to strike a bird in mid-air. The bird fell from the sky and eventually hit the heavenly floor. The birds burst through the floor and proceeded through the clouds and towards terrestrial land ( Earth ) below. The hunter went to

9047-584: The production of lime . Along the Gulf Coast of the United States , oyster shells were mixed into cement to make "shellcrete" which could form bricks, blocks and platforms. It could also be applied over logs. A notable example is the 19th-century Sabine Pass Lighthouse in Louisiana, near Texas. Many arthropods have sclerites , or hardened body parts, which form a stiff exoskeleton made up mostly of chitin . In crustaceans , especially those of

9156-405: The risk of rabies from dogs in a number of regions of the world. Immunizing people before they are exposed is recommended for those at high risk, including those who work with bats or who spend prolonged periods in areas of the world where rabies is common. In people who have been exposed to rabies, the rabies vaccine and sometimes rabies immunoglobulin are effective in preventing the disease if

9265-400: The search for large trees. When an old bongo is no longer usable, a consensus is reached by the leaders of each household on which tree is best. At the start of the dry season, they find the tree and kill it. At the end of the dry season, they return to cut it down. It is then hollowed out and flattened with fire and stone tools traded from the mountains (or local shell tools). Traditionally,

9374-614: The sensitivity and specificity of the FAT. The RT PCR assays proved to be a sensitive and specific tool for routine diagnostic purposes, particularly in decomposed samples or archival specimens. The diagnosis can be reliably made from brain samples taken after death. The diagnosis can also be made from saliva, urine, and cerebrospinal fluid samples, but this is not as sensitive or reliable as brain samples. Cerebral inclusion bodies called Negri bodies are 100% diagnostic for rabies infection but are found in only about 80% of cases. If possible,

9483-520: The shell of marine gastropod mollusks in the family Vermetidae , the worm snails. A few other categories of marine animals leave remains which might be considered "seashells" in the widest possible sense of the word. Rabies Rabies is a viral disease that causes encephalitis in humans and other mammals . It was historically referred to as hydrophobia ("fear of water") because its victims would panic when offered liquids to drink. Early symptoms can include fever and abnormal sensations at

9592-549: The shell or cutting off the tip of the spire altogether. Various different kinds of large marine gastropod shells can be turned into "blowing shells"; however, the most commonly encountered species used as " conch " trumpets are: Children in some cultures are often told the myth that you can hear the sound of the ocean by holding a seashell to ones ear. This is due to the effect of seashell resonance . Whole seashells or parts of sea shells have been used as jewelry or in other forms of adornment since prehistoric times. Mother of pearl

9701-446: The shells were collected. On the other hand, some collectors buy the more widely available commercially imported exotic shells, the majority of which have very little data, or none at all. To museum scientists, having full collecting data (when, where, and by whom it was collected) with a specimen is far more important than having the shell correctly identified. Some owners of shell collections hope to be able to donate their collection to

9810-500: The site of exposure. These symptoms are followed by one or more of the following symptoms: nausea, vomiting, violent movements, uncontrolled excitement, fear of water, an inability to move parts of the body, confusion, and loss of consciousness . Once symptoms appear, the result is virtually always death. The time period between contracting the disease and the start of symptoms is usually one to three months but can vary from less than one week to more than one year. The time depends on

9919-570: The species level can be very difficult, because of the great variability within many species and families. The identification of certain individual species is often very difficult, even for a specialist in that particular family. Some species cannot be differentiated on the basis of shell character alone. Numerous smaller and more obscure mollusk species (see micromollusk ) are yet to be discovered and named. In other words, they have not yet been differentiated from similar species and assigned scientific (binomial) names in articles in journals recognized by

10028-465: The spreading of an epidemic in the Balkans that also affected Austria. An extensive wild animal vaccination campaign eliminated the virus from Italy again, and it regained the rabies-free country status in 2013, the last reported case of rabies being reported in a red fox in early 2011. The United Kingdom has been free of rabies since the early 20th century except for a rabies-like virus (EBLV-2) in

10137-878: The virus and can transmit the disease to humans. Worldwide, about 99% of human rabies cases come from domestic dogs. Other sources of rabies in humans include bats , monkeys , raccoons , foxes , skunks , cattle , wolves , coyotes , cats , and mongooses (normally either the small Asian mongoose or the yellow mongoose). Rabies may also spread through exposure to infected bears , domestic farm animals , groundhogs , weasels , and other wild carnivorans . However, lagomorphs , such as hares and rabbits , and small rodents , such as chipmunks , gerbils , guinea pigs , hamsters , mice , rats , and squirrels , are almost never found to be infected with rabies and are not known to transmit rabies to humans. Bites from mice, rats, or squirrels rarely require rabies prevention because these rodents are typically killed by any encounter with

10246-414: The virus further. Awakening to find a bat in the room, or finding a bat in the room of a previously unattended child or mentally disabled or intoxicated person, is an indication for post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP). The recommendation for the precautionary use of PEP in bat encounters where no contact is recognized has been questioned in the medical literature, based on a cost–benefit analysis . However,

10355-399: The virus has a much higher chance of being transmitted, because it multiplies and accumulates in the salivary glands and is transmitted through biting. Hydrophobia is commonly associated with furious rabies, which affects 80% of rabies-infected people. This form of rabies causes irrational aggression in the host, which aids in the spreading of the virus through animal bites; a "foaming at

10464-576: The virus reaches the brain , it rapidly causes encephalitis , the prodromal phase, which is the beginning of the symptoms. Once the patient becomes symptomatic, treatment is almost never effective and mortality is over 99%. Rabies may also inflame the spinal cord , producing transverse myelitis . Although it is theoretically possible for rabies-infected humans to transmit it to others by biting or otherwise, no such cases have ever been documented, because infected humans are usually hospitalized and necessary precautions taken. Casual contact, such as touching

10573-643: The virus without treatment and develop natural antibodies as a result. Rabies causes about 59,000 deaths worldwide per year, about 40% of which are in children under the age of 15. More than 95% of human deaths from rabies occur in Africa and Asia. Rabies is present in more than 150 countries and on all continents but Antarctica. More than 3 billion people live in regions of the world where rabies occurs. A number of countries, including Australia and Japan, as well as much of Western Europe, do not have rabies among dogs. Many Pacific islands do not have rabies at all. It

10682-400: The virus, efforts at vaccination of domestic animals and curtailment of feral populations, and availability of postexposure prophylaxis have made rabies very rare in humans in the United States. From 1960 to 2018, a total of 125 such cases were reported in the United States; of them, 36 (28%) were attributed to dog bites suffered during international travel. Among the 89 infections acquired in

10791-420: The west had been likened to Venice , with its famous canals below and buildings above; this new encounter propagated the name of Venezuela ("little Venice") for the whole land. The inaccessibility of the Warao's lands makes access to health care difficult. Tuberculosis is common. The Orinoco delta has minimal infrastructure, no sanitation, and limited education resulting in a high degree of illiteracy. HIV

10900-552: The wild life of the delta, also a chance to experience their traditional life and culture. These visits can be arranged in the state capital town of Tucupita through one of many travel agents. The majority of Warao live in the Orinoco Delta in Venezuela. There are approximately 364 villages in the delta. The main town is Curiapo . About 5,000 live in the border area of Guyana . The main villages are Assakata , Kamwatta Hill , Koriabo , and Whitewater . The Warao have

11009-473: The work of making the larger canoes by the young men is done with instructions from the elder female of the household, handed down by her daughters to their husbands. The other type of canoe is small, seating only three people, and is used for daily travel to and from food sources. The Warao diet is varied with an emphasis on the products of the delta, mostly fish. By 1500 they had acquired basic horticulture ; many of their daily fruits and vegetables come from

11118-603: The world as food and as a source of pearls. The larvae of some freshwater mussels can be dangerous to fish and can bore through wood. Shell Beach, Western Australia , is a beach which is entirely made up of the shells of the cockle Fragum erugatum . Certain species of gastropod seashells (the shells of sea snails ) can sometimes be common, washed up on sandy beaches, and also on beaches that are surrounded by rocky marine habitat. Chiton plates or valves often wash up on beaches in rocky areas where chitons are common. Chiton shells, which are composed of eight separate plates and

11227-667: Was developed by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in 2018. The differential diagnosis in a case of suspected human rabies may initially include any cause of encephalitis , in particular infection with viruses such as herpesviruses , enteroviruses , and arboviruses such as West Nile virus . The most important viruses to rule out are herpes simplex virus type one, varicella zoster virus , and (less commonly) enteroviruses, including coxsackieviruses , echoviruses , polioviruses , and human enteroviruses 68 to 71. New causes of viral encephalitis are also possible, as

11336-661: Was developed in 1885 by Louis Pasteur and Émile Roux . Their original vaccine was harvested from infected rabbits, from which the virus in the nerve tissue was weakened by allowing it to dry for five to ten days. Similar nerve tissue-derived vaccines are still used in some countries, as they are much cheaper than modern cell culture vaccines. The human diploid cell rabies vaccine was started in 1967. Less expensive purified chicken embryo cell vaccine and purified vero cell rabies vaccine are now available. A recombinant vaccine called V-RG has been used in Belgium, France, Germany, and

11445-455: Was evidenced by the 1999 outbreak in Malaysia of 300 cases of encephalitis with a mortality rate of 40% caused by Nipah virus , a newly recognized paramyxovirus . Likewise, well-known viruses may be introduced into new locales, as is illustrated by the outbreak of encephalitis due to West Nile virus in the eastern United States. Almost all human exposure to rabies was fatal until a vaccine

11554-477: Was first detected in 2007 in the Warao communities of the lower Orinoco Delta region of Venezuela. In some communities already 35% test positive for the HIV virus . With Venezuela's failing health care system, there is an absence of prevention programs; this, together, with severe language barriers — many Warao are illiterate and do not speak fluent Spanish — have allowed ignorance about the disease to flourish. The culture

11663-486: Was historically primarily a seashell product, although more recently some mother of pearl comes from freshwater mussels. Also see pearl . " Sailor's Valentines " were late 19th-century decorative keepsakes which were made from the Caribbean, and which were often purchased by sailors to give to their loved ones back home for example in England. These valentines consisted of elaborate arrangements of small seashells glued into attractive symmetrical designs, which were encased on

11772-440: Was launched. The number of recorded human deaths from rabies in the United States has dropped from 100 or more annually in the early 20th century to one or two per year because of widespread vaccination of domestic dogs and cats and the development of human vaccines and immunoglobulin treatments. Most deaths now result from bat bites, which may go unnoticed by the victim and hence untreated. Treatment after exposure can prevent

11881-507: Was originally home to Warao and Kalina people , however manganese was discovered in the 1950s, and is not an Amerindian village, because of a mixed population. In April 2017, The Museum of Modern Art in New York presented a film by Cuban-Venezuelan director Mario Crespo with a cast of nonprofessional actors. The film, titled Dauna. Lo que lleva el río ( Gone with the River ), presents

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