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110-737: The West Offaly Power Station was a large peat-fired 135 MW power station in Shannonbridge from 2005 to 2020, in the Republic of Ireland . The station was capable of generating up to 153 MWe of power, thus ranking as the largest peat-fired power station in the country. The power station was constructed adjacent to (and as a replacement of) the ageing 125 MWe peat Shannonbridge Power Station, which operated in stages from 1965 to 2003, and demolished in 2005. The Station directly employed approx forty full-time with additional contract and part-time staff. The Station further supports employment in

220-604: A consequence of changes in physical and chemical compositions. The change in soil strongly affects the sensitive vegetation and forest die-off is common. The short-term effect is a decrease in biodiversity but the long-term effect, since these encroachments are hard to reverse, is a loss of habitat. Poor knowledge about peatlands' sensitive hydrology and lack of nutrients often lead to failing plantations, resulting in increasing pressure on remaining peatlands. Tropical peatland vegetation varies with climate and location. Three different characterizations are mangrove woodlands present in

330-506: A form of erosion that occur at the sides of gullies that cut into the peat; they sometimes also occur in isolation. Hags may result when flowing water cuts downwards into the peat and when fire or overgrazing exposes the peat surface. Once the peat is exposed in these ways, it is prone to further erosion by wind, water and livestock. The result is overhanging vegetation and peat. Hags are too steep and unstable for vegetation to establish itself, so they continue to erode unless restorative action

440-687: A greater carbon sequestration capacity. The carbon sequestration abilities of wetlands can be improved through restoration and protection strategies, but it takes several decades for these restored ecosystems to become comparable in carbon storage to peatlands and other forms of natural wetlands. Studies highlight the critical role of peatlands in biodiversity conservation and hydrological stability. These ecosystems are unique habitats for diverse species , including specific insects and amphibians , and act as natural water reservoirs , releasing water during dry periods to sustain nearby freshwater ecosystems and agriculture . The exchange of carbon between

550-424: A net cooling effect on the atmosphere. The water table position of a peatland is the main control of its carbon release to the atmosphere. When the water table rises after a rainstorm, the peat and its microbes are submerged under water inhibiting access to oxygen, reducing CO 2 release via respiration. Carbon dioxide release increases when the water table falls lower, such as during a drought, as this increases

660-450: A peatland can be dry). A peatland that is still capable of forming new peat is called a mire , while drained and converted peatlands might still have a peat layer but are not considered mires as the formation of new peat has ceased. There are two types of mire: bog and fen . A bog is a mire that, due to its raised location relative to the surrounding landscape, obtains all its water solely from precipitation ( ombrotrophic ). A fen

770-419: A quarter of global peatland area. This involves cutting drainage ditches to lower the water table with the intended purpose of enhancing the productivity of forest cover or for use as pasture or cropland. Agricultural uses for mires include the use of natural vegetation for hay crop or grazing, or the cultivation of crops on a modified surface. In addition, the commercial extraction of peat for energy production

880-649: A result of developing land use and agriculture. During the El Niño -event in 1997–1998 more than 24,400 km of peatland was lost to fires in Indonesia alone from which 10,000 km was burnt in Kalimantan and Sumatra. The output of CO 2 was estimated to 0.81–2.57 Gt, equal to 13–40% of that year's global output from fossil fuel burning. Indonesia is now considered the third-biggest contributor to global CO 2 emissions, caused primarily by these fires. With

990-496: A result of peat drainage, the organic carbon—which built over thousands of years and is normally underwater—is suddenly exposed to the air. It decomposes and turns into carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), which is released into the atmosphere. The global CO 2 emissions from drained peatlands have increased from 1,058 Mton in 1990 to 1,298 Mton in 2008 (a 20% increase). This increase has particularly taken place in developing countries, of which Indonesia , Malaysia and Papua New Guinea are

1100-561: A severe fire can release up to 4,000 t of CO 2 /ha. Burning events in tropical peatlands are becoming more frequent due to large-scale drainage and land clearance and in the past ten years, more than 2 million hectares was burnt in Southeast Asia alone. These fires last typically for 1–3 months and release large amounts of CO 2 . Indonesia is one of the countries suffering from peatland fires, especially during years with ENSO -related drought, an increasing problem since 1982 as

1210-464: A small atmospheric carbon dioxide sink through the photosynthesis of peat vegetation, which outweighs their release of greenhouse gases. On the other hand, most mires are generally net emitters of methane and nitrous oxide. Due to the continued CO 2 sequestration over millennia, and because of the longer atmospheric lifespan of the CO 2 molecules compared with methane and nitrous oxide, peatlands have had

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1320-490: A small increase in carbon dioxide uptake, meaning that it contributes to the permafrost carbon feedback . Under 2 °C global warming , 0.7 million km of peatland permafrost could thaw, and with warming of +1.5 to 6 °C a cumulative 0.7 to 3 PgC of methane could be released as a result of permafrost peatland thaw by 2100. The forcing from these potential emissions would be approximately equivalent to 1% of projected anthropogenic emissions. One characteristic of peat

1430-477: A substantial amount of organic matter, where humic acid dominates. Humic materials are able to store very large amounts of water, making them an essential component in the peat environment, contributing to an increased amount of carbon storage due to the resulting anaerobic condition. If the peatland is dried from long-term cultivation and agricultural use, it will lower the water table and the increased aeration will subsequently release carbon. Upon extreme drying,

1540-539: A tenth of the total permafrost area, and also a tenth (185 ± 66 Gt) of all permafrost carbon, equivalent to around half of the carbon stored in the atmosphere. Dry peat is a good insulator (with a thermal conductivity of around 0.25 Wm K ) and therefore plays an important role in protecting permafrost from thaw. The insulating effect of dry peat also makes it integral to unique permafrost landforms such as palsas and permafrost peat plateaus. Peatland permafrost thaw tends to result in an increase in methane emissions and

1650-490: A warming climate these burnings are expected to increase in intensity and number. This is a result of a dry climate together with an extensive rice farming project, called the Mega Rice Project , started in the 1990s, which converted 1 Mha of peatlands to rice paddies . Forest and land was cleared by burning and 4000 km of channels drained the area. Drought and acidification of the lands led to bad harvest and

1760-433: A way that preserves the hydrological state of a mire, the anthropogenic use of mires' resources can avoid significant greenhouse gas emissions . However, continued drainage will result in increased release of carbon, contributing to global warming. As of 2016, it was estimated that drained peatlands account for around 10% of all greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture and forestry. Palm oil has increasingly become one of

1870-545: Is blanket bog where precipitation is very high i.e., in maritime climates inland near the coasts of the north-east and south Pacific, and the north-west and north-east Atlantic. In the sub-tropics, mires are rare and restricted to the wettest areas. Mires can be extensive in the tropics, typically underlying tropical rainforest (for example, in Kalimantan , the Congo Basin and Amazon basin ). Tropical peat formation

1980-554: Is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Peat Peatlands, particularly bogs , are the primary source of peat; although less common, other wetlands, including fens , pocosins and peat swamp forests , also deposit peat. Landscapes covered in peat are home to specific kinds of plants, including Sphagnum moss, ericaceous shrubs and sedges . Because organic matter accumulates over thousands of years, peat deposits provide records of past vegetation and climate by preserving plant remains, such as pollen. This allows

2090-671: Is a common practice to forest used peat bogs instead of giving them a chance to renew. This leads to lower levels of CO 2 storage than the original peat bog. Mire#Management and rehabilitation A peatland is a type of wetland whose soils consist of organic matter from decaying plants, forming layers of peat . Peatlands arise because of incomplete decomposition of organic matter, usually litter from vegetation, due to water-logging and subsequent anoxia . Peatlands are unusual landforms that derive mostly from biological rather than physical processes, and can take on characteristic shapes and surface patterning. The formation of peatlands

2200-435: Is actively forming peat is called a mire . All types of mires share the common characteristic of being saturated with water, at least seasonally with actively forming peat , while having their own ecosystem. Peatlands are the largest natural carbon store on land. Covering around 3 million km globally, they sequester 0.37 gigatons (Gt) of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) a year. Peat soils store over 600 Gt of carbon, more than

2310-487: Is also reported that peat regrowth takes place only in 30–40% of peatlands. Centuries of burning and draining of peat by humans has released a significant amount of CO 2 into the atmosphere, and much peatland restoration is needed to help limit climate change . Peat forms when plant material does not fully decay in acidic and anaerobic conditions. It is composed mainly of wetland vegetation: principally bog plants including mosses , sedges and shrubs. As it accumulates,

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2420-477: Is available in considerable quantities. It is burned to produce heat and electricity . Peat provides around 4% of Finland's annual energy production. Also, agricultural and forestry-drained peat bogs actively release more CO 2 annually than is released in peat energy production in Finland. The average regrowth rate of a single peat bog, however, is indeed slow, from 1,000 up to 5,000 years. Furthermore, it

2530-551: Is cut by hand and left to dry in the sun. In many countries, including Ireland and Scotland , peat was traditionally stacked to dry in rural areas and used for cooking and domestic heating. This tradition can be traced back to the Roman period. For industrial uses, companies may use pressure to extract water from the peat, which is soft and easily compressed. In Sweden, farmers use dried peat to absorb excrement from cattle that are wintered indoors. The most essential property of peat

2640-423: Is either fibric, hemic, or sapric. Fibric peats are the least decomposed and consist of intact fibre. Hemic peats are partially decomposed and sapric are the most decomposed. Phragmites peat are composed of reed grass, Phragmites australis , and other grasses. It is denser than many other types of peat. Engineers may describe a soil as peat which has a relatively high percentage of organic material. This soil

2750-411: Is especially prevalent in the tropics. Peatlands release the greenhouse gas methane which has strong global warming potential . However, subtropical wetlands have shown high CO 2 binding per mol of released methane, which is a function that counteracts global warming. Tropical peatlands are suggested to contain about 100 Gt carbon, corresponding to more than 50% of the carbon present as CO 2 in

2860-597: Is estimated that in 1997, peat and forest fires in Indonesia released between 0.81 and 2.57 gigatonnes (0.89 and 2.83 billion short tons; 0.80 and 2.53 billion long tons) of carbon; equivalent to 13–40 percent of the amount released by global fossil fuel burning, and greater than the carbon uptake of the world's biosphere. These fires may be responsible for the acceleration in the increase in carbon dioxide levels since 1998. More than 100 peat fires in Kalimantan and East Sumatra have continued to burn since 1997; each year, these peat fires ignite new forest fires above

2970-496: Is estimated to be between the equivalent of 12.4 (best case) to 76.6 t CO 2 /ha (worst case). Tropical peatland converted to palm oil plantation can remain a net source of carbon to the atmosphere after 12 years. In their natural state, peatlands are resistant to fire. Drainage of peatlands for palm oil plantations creates a dry layer of flammable peat. As peat is carbon dense, fires occurring in compromised peatlands release extreme amounts of both carbon dioxide and toxic smoke into

3080-544: Is found in the temperate, boreal and subarctic zones of the Northern Hemisphere. Mires are usually shallow in polar regions because of the slow rate of accumulation of dead organic matter, and often contain permafrost and palsas . Very large swathes of Canada, northern Europe and northern Russia are covered by boreal mires. In temperate zones mires are typically more scattered due to historical drainage and peat extraction, but can cover large areas. One example

3190-616: Is known to occur in coastal mangroves as well as in areas of high altitude. Tropical mires largely form where high precipitation is combined with poor conditions for drainage. Tropical mires account for around 11% of peatlands globally (more than half of which can be found in Southeast Asia), and are most commonly found at low altitudes, although they can also be found in mountainous regions, for example in South America, Africa and Papua New Guinea . Indonesia, particularly on

3300-427: Is located on a slope, flat, or in a depression and gets most of its water from the surrounding mineral soil or from groundwater ( minerotrophic ). Thus, while a bog is always acidic and nutrient-poor, a fen may be slightly acidic, neutral, or alkaline, and either nutrient-poor or nutrient-rich. All mires are initially fens when the peat starts to form, and may turn into bogs once the height of the peat layer reaches above

3410-534: Is oxidised by methanotrophs above the water table level. Therefore, changes in water table level influence the size of these methane production and consumption zones. Increased soil temperatures also contribute to increased seasonal methane flux. A study in Alaska found that methane may vary by as much as 300% seasonally with wetter and warmer soil conditions due to climate change. Peatlands are important for studying past climate because they are sensitive to changes in

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3520-527: Is oxidised quickly and removed from the atmosphere whereas atmospheric carbon dioxide is continuously absorbed. Throughout the Holocene (the past 12,000 years), peatlands have been persistent terrestrial carbon sinks and have had a net cooling effect, sequestering 5.6 to 38 grams of carbon per square metre per year. On average, it has been estimated that today northern peatlands sequester 20 to 30 grams of carbon per square metre per year. Peatlands insulate

3630-399: Is primarily controlled by climatic conditions such as precipitation and temperature, although terrain relief is a major factor as waterlogging occurs more easily on flatter ground and in basins. Peat formation typically initiates as a paludification of a mineral soil forests, terrestrialisation of lakes, or primary peat formation on bare soils on previously glaciated areas. A peatland that

3740-483: Is problematic because it exhibits poor consolidation properties—it cannot be easily compacted to serve as a stable foundation to support loads, such as roads or buildings. In a widely cited article, Joosten and Clarke (2002) described peatlands or mires (which they say are the same) as the most widespread of all wetland types in the world, representing 50 to 70% of global wetlands. They cover over 4 million square kilometres [1.5 million square miles] or 3% of

3850-506: Is retaining moisture in container soil when it is dry while preventing the excess water from killing roots when it is wet. Peat can store nutrients although it is not fertile itself—it is polyelectrolytic with a high ion-exchange capacity due to its oxidized lignin. Peat is discouraged as a soil amendment by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew , England, since 2003. While bark or coir -based peat-free potting soil mixes are on

3960-635: Is sometimes used in freshwater aquaria . It is seen most commonly in soft water or blackwater river systems such as those mimicking the Amazon River basin. In addition to being soft and therefore suitable for demersal (bottom-dwelling) species such as Corydoras catfish, peat is reported to have many other beneficial functions in freshwater aquaria. It softens water by acting as an ion exchanger ; it also contains substances that are beneficial for plants and fishes' reproductive health. Peat can prevent algae growth and kill microorganisms. Peat often stains

4070-585: Is stored in living plants, dead plants and peat, as well as converted to carbon dioxide and methane. Three main factors give wetlands the ability to sequester and store carbon: high biological productivity, high water table and low decomposition rates. Suitable meteorological and hydrological conditions are necessary to provide an abundant water source for the wetland. Fully water-saturated wetland soils allow anaerobic conditions to manifest, storing carbon but releasing methane. Wetlands make up about 5-8% of Earth's terrestrial land surface but contain about 20-30% of

4180-769: Is taken. In June 2002, the United Nations Development Programme launched the Wetlands Ecosystem and Tropical Peat Swamp Forest Rehabilitation Project. This project was targeted to last for five years, and brings together the efforts of various non-government organisations. In November 2002, the International Peatland (formerly Peat) Society (IPS) and the International Mire Conservation Group (IMCG) published guidelines on

4290-565: Is the average depth of the boreal [northern] peatlands", which store around 415 gigatonnes (Gt) of carbon (about 46 times 2019 global CO 2 emissions). Globally, peat stores up to 550 Gt of carbon, 42% of all soil carbon , which exceeds the carbon stored in all other vegetation types, including the world's forests, although it covers just 3% of the land's surface. Peat is not a renewable source of energy , due to its extraction rate in industrialized countries far exceeding its slow regrowth rate of 1 mm (0.04 in) per year, and as it

4400-401: Is the bioaccumulation of metals concentrated in the peat. Accumulated mercury is of significant environmental concern. Large areas of organic wetland (peat) soils are currently drained for agriculture, forestry and peat extraction (i.e. through canals ). This process is taking place all over the world. This not only destroys the habitat of many species but also heavily fuels climate change. As

4510-407: Is the most efficient carbon sink on the planet , because peatland plants capture carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) naturally released from the peat, maintaining an equilibrium. In natural peatlands, the "annual rate of biomass production is greater than the rate of decomposition", but it takes "thousands of years for peatlands to develop the deposits of 1.5 to 2.3 m [4.9 to 7.5 ft], which

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4620-451: Is therefore vulnerable to changes in hydrology or vegetation cover. These peatlands are mostly located in developing regions with impoverished and rapidly growing populations. These lands have become targets for commercial logging , paper pulp production and conversion to plantations through clear-cutting , drainage and burning. Drainage of tropical peatlands alters the hydrology and increases their susceptibility to fire and soil erosion, as

4730-584: Is widely practiced in Northern European countries, such as Russia, Sweden, Finland, Ireland and the Baltic states . Tropical peatlands comprise 0.25% of Earth's terrestrial land surface but store 3% of all soil and forest carbon stocks. The use of this land by humans, including draining and harvesting of tropical peat forests, results in the emission of large amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. In addition, fires occurring on peatland dried by

4840-456: The "Wise Use of Mires and Peatlands – Backgrounds and Principles including a framework for decision-making" . This publication aims to develop mechanisms that can balance the conflicting demands on the global peatland heritage to ensure its wise use to meet the needs of humankind. In June 2008, the IPS published the book Peatlands and Climate Change , summarising the currently available knowledge on

4950-819: The Falkland Islands and Indonesia ( Kalimantan [Sungai Putri, Danau Siawan, Sungai Tolak], Rasau Jaya ( West Kalimantan ) and Sumatra ). Indonesia has more tropical peatlands and mangrove forests than any other nation on earth, but Indonesia is losing wetlands by 100,000 hectares (250,000 acres) per year. A catalog of the peat research collection at the University of Minnesota Duluth provides references to research on worldwide peat and peatlands. About 7% of all peatlands have been exploited for agriculture and forestry . Under certain conditions, peat will turn into lignite coal over geologic periods of time. Peat can be used as fuel once dried. Traditionally, peat

5060-933: The West Siberian Lowland , the Hudson Bay Lowlands and the Mackenzie River Valley. There is less peat in the Southern Hemisphere, in part because there is less land. The world's largest tropical peatland is located in Africa (the Democratic Republic of Congo). In addition, the vast Magellanic Moorland in South America (Southern Patagonia / Tierra del Fuego ) is an extensive peat-dominated landscape. Peat can be found in New Zealand , Kerguelen ,

5170-565: The permafrost in subarctic regions, thus delaying thawing during summer, as well as inducing the formation of permafrost. As the global climate continues to warm, wetlands could become major carbon sources as higher temperatures cause higher carbon dioxide emissions. Compared with untilled cropland, wetlands can sequester around two times the carbon. Carbon sequestration can occur in constructed wetlands as well as natural ones. Estimates of greenhouse gas fluxes from wetlands indicate that natural wetlands have lower fluxes, but man-made wetlands have

5280-597: The tanning properties of the acidic water, as well as by the antibiotic properties of the organic component sphagnan. A famous example is the Tollund Man in Denmark. Having been discovered in 1950 after being mistaken for a recent murder victim, he was exhumed for scientific purposes and dated to have lived during the 4th century BC. Before that, another bog body, the Elling Woman , had been discovered in 1938 in

5390-690: The Central Congo Basin , covering 145,500 km and storing up to 10 kg of carbon. The total area of mires has declined globally due to drainage for agriculture, forestry and peat harvesting. For example, more than 50% of the original European mire area which is more than 300,000 km has been lost. Some of the largest losses have been in Russia, Finland, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, Poland and Belarus. A catalog of

5500-635: The Northern Hemisphere. Peatlands are estimated to cover around 3% of the globe's surface, although estimating the extent of their cover worldwide is difficult due to the varying accuracy and methodologies of land surveys from many countries. Mires occur wherever conditions are right for peat accumulation: largely where organic matter is constantly waterlogged. Hence the distribution of mires is dependent on topography , climate, parent material, biota and time. The type of mire—bog, fen, marsh or swamp—depends also on each of these factors. The largest accumulation of mires constitutes around 64% of global peatlands and

5610-485: The Semi State Bord na Móna which supplied West Offaly with milled peat from the surrounding bogs. As part of its social employment mandate, the station received Public service obligation support until 2019. On 11 December 2020 the station ceased all power production after permission to continue burning peat was refused. Although local groups and leaders hoped that the plant would be converted to alternative use,

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5720-548: The West Siberian peatland. Palsa mires have a rich bird life and are an EU-red listed habitat, and in Canada riparian peat banks are used as maternity sites for polar bears. Natural peatlands also have many species of wild orchids and carnivorous plants. For more on biological communities, see wetland , bog or fen . Around half of the area of northern peatlands is permafrost -affected, and this area represents around

5830-476: The air. These fires add to greenhouse gas emissions while also causing thousands of deaths every year. Decreased biodiversity due to deforestation and drainage makes these ecosystem more vulnerable and less resilient to change. Homogenous ecosystems are at an increased risk to extreme climate conditions and are less likely to recover from fires. Some peatlands are being dried out by climate change . Drainage of peatlands due to climatic factors may also increase

5940-454: The atmosphere primarily through the exchange of carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide , and can be damaged by excess nitrogen from agriculture or rainwater. The sequestration of carbon dioxide takes place at the surface via the process of photosynthesis , while losses of carbon dioxide occur through living plants via autotrophic respiration and from the litter and peat via heterotrophic respiration. In their natural state, mires are

6050-463: The atmosphere. Accumulation rates of carbon during the last millennium were close to 40 g C/m /yr. Northern peatlands are associated with boreal and subarctic climates. Northern peatlands were mostly built up during the Holocene after the retreat of Pleistocene glaciers, but in contrast tropical peatlands are much older. Total northern peat carbon stocks are estimated to be 1055 Gt of carbon. Of all northern circumpolar countries, Russia has

6160-444: The availability of oxygen to the aerobic microbes thus accelerating peat decomposition. Levels of methane emissions also vary with the water table position and temperature. A water table near the peat surface gives the opportunity for anaerobic microorganisms to flourish. Methanogens are strictly anaerobic organisms and produce methane from organic matter in anoxic conditions below the water table level, while some of that methane

6270-522: The bogland remains constantly wet which helps promote peat production. Most modern peat bogs formed 12,000 years ago in high latitudes after the glaciers retreated at the end of the last ice age . Peat usually accumulates slowly at the rate of about a millimetre per year. The estimated carbon content is 415 gigatonnes (457 billion short tons) (northern peatlands), 50 Gt (55 billion short tons) ( tropical peatlands ) and 15 Gt (17 billion short tons) (South America). Peat material

6380-550: The capital of Moscow with a toxic smoke blanket . The situation remained critical until the end of August 2010. In June 2019, despite some forest fire prevention methods being put in place, peat fires in the Arctic emitted 50 megatonnes (55 million short tons; 49 million long tons) of CO 2 , which is equal to Sweden's total annual emissions. The peat fires are linked to climate change, as they are much more likely to occur nowadays due to this effect. Peat "hags" are

6490-505: The carbon stored in all other vegetation types, including forests. This substantial carbon storage represents about 30% of the world's soil carbon , underscoring their critical importance in the global carbon cycle . In their natural state, peatlands provide a range of ecosystem services , including minimising flood risk and erosion, purifying water and regulating climate. Peatlands are under threat by commercial peat harvesting, drainage and conversion for agriculture (notably palm oil in

6600-428: The concept of peat archives, a phrase coined by influential peatland scientist Harry Godwin in 1981. In a peat profile there is a fossilized record of changes over time in the vegetation, pollen, spores, animals (from microscopic to the giant elk), and archaeological remains that have been deposited in place, as well as pollen, spores and particles brought in by wind and weather. These remains are collectively termed

6710-406: The conversion of organics to carbon dioxide to be released in the atmosphere. Records of past human behaviour and environments can be contained within peatlands. These may take the form of human artefacts, or palaeoecological and geochemical records. Peatlands are used by humans in modern times for a range of purposes, the most dominant being agriculture and forestry, which accounts for around

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6820-484: The draining of peat bogs release even more carbon dioxide. The economic value of a tropical peatland was once derived from raw materials, such as wood, bark, resin and latex, the extraction of which did not contribute to large carbon emissions. In Southeast Asia, peatlands are drained and cleared for human use for a variety of reasons, including the production of palm oil and timber for export in primarily developing nations. This releases stored carbon dioxide and preventing

6930-406: The ecosystem can undergo a state shift, turning the mire into a barren land with lower biodiversity and richness. The formation of humic acid occurs during the biogeochemical degradation of vegetation debris, animal residue and degraded segments. The loads of organic matter in the form of humic acid is a source of precursors of coal. Prematurely exposing the organic matter to the atmosphere promotes

7040-478: The emission of methane, which is a strong greenhouse gas. However, given the short "lifetime" of methane (12 years), it is often said that methane emissions are unimportant within 300 years compared to carbon sequestration in wetlands. Within that time frame or less, most wetlands become both net carbon and radiative sinks. Hence, peatlands do result in cooling of the Earth's climate over a longer time period as methane

7150-628: The environment and can reveal levels of isotopes , pollutants, macrofossils , metals from the atmosphere and pollen. For example, carbon-14 dating can reveal the age of the peat. The dredging and destruction of a peatland will release the carbon dioxide that could reveal irreplaceable information about the past climatic conditions. Many kinds of microorganisms inhabit peatlands, due to the regular supply of water and abundance of peat forming vegetation. These microorganisms include but are not limited to methanogens , algae, bacteria, zoobenthos , of which Sphagnum species are most abundant. Peat contains

7260-455: The fastest-growing top emitters. This estimate excludes emissions from peat fires (conservative estimates amount to at least 4,000 Mton/CO 2 -eq./yr for south-east Asia). With 174 Mton/CO 2 -eq./yr, the EU is after Indonesia (500 Mton) and before Russia (161 Mton), the world's second-largest emitter of drainage-related peatland CO 2 (excl. extracted peat and fires). Total CO 2 emissions from

7370-434: The ground surface above the original topography. Mires can reach considerable heights above the underlying mineral soil or bedrock : peat depths of above 10 m have been commonly recorded in temperate regions (many temperate and most boreal mires were removed by ice sheets in the last Ice Age), and above 25 m in tropical regions. When the absolute decay rate of peat in the catotelm (the lower, water-saturated zone of

7480-603: The ground. In North America, peat fires can occur during severe droughts throughout their occurrence, from boreal forests in Canada to swamps and fens in the subtropical southern Florida Everglades . Once a fire has burnt through the area, hollows in the peat are burnt out, and hummocks are desiccated but can contribute to Sphagnum recolonization. In the summer of 2010, an unusually high heat wave of up to 40 °C (104 °F) ignited large deposits of peat in Central Russia, burning thousands of houses and covering

7590-494: The inflow of groundwater (bringing in supplementary cations) is high. Generally, whenever the inputs of carbon into the soil from dead organic matter exceed the carbon outputs via organic matter decomposition , peat is formed. This occurs due to the anoxic state of water-logged peat, which slows down decomposition. Peat-forming vegetation is typically also recalcitrant (poorly decomposing) due to high lignin and low nutrient content. Topographically , accumulating peat elevates

7700-400: The islands of Sumatra, Kalimantan and Papua, has one of the largest peatlands in the world, with an area of about 24 million hectares. These peatlands play an important role in global carbon storage and have very high biodiversity. However, peatlands in Indonesia also face major threats from deforestation and forest fires. In the early 21st century, the world's largest tropical mire was found in

7810-604: The land and freshwater surface of the planet. In these ecosystems are found one third of the world's soil carbon and 10% of global freshwater resources. These ecosystems are characterized by the unique ability to accumulate and store dead organic matter from Sphagnum and many other non-moss species, as peat, under conditions of almost permanent water saturation. Peatlands are adapted to the extreme conditions of high water and low oxygen content, of toxic elements and low availability of plant nutrients. Their water chemistry varies from alkaline to acidic. Peatlands occur on all continents, from

7920-448: The land selected for plantations are typically substantial carbon stores that promote biodiverse ecosystems. Palm oil plantations have replaced much of the forested peatlands in Southeast Asia. Estimates now state that 12.9 Mha or about 47% of peatlands in Southeast Asia were deforested by 2006. In their natural state, peatlands are waterlogged with high water tables making for an inefficient soil. To create viable soil for plantation,

8030-752: The largest area of peatlands, and contains the largest peatland in the world, The Great Vasyugan Mire . Nakaikemi Wetland in southwest Honshu, Japan is more than 50,000 years old and has a depth of 45 m. The Philippi Peatland in Greece has probably one of the deepest peat layers with a depth of 190 m. According to the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report , the conservation and restoration of wetlands and peatlands has large economic potential to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions, providing benefits for adaptation, mitigation and biodiversity. Wetlands provide an environment where organic carbon

8140-575: The littoral zones and deltas of salty water, followed inland by swamp forests . These forests occur on the margin of peatlands with a palm rich flora with trees 70 m tall and 8 m in girth accompanied by ferns and epiphytes. The third, padang , from the Malay and Indonesian word for forest, consists of shrubs and tall thin trees and appear in the center of large peatlands. The diversity of woody species, like trees and shrubs, are far greater in tropical peatlands than in peatlands of other types. Peat in

8250-509: The main source of water for large cities, including Dublin. Peat wetlands also used to have a degree of metallurgical importance in the Early Middle Ages , being the primary source of bog iron used to create swords and armour. Many peat swamps along the coast of Malaysia serve as a natural means of flood mitigation, with any overflow being absorbed by the peat, provided forests are still present to prevent peat fires. Peat

8360-470: The mires in tropical regions of Indonesia and Malaysia are drained and cleared. The peatland forests harvested for palm oil production serve as above- and below-ground carbon stores, containing at least 42,069 million metric tonnes (Mt) of soil carbon. Exploitation of this land raises many environmental concerns, namely increased greenhouse gas emissions , risk of fires and a decrease in biodiversity. Greenhouse gas emissions for palm oil planted on peatlands

8470-402: The other hand, is linked to poverty and is so widespread that it also has negatively impacts these peatlands. The biotic and abiotic factors controlling Southeast Asian peatlands are interdependent. Its soil, hydrology and morphology are created by the present vegetation through the accumulation of its own organic matter, building a favorable environment for this specific vegetation. This system

8580-540: The peat archives. In Quaternary Palaeoecology , first published in 1980, Birks and Birks described how paleoecological studies "of peat can be used to reveal what plant communities were present (locally and regionally), what period each community occupied, how environmental conditions changed, and how the environment affected the ecosystem in that time and place." Scientists continue to compare modern mercury (Hg) accumulation rates in bogs with historical natural archives records in peat bogs and lake sediments to estimate

8690-433: The peat holds water. This slowly creates wetter conditions that allow the area of wetland to expand. Peatland features can include ponds, ridges and raised bogs . The characteristics of some bog plants actively promote bog formation. For example, sphagnum mosses actively secrete tannins , which preserve organic material. Sphagnum also have special water-retaining cells, known as hyaline cells, which can release water ensuring

8800-405: The peat layer) matches the rate of input of new peat into the catotelm, the mire will stop growing in height. Despite accounting for just 3% of Earth's land surfaces, peatlands are collectively a major carbon store containing between 500 and 700 billion tonnes of carbon. Carbon stored within peatlands equates to over half the amount of carbon found in the atmosphere . Peatlands interact with

8910-534: The peat research collection at the University of Minnesota Duluth provides references to research on worldwide peat and peatlands. Peatlands have unusual chemistry that influences, among other things, their biota and water outflow. Peat has very high cation-exchange capacity due to its high organic matter content: cations such as Ca are preferentially adsorbed onto the peat in exchange for H ions. Water passing through peat declines in nutrients and pH . Therefore, mires are typically nutrient-poor and acidic unless

9020-516: The peatland, and allowing natural vegetation to recover. Rehabilitation projects undertaken in North America and Europe usually focus on the rewetting of peatlands and revegetation of native species. This acts to mitigate carbon release in the short term before the new growth of vegetation provides a new source of organic litter to fuel the peat formation in the long term. UNEP is supporting peatland restoration in Indonesia. Peat extraction

9130-436: The peatlands and the atmosphere has been of current concern globally in the field of ecology and biogeochemical studies. The drainage of peatlands for agriculture and forestry has resulted in the emission of extensive greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, most notably carbon dioxide and methane. By allowing oxygen to enter the peat column within a mire, drainage disrupts the balance between peat accumulation and decomposition, and

9240-414: The planet's 2500 Gt soil carbon stores. Peatlands contain the highest amounts of soil organic carbon of all wetland types. Wetlands can become sources of carbon, rather than sinks, as the decomposition occurring within the ecosystem emits methane. Natural peatlands do not always have a measurable cooling effect on the climate in a short time span as the cooling effects of sequestering carbon are offset by

9350-485: The plant's owner has announced that the plant will be demolished and the site remediated to comply with the power plant licenses. A hybrid 97 MW / 170 MWh synchronous condenser / battery storage power station grid stability plant started construction at the site in 2022, expected to complete by 2024 a cost of €130 million. This article about a power station is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This article about an Irish building or structure

9460-683: The potential human impacts on the biogeochemical cycle of mercury, for example. Over the years, different dating models and technologies for measuring date sediments and peat profiles accumulated over the last 100–150 years, have been used, including the widely used vertical distribution of 210Pb, the inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-SMS), and more recently the initial penetration (IP). Naturally mummified human bodies, often called " bog bodies " have been found in various places in Scotland, England, Ireland, and especially northern Germany and Denmark. They are almost perfectly preserved by

9570-441: The presence of a heat source (e.g., a wildfire penetrating the subsurface), it smoulders. These smouldering fires can burn undetected for very long periods of time (months, years, and even centuries) propagating in a creeping fashion through the underground peat layer. Despite the damage that the burning of raw peat can cause, bogs are naturally subject to wildfires and depend on the wildfires to keep woody competition from lowering

9680-407: The presence of other tall and dense vegetation like papyrus . Like fens, swamps are typically of higher pH level and nutrient availability than bogs. Some bogs and fens can support limited shrub or tree growth on hummocks . A marsh is a type of wetland within which vegetation is rooted in mineral soil. Peatlands are found around the globe, although are at their greatest extent at high latitudes in

9790-463: The project was abandoned in 1999. Similar projects in China have led to immense loss of tropical marshes and fens due to rice production. Drainage, which also increases the risk of burning, can cause additional emissions of CO 2 by 30–100 t/ha/year if the water table is lowered by only 1 m. The draining of peatlands is likely the most important and long-lasting threat to peatlands globally, but

9900-545: The reconstruction of past environments and the study of land-use changes. Peat is used by gardeners and for horticulture in certain parts of the world, but this is being banned in some places. By volume, there are about 4 trillion cubic metres of peat in the world. Over time, the formation of peat is often the first step in the geological formation of fossil fuels such as coal , particularly low-grade coal such as lignite . The peatland ecosystem covers 3.7 million square kilometres (1.4 million square miles) and

10010-614: The rewetting of peatlands and revegetation of native species. This acts to mitigate carbon release in the short term before the new growth of vegetation provides a new source of organic litter to fuel the peat formation in the long term. UNEP is supporting peatland restoration in Indonesia. Latvia has been the biggest exporter of peat in the world by volume, providing more than 19.9% of the world's volume, followed only by Canada with 13% in 2022. In 2020, Latvia exported 1.97 million tons of peat, followed by Germany with 1.5 and Canada with 1.42 million tons. Nevertheless, although first in

10120-625: The rise, particularly in the UK, peat is still used as raw material for horticulture in some other European countries, Canada, as well as parts of the United States. Peatland can also be an essential source of drinking water , providing nearly 4% of all potable water stored in reservoirs . In the UK, 43% of the population receives drinking water sourced from peatlands, with the number climbing to 68% in Ireland. Catchments containing peatlands are

10230-412: The risk of fires, presenting further risk of carbon and methane to release into the atmosphere. Due to their naturally high moisture content, pristine mires have a generally low risk of fire ignition. The drying of this waterlogged state means that the carbon-dense vegetation becomes vulnerable to fire. In addition, due to the oxygen deficient nature of the vegetation, the peat fires can smolder beneath

10340-628: The same bog about 60 metres (200 ft) from the Tollund Man. She is believed to have lived during the late 3rd century BC and was a ritual sacrifice. In the Bronze and Iron Ages, people used peat bogs for rituals to nature gods and spirits. The distinctive ecological conditions of peat wetlands provide a habitat for distinctive fauna and flora. For example, whooping cranes nest in North American peatlands, whilst Siberian cranes nest in

10450-511: The state whilst 23% belong to the municipalities Bogs in Latvia are considered important habitats due to their ecological values, and up to 128,000 hectares, or 40% of the areas in the territory, are protected by environmental laws. The most famous national parks and reserves are the Ķemeri National Park , Cenas tīrelis and Teiči Nature Reserve . The climate, geography and environment of Finland favours bog and peat bog formation. Thus, peat

10560-602: The subsequent oxidative degradation results in the release of carbon into the atmosphere. As such, drainage of mires for agriculture transforms them from net carbon sinks to net carbon emitters. Although the emission of methane from mires has been observed to decrease following drainage, the total magnitude of emissions from peatland drainage is often greater as rates of peat accumulation are low. Peatland carbon has been described as "irrecoverable" meaning that, if lost due to drainage, it could not be recovered within time scales relevant to climate mitigation. When undertaken in such

10670-596: The surface causing incomplete combustion of the organic matter and resulting in extreme emissions events. In recent years, the occurrence of wildfires in peatlands has increased significantly worldwide particularly in the tropical regions. This can be attributed to a combination of drier weather and changes in land use which involve the drainage of water from the landscape. This resulting loss of biomass through combustion has led to significant emissions of greenhouse gasses both in tropical and boreal/temperate peatlands. Fire events are predicted to become more frequent with

10780-514: The surrounding land. A quagmire is a floating (quaking) mire, bog, or any peatland being in a stage of hydrosere or hydrarch (hydroseral) succession, resulting in pond-filling yields underfoot. Ombrotrophic types of quagmire may be called quaking bog (quivering bog). Minerotrophic types can be named with the term quagfen. Some swamps can also be peatlands (e.g.: peat swamp forest ), while marshes are generally not considered to be peatlands. Swamps are characterized by their forest canopy or

10890-476: The system from sequestering carbon again. The global distribution of tropical peatlands is concentrated in Southeast Asia where agricultural use of peatlands has been increased in recent decades. Large areas of tropical peatland have been cleared and drained for the production of food and cash crops such as palm oil. Large-scale drainage of these plantations often results in subsidence , flooding, fire and deterioration of soil quality . Small scale encroachment on

11000-450: The topic. In 2010, IPS presented a " Strategy for Responsible Peatland Management ", which can be applied worldwide for decision-making. Peat extraction is forbidden in Chile since April 2024. Often, restoration is done by blocking drainage channels in the peatland, and allowing natural vegetation to recover. Rehabilitation projects undertaken in North America and Europe usually focus on

11110-410: The tropical to boreal and Arctic zones from sea level to high alpine conditions. A more recent estimate from an improved global peatland map, PEATMAP, based on a meta-analysis of geospatial information at global, regional and national levels puts global coverage slightly higher than earlier peatland inventories at 4.23 million square kilometres (1.63 million square miles) approximately 2.84% of

11220-842: The tropics is therefore dominated by woody material from trunks of trees and shrubs and contain little to none of the sphagnum moss that dominates in boreal peatlands. It's only partly decomposed and the surface consists of a thick layer of leaf litter. Forestry in peatlands leads to drainage and rapid carbon losses since it decreases inputs of organic matter and accelerate the decomposition. In contrast to temperate wetlands, tropical peatlands are home to several species of fish. Many new, often endemic, species has been discovered but many of them are considered threatened. The tropical peatlands in Southeast Asia only cover 0.2% of Earth's land area but CO 2 emissions are estimated to be 2 Gt per year, equal to 7% of global fossil fuel emissions. These emissions get bigger with drainage and burning of peatlands and

11330-421: The tropics) and fires, which are predicted to become more frequent with climate change . The destruction of peatlands results in release of stored greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, further exacerbating climate change. For botanists and ecologists, the term peatland is a general term for any terrain dominated by peat to a depth of at least 30 cm (12 in), even if it has been completely drained (i.e.,

11440-436: The warming and drying of the global climate. The United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity highlights peatlands as key ecosystems to be conserved and protected. The convention requires governments at all levels to present action plans for the conservation and management of wetland environments. Wetlands are also protected under the 1971 Ramsar Convention . Often, restoration is done by blocking drainage channels in

11550-748: The water table and shading out many bog plants. Several families of plants including the carnivorous Sarracenia (trumpet pitcher), Dionaea (Venus flytrap), Utricularia (bladderworts) and non-carnivorous plants such as the sandhills lily , toothache grass and many species of orchid are now threatened and in some cases endangered from the combined forces of human drainage, negligence and absence of fire. The recent burning of peat bogs in Indonesia, with their large and deep growths containing more than 50 billion tonnes (55 billion short tons; 49 billion long tons) of carbon, has contributed to increases in world carbon dioxide levels. Peat deposits in Southeast Asia could be destroyed by 2040. It

11660-770: The water yellow or brown due to the leaching of tannins . Peat is widely used in balneotherapy (the use of bathing to treat disease). Many traditional spa treatments include peat as part of peloids . Such health treatments have an enduring tradition in European countries, including Poland, the Czech Republic, Germany and Austria. Some of these old spas date back to the 18th century and are still active today. The most common types of peat application in balneotherapy are peat muds , poultices and suspension baths . Authors Rydin and Jeglum in Biology of Habitats described

11770-436: The world by volume, in monetary terms, Latvian comes second in the world behind Canada . As an example, Latvia's income from exports was US$ 237 million. Latvia's peat deposits have been estimated to equal 1.7 billion tons. Latvia, as Finland due its climate has several peat bogs, which account for 9.9% of the country's territory. More than two thirds of the licensed areas for peat extraction are state-owned; 55% belong to

11880-479: The world land area. In Europe, peatlands extend to about 515,000 km (199,000 sq mi). About 60% of the world's wetlands are made of peat. Peat deposits are found in many places around the world, including northern Europe and North America. The North American peat deposits are principally found in Canada and the Northern United States. Some of the world's largest peatlands include

11990-513: The world's largest crops. In comparison to alternatives, palm oil is considered to be among the most efficient sources of vegetable oil and biofuel , requiring only 0.26 hectares of land to produce 1 ton of oil. Palm oil has therefore become a popular cash crop in many low-income countries and has provided economic opportunities for communities. With palm oil as a leading export in countries such as Indonesia and Malaysia, many smallholders have found economic success in palm oil plantations. However,

12100-466: The worldwide 500,000 km of degraded peatland may exceed 2.0 Gtons (including emissions from peat fires), which is almost 6% of all global carbon emissions. Peat can be a major fire hazard and is not extinguished by light rain. Peat fires may burn for great lengths of time, or smoulder underground and reignite after winter if an oxygen source is present. Peat has a high carbon content and can burn under low moisture conditions. Once ignited by

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