65-631: White Island may refer to: Places [ edit ] Oceania [ edit ] Whakaari / White Island , volcanic island in the Bay of Plenty, New Zealand 2019 Whakaari / White Island eruption White Island (Otago) , Dunedin, New Zealand North America [ edit ] White's Island in Paget, Bermuda, also known as White Island Qikiqtaaluk (Foxe Basin) , formerly White Island, Nunavut, Canada Mau Mau Island , also known as White Island, in
130-459: A basaltic magma must crystallize specific minerals that are then removed from the melt. This removal can take place in a variety of ways, but most commonly this occurs by crystal settling. The first minerals to crystallize and be removed from a basaltic parent are olivines and amphiboles . These mafic minerals settle out of the magma, forming mafic cumulates. There is geophysical evidence from several arcs that large layers of mafic cumulates lie at
195-440: A coroner. Twenty-five survivors were injured, many critically and with severe burns. Forty-seven people were reportedly on the island when it erupted. A second eruption closely followed the first. Whakaari / White Island is an irregular oval in shape, with a length (northwest–southeast) of 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) and a width of 2 kilometres (1.2 mi), and covers an area of approximately 325 hectares (800 acres). It lies in
260-461: A further twenty-five were seriously injured, many critically . The bodies of two victims have not been recovered and may have been lost to the sea. The ongoing seismic and volcanic activity in the area and subsequently heavy rainfall as well as low visibility and toxic gases all hampered recovery efforts. Experts identified the event as a phreatic eruption : a release of steam and volcanic gases which caused an explosion, launching rock and ash into
325-461: A minimum of 28 phreatic or phreatomagmatic eruptions. In addition, prehistoric eruptions have also extruded lava. The lava flows from these prehistoric eruptions are exposed crater walls of the Central Cone. Whakaari / White Island's frequent activity and easy access attract scientists and volcanologists as well as many tourists. For example, this volcano provides a readily studied example of
390-614: A result of the collapse of the former cone of the White Island Volcano, it is suspected to have generated a 7-metre (23 ft) high tsunami that flooded the coast of Bay of Plenty as much as 7 kilometres (4.3 mi) inland between 3,000 and 2,200 B.P. Whakaari / White Island lies in the northern end of the Taupō Volcanic Zone . The Taupō Volcanic Zone forms the southernmost segment of the 2,800 km (1,700 mi)-long Tonga–Kermadec–Taupō volcanic arc system and
455-534: A subducting slab generates magma resembling high-magnesium andesites. Notable stonemasonry structures built with andesite include: In 2009, researchers revealed that andesite was found in two meteorites (numbered GRA 06128 and GRA 06129) that were discovered in the Graves Nunataks icefield during the US Antarctic Search for Meteorites 2006/2007 field season. This possibly points to
520-435: Is a volcanic rock of intermediate composition . In a general sense, it is the intermediate type between silica -poor basalt and silica-rich rhyolite . It is fine-grained ( aphanitic ) to porphyritic in texture, and is composed predominantly of sodium-rich plagioclase plus pyroxene or hornblende . Andesite is the extrusive equivalent of plutonic diorite . Characteristic of subduction zones, andesite represents
585-670: Is an active cone. The crater of Central Cone is open to the southeast as the result of major, past flank landslides involving hydrothermally altered rock and past phreatic and phreatomagmatic eruptions . the Ngatoro Cone and Central cones are both constructed of alternating layers of lava flows, tuffs , agglomerates , tephra , igneous dikes , and breccias . Some of these strata have been altered to varying degrees by highly corrosive and acid hydrothermal fluids and gases. The modern crater floor of Whakaari / White Island lies less than 30-metre (98 ft) above sea level and
650-446: Is deep-water fishing for hapuka and bluenose (a type of warehou ) in the winter. In the summer, blue, black and striped marlin , as well as yellowfin tuna can be caught. A small charter fleet, offering day trips and overnight or longer trips, operates from the nearby port at Whakatāne . On-land tours of the island have not been operating since the 2019 eruption . Andesite Andesite ( / ˈ æ n d ə z aɪ t / )
715-474: Is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Whakaari Whakaari / White Island ( [faˈkaːɾi] , Māori : Te Puia Whakaari , lit. "the dramatic volcano" ), also known as White Island or Whakaari , is an active andesite stratovolcano situated 48 km (30 mi) from the east coast of the North Island of New Zealand , in
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#1732765873820780-466: Is intermediate in its content of silica and low in alkali metals . It has less than 20% quartz and 10% feldspathoid by volume, with at least 65% of the feldspar in the rock consisting of plagioclase . This places andesite in the basalt /andesite field of the QAPF diagram . Andesite is further distinguished from basalt by its silica content of over 52%. However, it is often not possible to determine
845-463: Is largely covered by material from the 1914 debris avalanche . The main crater contains three coalescing sub-craters. The sub-craters are aligned NW-SE within the amphitheatre-shaped Central Cone. The open sea breaches the south-eastern crater wall in three places to form Shark, Te Awapuia, and Wilson bays, which Troup Head and Pinnacle Head separate from each other. Long-lived, semi-continuous, weak, hydrothermal explosions , similar to those occurring in
910-558: Is limited to steaming fumaroles and boiling mud, but gas and ash emissions are common, and the island is typically on an alert level rating of 1 or 2 on a scale of 0 to 5; as "Level 2 is the highest alert level before an eruption takes place and indicates 'moderate to heightened volcanic unrest' with the 'potential for eruption hazards.'" The volcano is also monitored by the Deep Earth Carbon Degassing Project . In March 2000, three small vents appeared in
975-537: Is not a distinct rock type in the QAPF classification. Andesite is usually light to dark grey in colour, due to its content of hornblende or pyroxene minerals. but can exhibit a wide range of shading. Darker andesite can be challenging to distinguish from basalt, but a common rule of thumb , used away from the laboratory, is that andesite has a color index less than 35. The plagioclase in andesite varies widely in sodium content, from anorthite to oligoclase , but
1040-648: Is not included in the boundaries of a territorial authority council (district council) and the Minister of Local Government is its territorial authority, with support from the Department of Internal Affairs . The functions of the territorial authority are limited, as the island is uninhabited, the land is undeveloped and it is privately owned. The island is within the boundaries of the Bay of Plenty Regional Council for regional council functions. Whakaari / White Island
1105-559: Is one of New Zealand's main breeding colonies for Australasian gannets . Thousands of gannets come to the island each year to mate, raise chicks, and feed on the fish in the water around it. There is little vegetation on the island itself, but seaweed grows in the waters around it and gannet parents harvest it to cool off chicks. An ornithologist who visited in 1912 found five species and identified four; in addition to gannets they found red-billed gulls , great-winged petrels , and white-fronted terns . BirdLife International has declared
1170-513: Is ongoing as of 11 August 2024. The eruption has produced a weak plume with a low concentration of volcanic ash. In November 2019, background activity at Whakaari increased and gas, steam and mud was being ejected from the crater. At 14:11 NZDT on 9 December 2019, Whakaari / White Island erupted. It was reported that there were forty-seven people on the island when the eruption happened. Twenty-two people were killed, including two people who are missing and confirmed dead on 23 January 2020, and
1235-518: Is so characteristic of the Earth's unique plate tectonics that the Earth has been described as an "andesite planet". During subduction, the subducted oceanic crust is subjected to increasing pressure and temperature, leading to metamorphism . Hydrous minerals such as amphibole , zeolites , or chlorite (which are present in the oceanic lithosphere ) dehydrate as they change to more stable, anhydrous forms, releasing water and soluble elements into
1300-433: Is the principal phenocryst mineral, the andesite will be described as a hornblende andesite . Andesite lava typically has a viscosity of 3.5 × 10 cP (3.5 × 10 Pa⋅s) at 1,200 °C (2,190 °F). This is slightly greater than the viscosity of smooth peanut butter . As a result, andesitic volcanism is often explosive, forming tuffs and agglomerates . Andesite vents tend to build up composite volcanoes rather than
1365-447: Is typically andesine , in which anorthite makes up about 40 mol% of the plagioclase. The pyroxene minerals that may be present include augite , pigeonite , or orthopyroxene . Magnetite , zircon , apatite , ilmenite , biotite , and garnet are common accessory minerals. Alkali feldspar may be present in minor amounts. Andesite is usually porphyritic , containing larger crystals ( phenocrysts ) of plagioclase formed prior to
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#17327658738201430-504: The Andes , magma often pools in the shallow crust creating magma chambers. Magmas in these reservoirs become evolved in composition (dacitic to rhyolitic) through both the process of fractional crystallization and partial melting of the surrounding country rock . Over time as crystallization continues and the system loses heat, these reservoirs cool. In order to remain active, magma chambers must have continued recharge of hot basaltic melt into
1495-470: The Bay of Plenty 48 kilometres (30 mi) from the North Island mainland, due north of the town of Ōpōtiki and north-northeast of Whakatāne . The island's active crater lies slightly southeast of the island's centre, and contains an acidic lake. The crater has a sharp rim to the northwest, with its highest point (also the island's highest point) being the 321-metre (1,053 ft) Mount Gisborne in
1560-446: The Bay of Plenty . The island covers an area of approximately 325 ha (800 acres), which is just the peak of a much larger submarine volcano . The island is New Zealand's most active cone volcano , and has been built up by continuous volcanic activity over the past 150,000 years. The nearest mainland towns are Whakatāne and Tauranga . The island has been in a nearly continuous stage of releasing volcanic gas at least since it
1625-483: The Lau Basin – Havre Trough –Ngatoro Basin back-arc basin system. For the past few thousand years, Whakaari / White Island has been the location for an open, highly reactive hydrothermal system. This hydrothermal system expresses itself as hot springs and mud pools, fumaroles , and acid streams and lakes. The present centre for volcanic activity and outgassing is a large crater lake of boiling acidic waters located in
1690-442: The shield volcanoes characteristic of basalt, with its much lower viscosity resulting from its lower silica content and higher eruption temperature. Block lava flows are typical of andesitic lavas from composite volcanoes. They behave in a similar manner to ʻaʻā flows but their more viscous nature causes the surface to be covered in smooth-sided angular fragments (blocks) of solidified lava instead of clinkers. As with ʻaʻā flows,
1755-536: The 1930s, because of the inadequate mineral content in the fertiliser. The remains of the buildings involved can still be seen, heavily corroded by the sulphuric gases. The ownership of Whakaari / White Island was one of the first two cases heard by the Native Land Court of New Zealand (now called the Māori Land Court ), the other being ownership of nearby Motuhora. Retireti Tapihana (Tapsell) brought
1820-517: The Great". In 1923, mining was again attempted but, learning from the 1914 disaster, the miners built their huts on a flat part of the island near a gannet colony. Each day they would lower their boat into the sea from a gantry, and row around to the mining factory wharf in Crater Bay. If the sea was rough they had to clamber around the rocks on a very narrow track on the crater's edge. Before
1885-1099: The US state of New York Isles of Shoals , also known as White and Seavey Islands, in the US state of New Hampshire White Island State Historic Site White Island Pond , Massachusetts, U.S. White Island Shores, Massachusetts , U.S. Europe [ edit ] White Island, Isles of Scilly , England Eilean Bàn ( White Island ), Scotland White Island, County Fermanagh , Northern Ireland White Island, Ibiza Beloostrov ( White Island ), St. Petersburg, Russia Graciosa , or White Island, Azores Kvitøya ( White Island ), Norway Asia [ edit ] White Island (Philippines) Antarctica [ edit ] White Island (Enderby Land) White Island (Ross Archipelago) White Islands , Sulzberger Bay Other uses [ edit ] White Island (film) , 2016 See also [ edit ] All pages with titles containing White Island Isla Blanca (disambiguation) Isle of Wight (disambiguation) White's Island Topics referred to by
1950-479: The Western sub-crater today, are regarded to have formed these three bays as hydrothermal explosion craters . Whakaari / White Island and the sea stacks that form Club Rocks and Volckner Rocks are the emergent summits of a larger, 16 by 18 kilometres (9.9 by 11.2 mi), submarine volcano. It is known as White Island Volcano and has a total volume of 78 km (19 cu mi). The bathymetry surrounding
2015-566: The air. Minor ash emissions were observed on 23 and 26 December, but no further eruptions occurred. Visual observations conducted in January showed that lava had been extruded into the vents created by the eruption on 9 December. The Māori name Whakaari is recorded in multiple 19th century texts by Europeans, with one mention dating back to 1849, though spelling varied including Wakaari, Whakari, and Whaka ari. The name Whakaari means "to make visible" or "exposed to view". The full Māori name for
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2080-408: The base of the crust. Once these mafic minerals have been removed, the melt no longer has a basaltic composition. The silica content of the residual melt is enriched relative to the starting composition. The iron and magnesium contents are depleted. As this process continues, the melt becomes more and more evolved eventually becoming andesitic. Without continued addition of mafic material, however,
2145-495: The case in 1867, claiming ownership. Retireti was the son of Phillip Tapsell and Hine-i-tūrama Ngātiki . Ownership was awarded jointly to Retireti Tapihana and his sister Katherine Simpkins. In 1874, the island was sold to the partnership John Wilson and William Kelly by the estate of Retireti Tapihana (Tapsell). Wilson and Kelly subsequently leased it to the Auckland-based partnership of Stewart and Appleby, but after
2210-581: The cliff which forms much of the western coast of the island. Several rock reefs and islets are located along the island's northeast coast, and there is also a rock reef at Troup Head. A small islet, Club Rocks, lies 800-metre (2,600 ft) south of Otaketake Point. It consists of a set of four sea stacks rising to more than 20-metre (66 ft) above sea level. In addition, four sea stacks collectively known as Te Paepae o Aotea or Volkner Rocks lie 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) northwest of Whakaari / White Island. Three of these sea stacks rise precipitously from
2275-581: The conditions of the lease were unfulfilled, it was put up for lease again. The island is now privately owned by the Buttle family trust, having been bought by George Raymond Buttle, a stockbroker, in 1936. Buttle later refused to sell it to the government, but agreed in 1952 that it be declared a private scenic reserve. In 2012, the island's title was transferred to the Whakaari Trust, whose shareholders are Peter, Andrew and James Buttle. The island
2340-421: The crater on the southern side of Troup Head and towards the southeast. It produced well-defined boulder-covered lobes on the seafloor. Another debris flow exited the modern crater on the northern side of Troup Head and through several submarine valleys towards the east into deep water. It produced boulder-covered valley-fill deposits. The latter debris flow was large enough to have produced a significant tsunami. As
2405-424: The days of antibiotics , sulphur was used as an antibacterial agent in medicines, in the making of match-heads, and for sterilising wine corks. The sulphur was hauled to the crushing plant in small rail trucks, and a bagging facility was also constructed. However, there was not enough sulphur in the material mined at the island, so the ground-up rock was used as a component of agricultural fertiliser. Mining ended in
2470-500: The dominant rock type in island arcs . The average composition of the continental crust is andesitic. Along with basalts, andesites are a component of the Martian crust . The name andesite is derived from the Andes mountain range, where this rock type is found in abundance. It was first applied by Christian Leopold von Buch in 1826. Andesite is an aphanitic (fine-grained) to porphyritic (coarse-grained) igneous rock that
2535-419: The emergent summit of Whakaari / White Island consists of a broad, sloping shelf extending from sea level to approximately 80-metre (260 ft) depth. Steep margins define the extent of the submarine volcano at a depths of 300–400-metre (980–1,310 ft) The amphitheatre-shaped crater of the modern Central Cone is argued to have been created by the collapse of the former cone of the White Island Volcano to
2600-431: The extrusion that brought the magma to the surface, embedded in a finer-grained matrix . Phenocrysts of pyroxene or hornblende are also common. These minerals have the highest melting temperatures of the typical minerals that can crystallize from the melt and are therefore the first to form solid crystals. Classification of andesites may be refined according to the most abundant phenocryst . For example, if hornblende
2665-400: The fire was kindled on Whakaari and brought to him. Other versions of this story are similar but it is his sisters, or the gods, who send him warmth from Whakaari. Other stories give origin stories for the island. One states that it rose from the deep after the god Māui , having first touched fire was so greatly tortured by the pain that he instantly dived under water to calm his pain; and in
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2730-469: The island is te puia whakaari , meaning "The Dramatic Volcano". Whakaari was named "White Island" by Captain Cook on 1 November 1769, Cook noted in his journal I have named it White Island because as such it always appeared to us . According to LINZ this name came from the dense clouds of white steam emanating from it. Alternatively, he may have been alluding to the guano deposits that once covered
2795-439: The island showed signs of increased activity with lake and gas levels rising from inside the crater. On 5 August 2012 a minor eruption occurred, sending ash into the air. More eruptions have followed since. Ongoing volcanic activity and tremors on 25 January 2013 suggested another eruption was imminent. A small eruption occurred on 20 August 2013 at 10:23 am, lasting for ten minutes and producing mostly steam. A minor eruption
2860-536: The island to be an Important Bird Area because of the gannets' nesting colony. Whakaari / White Island is privately owned. It was declared a private scenic reserve in 1953, and is subject to the provisions of the Reserves Act 1977 . Visitors cannot land without permission. However, it is easily accessible by authorised tourist operators. The waters surrounding the island are well known for their fish stocks. Yellowtail kingfish abound all year, while there
2925-496: The island. Although Cook sailed close to the island, he did not record that it was a volcano. The island's official name was changed from "White Island (Whakaari)" to "Whakaari / White Island" in 1997. This makes it one of many places in New Zealand with dual Māori and English names. Some Māori myths describe Whakaari as part of Ngātoro-i-rangi 's ascent of Tongariro. In one account, he called on his ancestors for warmth;
2990-399: The late seventies to the mid-eighties, explosive eruptions at Whakaari / White Island are typically phreatic or phreatomagmatic in style. The lava flows, ash , and pyroclastic flows produced by historic and prehistoric eruptions are andesitic and dacitic in composition. These eruptions also produce discrete craters within crater-fill deposits of the Central Cone. Since 1826, there has been
3055-424: The main crater and began belching ash which covered the island in fine grey powder. An eruption on 27 July 2000 blanketed the island with mud and scoria and a new crater appeared. Major eruptions in 1981–83 altered much of the island's landscape and destroyed the extensive pōhutukawa forest. The large crater created at that time now contains a lake , whose level varies substantially. Between July and August 2012
3120-437: The melt will eventually reach a rhyolitic composition. This produces the characteristic basalt-andesite-rhyolite association of island arcs, with andesite the most distinctive rock type. Partially molten basalt in the mantle wedge moves upwards until it reaches the base of the overriding crust. Once there, the basaltic melt can either underplate the crust, creating a layer of molten material at its base, or it can move into
3185-490: The mid-1880s, again from 1898 to 1901, and then from 1913 to 1914, to mine sulphur from Whakaari / White Island, with the island at first being owned by John Wilson . Mining came to a halt in September 1914, when part of the western crater rim collapsed, creating a lahar that killed all 10 workers, who disappeared without a trace. Only a camp cat survived, found some days afterwards by the resupply ship and dubbed "Peter
3250-600: The mineral composition of volcanic rocks, due to their very fine grain size, and andesite is then defined chemically as volcanic rock with a content of 57% to 63% silica and not more than about 6% alkali metal oxides. This places the andesite in the O2 field of the TAS classification . Basaltic andesite , with a content of 52% to 57% silica, is represented by the O1 field of the TAS classification but
3315-523: The molten interior of the flow, which is kept insulated by the solidified blocky surface, advances over the rubble that falls off the flow front. They also move much more slowly downhill and are thicker in depth than ʻaʻā flows. Though andesite is common in other tectonic settings, it is particularly characteristic of convergent plate margins . Even before the Plate Tectonics Revolution , geologists had defined an andesite line in
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#17327658738203380-510: The overlying wedge of mantle. Fluxing water into the wedge lowers the solidus of the mantle material and causes partial melting. Due to the lower density of the partially molten material, it rises through the wedge until it reaches the lower boundary of the overriding plate. Melts generated in the mantle wedge are of basaltic composition, but they have a distinctive enrichment of soluble elements (e.g. potassium (K), barium (Ba), and lead (Pb)) which are contributed from sediment that lies at
3445-441: The overriding plate in the form of dykes . If it underplates the crust, the basalt can (in theory) cause partial melting of the lower crust due to the transfer of heat and volatiles. Models of heat transfer, however, show that arc basalts emplaced at temperatures 1100–1240 °C cannot provide enough heat to melt lower crustal amphibolite . Basalt can, however, melt pelitic upper crustal material. In continental arcs, such as
3510-624: The place where he shook the fire from him arose Whakaari. Another tells that Moutohora Island and Whakaari / White Island were peaks in the Huiarau Range near Waikaremoana but were jealous of each other, and rushed towards the ocean, leaving behind them the tracks that now form the Whakatane valley and either the Tauranga or Te Waimana valley. Whakaari was faster, so got to the better position where it stands today. Attempts were made in
3575-460: The same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title White Island . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=White_Island&oldid=1194106387 " Categories : Disambiguation pages Place name disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description
3640-482: The sea floor (less than 100 metres (330 ft) below sea level) to a maximum height of 113 metres (371 ft) m above sea level. The fourth sea stack is just an eroded stump. Whakaari / White Island is an andesite – dacite stratovolcano that consists of two overlapping volcanic cones, which are the Ngatoro and Central cones. The Ngatoro Cone is extinct and partially eroded. The amphitheatre -shaped Central Cone
3705-407: The southeast of the crater, where ash and boulder slopes descend to Te Awapuia Bay (also known as Crater Bay), the site of derelict buildings and the island's wharf. This bay lies between a prominent headland, Troup Head, at the island's southeastern extreme, and the island's southernmost point, Otaketake, which is the site of one of the island's gannet colonies. Another colony exists at Te Hokowhitu,
3770-422: The southwest. Based on extrapolating 20 m GIS contour data to enclose the present crater and upwards with a maximum slope angle of 30°, the former pre-collapse summit was inferred to have been 500–600-metre (1,600–2,000 ft) high. Side-scan and bathymetric data indicate possible debris flows associated with its collapse that can be traced back to the current crater on White Island. One of these debris flows exited
3835-541: The system. When this basaltic material mixes with the evolved rhyolitic magma, the composition is returned to andesite, its intermediate phase. Evidence of magma mixing is provided by the presence of phenocrysts in some andesites that are not in chemical equilibrium with the melt in which they are found. High-magnesium andesites ( boninites ) in island arcs may be primitive andesites, generated from metasomatized mantle. Experimental evidence shows that depleted mantle rock exposed to alkali fluids such as might be given off by
3900-585: The top of the subducting plate. Although there is evidence to suggest that the subducting oceanic crust may also melt during this process, the relative contribution of the three components (crust, sediment, and wedge) to the generated basalts is still a matter of debate. Basalt thus formed can contribute to the formation of andesite through fractional crystallization, partial melting of crust, or magma mixing, all of which are discussed next. Intermediate volcanic rocks are created via several processes: To achieve andesitic composition via fractional crystallization ,
3965-465: The type of volcanic magmatic–hydrothermal system involved in the generation of porphyry copper deposits . Volcanologists from the GeoNet Project continually monitor the volcano's activity via surveillance cameras. Survey pegs, magnetometers and seismography equipment for early earthquake warnings via radio were installed on the crater walls in 1976. At most times the volcanic activity
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#17327658738204030-424: The west. The 283-metre (928 ft) Mount Percival forms the northern part of the rim. An older vent, the 310-metre (1,020 ft) Mount Ngatoro, lies to the northwest. The exposed island is only the peak of a much larger submarine volcano , which rises up to 1,600 m (5,249 ft) above the nearby seafloor. The island is generally rugged, with cliffs surrounding most of the coast. The only exceptions are to
4095-488: The western Pacific that separated basalt of the central Pacific from andesite further west. This coincides with the subduction zones at the western boundary of the Pacific Plate . Magmatism in island arc regions comes from the interplay of the subducting plate and the mantle wedge , the wedge-shaped region between the subducting and overriding plates. The presence of convergent margins dominated by andesite
4160-510: The western subcrater. The intermixing mélange of marine waters, meteoric waters, and hot magmatic fluids generate acid brines, with pH as low as 2, that outgas and form numerous and often transitory hot springs and mud pools, fumaroles, and acid streams and lakes. The crater lake of boiling acidic water, which occupies the western subcrater, appears to vary in volume due to changing meteorological conditions and fluctuating levels of hydrothermal activity. Although Strombolian activity occurred from
4225-424: Was sighted by James Cook in 1769. Whakaari erupted continually from December 1975 until September 2000, and also erupted in 2012, 2016, and 2019. Sulphur was mined on the island until the 1930s. Ten miners were killed in 1914 when part of the crater wall collapsed. A large eruption occurred at 14:11 on 9 December 2019, which resulted in 22 fatalities, including two people who were missing and ruled to be dead by
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