Misplaced Pages

#847152

58-525: Keres is now considered a language isolate . In the past, Edward Sapir grouped it together with a Hokan –Siouan stock. Morris Swadesh suggested a connection with Wichita . Joseph Greenberg grouped Keres with Siouan , Yuchi , Caddoan , and Iroquoian in a superstock called Keresiouan. None of these proposals has been validated by subsequent linguistic research. In 2007, there was an estimate total of 10,670 speakers. Keresan has between 42 and 45 consonant sounds, and around 40 vowel sounds, adding up to

116-558: A CV(V) shape. The maximal syllable structure is CCVVC and the minimal syllable is CV. In native Keresan words, only a glottal stop /ʔ/ ⟨ʼ⟩ can close a syllable, but some loanwords from Spanish have syllables that end in a consonant, mostly a nasal (i.e. /m n/ but words containing these sequences are rare in the language. Due to extensive vowel devoicing, several Keresan words may be perceived as ending in consonants or even containing consonant clusters. The only sequence of consonants (i.e. consonant cluster ) that occurs in native Keresan words

174-489: A common ancestral language. This is what makes up a language family , which is a set of languages for which sufficient evidence exists to demonstrate that they descend from a single ancestral language and are therefore genetically related. For example, English is related to other Indo-European languages and Mandarin Chinese is related to other Sino-Tibetan languages . By this criterion, each language isolate constitutes

232-533: A digraph ⟨jh⟩ that represents [h] in words that correspond to [ʒ] in standard French. Similarly, Catalan has a digraph ⟨ix⟩ that represents [ʃ] in Eastern Catalan , but [jʃ] or [js] in Western Catalan – Valencian . The pair of letters making up a phoneme are not always adjacent. This is the case with English silent e . For example, the sequence a_e has

290-409: A digraph or a combination of letters. They are the most common combinations, but extreme regional differences exists, especially those of the eastern dialects . A noteworthy difference is the aspiration of ⟨rs⟩ in eastern dialects, where it corresponds to ⟨skj⟩ and ⟨sj⟩ . Among many young people, especially in the western regions of Norway and in or around

348-575: A dot below (see table). Tone may or may not be represented in the orthography of Keresan. When represented, four diacritics may be used above the vowel. Unlike the system used for Navajo , diacritics for tone are not repeated in long vowels. Although Keresan is not normally written, there exists one dictionary of the language in which words are listed in any given order. In this dictionary of Western Keres, digraphs count as single letters, although ejective consonants are not listed separately; occurring after their non-ejective counterparts. The symbol for

406-538: A doubled consonant serves to indicate that a preceding vowel is to be pronounced short. In modern English, for example, the ⟨pp⟩ of tapping differentiates the first vowel sound from that of taping . In rare cases, doubled consonant letters represent a true geminate consonant in modern English; this may occur when two instances of the same consonant come from different morphemes , for example ⟨nn⟩ in unnatural ( un + natural ) or ⟨tt⟩ in cattail ( cat + tail ). In some cases,

464-882: A dozen sign languages of the hill tribes in Thailand including the Ban Khor Sign Language . These and more are all presumed isolates or small local families, because many deaf communities are made up of people whose hearing parents do not use sign language, and have manifestly, as shown by the language itself, not borrowed their sign language from other deaf communities during the recorded history of these languages. Some languages once seen as isolates may be reclassified as small families because their genetic relationship to other languages has been established. This happened with Japanese and Ryukyuan languages , Korean and Koreanic languages , Atakapa and Akokisa languages , Tol and Jicaque of El Palmar languages, and

522-446: A family of its own. In some situations, a language with no ancestor can arise. This frequently happens with sign languages —most famously in the case of Nicaraguan Sign Language , where deaf children with no language were placed together and developed a new language. Caution is required when speaking of extinct languages as language isolates. Despite their great age, Sumerian and Elamite can be safely classified as isolates, as

580-450: A few remaining native speakers, with no new acquisition, highly restricted use, and near-universal multilingualism. "Extinct" languages have no native speakers, but are sufficiently documented to be classified as isolates. With few exceptions, all of Africa's languages have been gathered into four major phyla: Afroasiatic , Niger–Congo , Nilo-Saharan and Khoisan . However, the genetic unity of some language families, like Nilo-Saharan ,

638-526: A language previously considered an isolate may no longer be considered one, as happened with the Yanyuwa language of northern Australia , which has been placed in the Pama–Nyungan family. Since linguists do not always agree on whether a genetic relationship has been demonstrated, it is often disputed whether a language is an isolate. A genetic relationship is when two different languages are descended from

SECTION 10

#1732775636848

696-589: A language to classify it as either a language isolate or as a part of another language family. Unclassified languages are different from language isolates in that they have no demonstrable genetic relationships to other languages due to a lack of sufficient data. In order to be considered a language isolate, a language needs to have sufficient data for comparisons with other languages through methods of historical-comparative linguistics to show that it does not have any genetic relationships. Many extinct languages and living languages today are very poorly attested, and

754-591: A single character may be a relic from an earlier period of the language when the digraph had a different pronunciation, or may represent a distinction that is made only in certain dialects , like the English ⟨ wh ⟩ . Some such digraphs are used for purely etymological reasons, like ⟨ ph ⟩ in French. In some orthographies, digraphs (and occasionally trigraphs ) are considered individual letters , which means that they have their own place in

812-494: A specific place in the alphabet , separate from that of the sequence of characters that composes them, for purposes of orthography and collation : Most other languages, including most of the Romance languages, treat digraphs as combinations of separate letters for alphabetization purposes. English has both homogeneous digraphs (doubled letters) and heterogeneous digraphs (digraphs consisting of two different letters). Those of

870-516: A total of about 85 phonemes , depending on the analysis and the language variety. Based on the classification in the World Atlas of Language Structures , Keres is a language with a large consonant inventory. The great number of consonants relates to the three-way distinction between voiceless , aspirated and ejective consonants (e.g. /t tʰ tʼ/), and to the larger than average number of fricatives (i.e. /s sʼ ʂ ʂʼ ʃ ʃʼ h/) and affricates ,

928-847: Is a verb-final language, though word order is rather flexible. Language isolate A language isolate is a language that has no demonstrable genetic relationship with any other languages. Basque in Europe, Ainu in Asia, Sandawe in Africa, Haida and Zuni in North America, Kanoê in South America , Tiwi in Australia and Burushaski in Pakistan are all examples of such languages. The exact number of language isolates

986-538: Is a letter that represents a plosive most accurately pronounced by trying to say /g/ and /b/ at the same time. Modern Slavic languages written in the Cyrillic alphabet make little use of digraphs apart from ⟨дж⟩ for /dʐ/ , ⟨дз⟩ for /dz/ (in Ukrainian, Belarusian, and Bulgarian), and ⟨жж⟩ and ⟨зж⟩ for the uncommon Russian phoneme /ʑː/ . In Russian,

1044-591: Is a pair of characters used in the orthography of a language to write either a single phoneme (distinct sound), or a sequence of phonemes that does not correspond to the normal values of the two characters combined. Some digraphs represent phonemes that cannot be represented with a single character in the writing system of a language, like ⟨ ch ⟩ in Spanish chico and ocho . Other digraphs represent phonemes that can also be represented by single characters. A digraph that shares its pronunciation with

1102-408: Is a sacred language that must exist only in its spoken form. The language's religious connotation and years of persecution of Pueblo religion by European colonizers may also explain why no unified orthographic convention exists for Keresan. However, a practical spelling system has been developed for Laguna (Kʼawaika) and more recently for Acoma (Áakʼu) Keres, both of which are remarkably consistent. In

1160-833: Is a sequence of a fricative /ʃ ʂ/ and a stop or affricate. Clusters are restricted to beginnings of syllables (i.e. the syllable onset ). When the alveolo-palatal consonant /ʃ/ occurs as C 1 , it combines with alveolar and palatal C 2 , whereas the retroflex alveolar /ʂ/ precedes bilabial and velar C 2 s, which suggest a complementary distribution. Consonant clusters may occur both word-initially and word-medially. shd áurákụ 'frog, toad' sht érashtʼígá 'cricket' shtʼ idyàatịshị 'plot of land' shj v 'upward' shch úmúmá 'wasp' shchʼ ísạ 'six' srb úuná 'water jug' srp àat'i 'mockingbird' srpʼ eruru 'it's full' srg ásrgáukʼa 'quail' srk v́dútsị 'mound, hill' srkʼ abíhí 'female in-law' Traditional Keresan beliefs postulate that Keres

1218-703: Is based on a split-intransitive pattern, in which subjects are marked differently if they are perceived as actors than from when they are perceived as undergoers of the action being described. The morphology of Keresan is mostly prefixing , although suffixes and reduplication also occur. Keresan distinguishes nouns , verbs, numerals and particles as word classes. Nouns in Keresan do not normally distinguish case or number , but they can be inflected for possession , with distinct constructions for alienable and inalienable possession. Other than possession, Keresan nouns show no comprehensive noun classes . Keresan

SECTION 20

#1732775636848

1276-709: Is capitalized ⟨Kj⟩ , while ⟨ ij ⟩ in Dutch is capitalized ⟨IJ⟩ and word initial ⟨dt⟩ in Irish is capitalized ⟨dT⟩ . Digraphs may develop into ligatures , but this is a distinct concept: a ligature involves the graphical fusion of two characters into one, e.g. when ⟨o⟩ and ⟨e⟩ become ⟨œ⟩ , e.g. as in French cœur "heart". Digraphs may consist of two different characters (heterogeneous digraphs) or two instances of

1334-665: Is questionable, and so there may be many more language families and isolates than currently accepted. Data for several African languages, like Kwisi , are not sufficient for classification. In addition, Jalaa , Shabo , Laal , Kujargé , and a few other languages within Nilo-Saharan and Afroasiatic -speaking areas may turn out to be isolates upon further investigation. Defaka and Ega are highly divergent languages located within Niger–Congo -speaking areas, and may also possibly be language isolates. Current research considers that

1392-536: Is the Nicaraguan Sign Language , a well documented case of what has happened in schools for the deaf in many countries. In Tanzania, for example, there are seven schools for the deaf, each with its own sign language with no known connection to any other language. Sign languages have also developed outside schools, in communities with high incidences of deafness, such as Kata Kolok in Bali, and half

1450-408: Is thus a matter of definition. Some letter pairs should not be interpreted as digraphs but appear because of compounding : hogshead and cooperate . They are often not marked in any way and so must be memorized as exceptions. Some authors, however, indicate it either by breaking up the digraph with a hyphen , as in hogs-head , co-operate , or with a trema mark , as in coöperate , but the use of

1508-461: Is yet unknown due to insufficient data on several languages. One explanation for the existence of language isolates is that they might be the last remaining member of a larger language family, said language possibly could have had relatives in the past that have since disappeared without being documented leaving it an orphaned language much like the Ket language spoken in central Siberia who belongs to

1566-562: The "Papuasphere" centered in New Guinea includes as many as 37 isolates. (The more is known about these languages in the future, the more likely it is for these languages to be later assigned to a known language family.) To these, one must add several isolates found among non- Pama-Nyungan languages of Australia : Digraph (orthography) A digraph (from Ancient Greek δίς ( dís )  'double' and γράφω ( gráphō )  'to write') or digram

1624-604: The Armenian language , the digraph ու ⟨ou⟩ transcribes / u / , a convention that comes from Greek. The Georgian alphabet uses a few digraphs to write other languages. For example, in Svan , /ø/ is written ჳე ⟨we⟩ , and /y/ as ჳი ⟨wi⟩ . Modern Greek has the following digraphs: They are called "diphthongs" in Greek ; in classical times, most of them represented diphthongs , and

1682-532: The Tatar Cyrillic alphabet , for example, the letter ю is used to write both /ju/ and /jy/ . Usually the difference is evident from the rest of the word, but when it is not, the sequence ю...ь is used for /jy/ , as in юнь /jyn/ 'cheap'. The Indic alphabets are distinctive for their discontinuous vowels, such as Thai เ...อ /ɤː/ in เกอ /kɤː/ . Technically, however, they may be considered diacritics , not full letters; whether they are digraphs

1740-537: The Xincan Guatemala language family in which linguists have grouped the Chiquimulilla , Guazacapán , Jumaytepeque , and Yupiltepeque languages. Below is a list of known language isolates, arranged by continent, along with notes on possible relations to other languages or language families. The status column indicates the degree of endangerment of the language, according to the definitions of

1798-533: The alphabet and cannot be separated into their constituent places graphemes when sorting , abbreviating , or hyphenating words. Digraphs are used in some romanization schemes, e.g. ⟨ zh ⟩ as a romanisation of Russian ⟨ ж ⟩ . The capitalisation of digraphs can vary, e.g. ⟨sz⟩ in Polish is capitalized ⟨Sz⟩ and ⟨kj⟩ in Norwegian

Keres language - Misplaced Pages Continue

1856-532: The Keres spelling system, each symbol represents a single phoneme. The letters ⟨c q z f⟩ and sometimes also ⟨v⟩ are not used. Digraphs represent both palatal consonants (written using a sequence of C and ⟨y⟩), and retroflex consonants, which are represented using a sequence of C and the letter ⟨r⟩. These graphemes used for writing Western Keres are shown between ⟨...⟩ below. Signs at Acoma Pueblo sometimes use special diacritics for ejective consonants that differ from

1914-604: The UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger . "Vibrant" languages are those in full use by speakers of every generation, with consistent native acquisition by children. "Vulnerable" languages have a similarly wide base of native speakers, but a restricted use and the long-term risk of language shift . "Endangered" languages are either acquired irregularly or spoken only by older generations. "Moribund" languages have only

1972-415: The apostrophe is seen in pinyin where 嫦娥 is written Chang'e because the g belongs to the final (-ang) of the first syllable, not to the initial of the second syllable. Without the apostrophe, Change would be understood as the syllable chan (final -an) followed by the syllable ge (initial g-). In some languages, certain digraphs and trigraphs are counted as distinct letters in themselves, and assigned to

2030-665: The consonants of the proto -Keresan (or pre-Keresan) from Miller & Davis (1963) based on a comparison of Acoma, Santa Ana, and Santo Domingo, as well as other features of the dialects compiled from The Language of Santa Ana Pueblo (1964), Kansas Working Papers in Linguistics (1987), and The Phonemes of Keresan (1946), and the Grammar of Laguna Keres (2005). Keresan vowels have a phonemic distinction in duration : all vowels can be long or short. Additionally, short vowels can also be voiceless. The vowel chart below contains

2088-454: The constituent sounds ( morae ) are usually indicated by digraphs, but some are indicated by a single letter, and some with a trigraph. The case of ambiguity is the syllabic ん , which is written as n (or sometimes m ), except before vowels or y where it is followed by an apostrophe as n’ . For example, the given name じゅんいちろう is romanized as Jun’ichirō, so that it is parsed as "Jun-i-chi-rou", rather than as "Ju-ni-chi-rou". A similar use of

2146-432: The diaeresis has declined in English within the last century. When it occurs in names such as Clapham , Townshend, and Hartshorne, it is never marked in any way. Positional alternative glyphs may help to disambiguate in certain cases: when round, ⟨s⟩ was used as a final variant of long ⟨ſ⟩ , and the English digraph for /ʃ/ would always be ⟨ſh⟩ . In romanization of Japanese ,

2204-601: The doubling of ⟨z⟩ , which corresponds to /ts/ , is replaced by the digraph ⟨tz⟩ . Some languages have a unified orthography with digraphs that represent distinct pronunciations in different dialects ( diaphonemes ). For example, in Breton there is a digraph ⟨zh⟩ that represents [z] in most dialects, but [h] in Vannetais. Similarly, the Saintongeais dialect of French has

2262-434: The environment they occur, for instance word-finally, but there are also exceptions. Vowels in final position are nearly always voiceless and medial vowels occurring between voiced consonants, after nasals and ejectives are nearly always voiced. Acoma Keres has four lexical tones : high, low, falling and rising. Falling and rising tones only occur in long vowels and voiceless vowels bear no tones: Most Keresan syllables take

2320-678: The fact that they cannot be linked to other languages may be a reflection of our poor knowledge of them. Hattic , Gutian , and Kassite are all considered unclassified languages, but their status is disputed by a minority of linguists. Many extinct languages of the Americas such as Cayuse and Majena may likewise have been isolates. Several unclassified languages could also be language isolates, but linguists cannot be sure of this without sufficient evidence. A number of sign languages have arisen independently, without any ancestral language, and thus are language isolates. The most famous of these

2378-443: The glottal stop ⟨ʼ⟩, for long vowels (e.g. ⟨aa ee ii⟩ etc.) are not treated as separate letters. Letters〈f q x z〉are not used to write Keres, whereas the letters ⟨ɨ o v⟩ are only used in some dialects. Keresan is a split-ergative language in which verbs denoting states (i.e. stative verbs ) behave differently from those indexing actions, especially in terms of the person affixes they take. This system of argument marking

Keres language - Misplaced Pages Continue

2436-527: The languages are well enough documented that, if modern relatives existed, they would be recognizably related. A language thought to be an isolate may turn out to be related to other languages once enough material is recovered, but this is unlikely for extinct languages whose written records have not been preserved. Many extinct languages are very poorly attested, which may lead to them being considered unclassified languages instead of language isolates. This occurs when linguists do not have enough information on

2494-416: The latter also showing the three-way distinction found in stops . The large number of vowels derives from a distinction made between long and short vowels (e.g. /e eː/), as well as from the presence of tones and voicelessness. Thus, a single vowel quality may occur with seven distinct realizations: /é è e̥ éː èː êː ěː/, all of which are used to distinguish words in the language. The chart below contains

2552-576: The latter type include the following: Digraphs may also be composed of vowels. Some letters ⟨a, e, o⟩ are preferred for the first position, others for the second ⟨i, u⟩ . The latter have allographs ⟨y, w⟩ in English orthography . In Serbo-Croatian : Note that in the Cyrillic orthography , those sounds are represented by single letters (љ, њ, џ). In Czech and Slovak : In Danish and Norwegian : In Norwegian , several sounds can be represented only by

2610-537: The major cities, the difference between / ç / and / ʃ / has been completely wiped away and are now pronounced the same. In Catalan : In Dutch : In French : See also French phonology . In German : In Hungarian : In Italian : In Manx Gaelic , ⟨ch⟩ represents /χ/ , but ⟨çh⟩ represents /tʃ/ . In Polish : In Portuguese : In Spanish : In Welsh : The digraphs listed above represent distinct phonemes and are treated as separate letters for collation purposes. On

2668-511: The name has stuck. Ancient Greek also had the "diphthongs" listed above although their pronunciation in ancient times is disputed. In addition, Ancient Greek also used the letter γ combined with a velar stop to produce the following digraphs: Tsakonian has a few additional digraphs: In addition, palatal consonants are indicated with the vowel letter ι , which is, however, largely predictable. When /n/ and /l/ are not palatalized before ι , they are written νν and λλ . In Bactrian ,

2726-551: The original ones. Doubled consonant letters can also be used to indicate a long or geminated consonant sound. In Italian , for example, consonants written double are pronounced longer than single ones. This was the original use of doubled consonant letters in Old English , but during the Middle English and Early Modern English period, phonemic consonant length was lost and a spelling convention developed in which

2784-559: The other hand, the digraphs ⟨ mh ⟩ , ⟨ nh ⟩ , and the trigraph ⟨ ngh ⟩ , which stand for voiceless consonants but occur only at the beginning of words as a result of the nasal mutation , are not treated as separate letters, and thus are not included in the alphabet. Daighi tongiong pingim , a transcription system used for Taiwanese Hokkien , includes or that represents /ə/ ( mid central vowel ) or /o/ ( close-mid back rounded vowel ), as well as other digraphs. In Yoruba , ⟨gb⟩

2842-467: The same character (homogeneous digraphs). In the latter case, they are generally called double (or doubled ) letters . Doubled vowel letters are commonly used to indicate a long vowel sound. This is the case in Finnish and Estonian , for instance, where ⟨uu⟩ represents a longer version of the vowel denoted by ⟨u⟩ , ⟨ää⟩ represents a longer version of

2900-545: The sequence sh could mean either ša or saha. However, digraphs are used for the aspirated and murmured consonants (those spelled with h- digraphs in Latin transcription) in languages of South Asia such as Urdu that are written in the Arabic script by a special form of the letter h , which is used only for aspiration digraphs, as can be seen with the following connecting (kh) and non-connecting (ḍh) consonants: In

2958-552: The sequences ⟨дж⟩ and ⟨дз⟩ do occur (mainly in loanwords) but are pronounced as combinations of an implosive (sometimes treated as an affricate) and a fricative; implosives are treated as allophones of the plosive /d̪/ and so those sequences are not considered to be digraphs. Cyrillic has few digraphs unless it is used to write non-Slavic languages, especially Caucasian languages . Because vowels are not generally written, digraphs are rare in abjads like Arabic. For example, if sh were used for š, then

SECTION 50

#1732775636848

3016-458: The sound /eɪ/ in English cake. This is the result of three historical sound changes: cake was originally /kakə/ , the open syllable /ka/ came to be pronounced with a long vowel , and later the final schwa dropped off, leaving /kaːk/ . Later still, the vowel /aː/ became /eɪ/ . There are six such digraphs in English, ⟨a_e, e_e, i_e, o_e, u_e, y_e⟩ . However, alphabets may also be designed with discontinuous digraphs. In

3074-454: The sound represented by a doubled consonant letter is distinguished in some other way than length from the sound of the corresponding single consonant letter: In several European writing systems, including the English one, the doubling of the letter ⟨c⟩ or ⟨k⟩ is represented as the heterogeneous digraph ⟨ck⟩ instead of ⟨cc⟩ or ⟨kk⟩ respectively. In native German words,

3132-636: The standard to be seen as different languages. Examples include Japanese and Georgian : Japanese is now part of the Japonic language family with the Ryukyuan languages , and Georgian is the main language in the Kartvelian language family. There is a difference between language isolates and unclassified languages , but they can be difficult to differentiate when it comes to classifying extinct languages . If such efforts eventually do prove fruitful,

3190-614: The symbols above, as shown in the table: Vowel sounds are represented straightforwardly in the existing spellings for Keresan. Each vowel sound is written using a unique letter or digraph (for long vowels and diphthongs ). However, there are two competing representations for the vowel /ɨ/. Some versions simply use the IPA ⟨ɨ⟩ whereas others use the letter ⟨v⟩ (the sound /v/ as in veal does not occur in Keresan). Voiceless vowels have also been represented in two ways; either underlined or with

3248-478: The vowel denoted by ⟨ä⟩ , and so on. In Middle English , the sequences ⟨ee⟩ and ⟨oo⟩ were used in a similar way, to represent lengthened "e" and "o" sounds respectively; both spellings have been retained in modern English orthography , but the Great Vowel Shift and other historical sound changes mean that the modern pronunciations are quite different from

3306-497: The vowel phonemes and allophones from the information of the Keresan languages combined from The Language of Santa Ana Pueblo (1964), The Phonemes of Keresan (1946), and Kansas Working Papers in Linguistics (1987). Notes: All Keresan short vowels may be devoiced in certain positions. The phonemic status of these vowels is controversial. Maring (1967) considers them to be phonemes of Áákʼu Keres, whereas other authors disagree. There are phonetic grounds for vowel devoicing based on

3364-644: The wider Yeniseian language family, had it been discovered in recent times independently from its now extinct relatives such as Yugh and Kott it would have been classified as an isolate. Another explanation for language isolates is that they arose independently in isolation and thus do not share a common linguistic genesis with any other language but themselves. This explanation mostly applies to sign languages that have developed independently of other spoken or signed languages. Some languages once seen as isolates may be reclassified as small families if some of their dialects are judged to be sufficiently different from

#847152