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70-465: Wisconsin Death Trip is a 1973 historical nonfiction book by Michael Lesy , originally published by Pantheon Books . It charts numerous sordid, tragic, and bizarre incidents that took place in and around Jackson County, Wisconsin between 1885 and 1900, primarily in the town of Black River Falls . The events are outlined through actual written historical documents—primarily articles published in

140-500: A computer to settle the returns for each bet once the details of the wager have been 'translated' into the system by an employee. The added efficiency of this digital system has ensured that there are now very few, if indeed any, betting offices continuing to use microfilm cameras in the UK. Visa and National City use microfilm (roll microfilm and fiche) to store financial, personal, and legal records. Source code for computer programs

210-595: A drawing that is 2.00 × 2.80 metres, that is 79 × 110 in. These films are stored as microfiche. 16 mm or 35 mm film to motion picture standard is used, usually unperforated. Roll microfilm is stored on open reels or put into cassettes. The standard lengths for using roll film is 30.48 m (100 ft) for 35 mm rolls, and 100 ft, 130 ft and 215 feet for 16 mm rolls. One roll of 35 mm film may carry 600 images of large engineering drawings or 800 images of broadsheet newspaper pages. 16 mm film may carry 2,400 images of letter-sized images as

280-399: A format no longer produced, were similar to microfiche, but printed on cardboard rather than photographic film. Equipment is available that accepts a data stream from a computer; this exposes film to produce images as if the stream had been sent to a line printer and the listing had been microfilmed. The process is known as computer output microfilm or computer output microfiche (COM). Using

350-483: A light source; this is the negative of text on paper. COM is sometimes processed normally. Other applications require that image appears as a conventional negative; the film is then reversal processed. This outputs either 16 mm film or fiche pages on a 105 mm roll. Because listing characters are a simple design, a reduction ratio of 50 gives good quality and puts about 300 pages on a microfiche. A microfilm plotter, sometimes called an aperture card plotter, accepts

420-584: A matrix of microimages. All microfiche are read with their text parallel to the long side of the fiche . Frames may be landscape or portrait in orientation . Along the top of the fiche a title may be recorded for visual identification. The most commonly used format is a portrait image of about 10 × 14 mm. Office-size papers or magazine pages require a reduction of 24 or 25 in size. Microfiche are stored in open-top envelopes, which are put in drawers or boxes as file cards or fitted into pockets in purpose-made books. Ultrafiche (also "ultramicrofiche" )

490-452: A means of keeping compact records of bets taken. Betting shop customers would sometimes attempt to amend their betting slip receipt to attempt fraud, and so the microphotography camera (which also generally contained its own independent time-piece) found use as a definitive means of recording the exact details of each and every bet taken. The use of microphotography has now largely been replaced by digital 'bet capture' systems, which also allow

560-560: A medical records keeper from Mendota State Hospital , a town historian, and a town gossip. Lesy's own narration is also incorporated, along with selections from writings by Hamlin Garland , Sinclair Lewis , and Glenway Wescott . Accompanying the text are approximately 200 photographs and portraits by Charles Van Schaick, a German immigrant who served as the Justice of Peace and town photographer for Black River Falls. The book emphasizes

630-561: A method to microformat dissertations, and in 1934 the United States National Agriculture Library implemented the first microform print-on-demand service, which was quickly followed by a similar commercial concern, Science Service. In 1935, Kodak's Recordak division began filming and publishing The New York Times on reels of 35 millimeter microfilm, ushering in the era of newspaper preservation on film. This method of information storage received

700-576: A myriad of numerous grim and bizarre occurrences that took place in and around Jackson County, Wisconsin —in particular, the city of Black River Falls —between 1885 and 1910. In addition to a disintegration of the local economy after the closure of several industrial mines, the populace is plagued by a diphtheria epidemic that claims the lives of numerous children, as well as a series of violent crimes, murders, suicides, arsons, religious delusions , mental illness, and superstitions. The vandalism crimes of Mary Sweeny are also showcased throughout. The book

770-445: A non-fiction work may prove inaccurate, the sincere author aims to be truthful at the time of composition. A non-fiction account is an exercise in accurately representing a topic, and remains distinct from any implied endorsement. The numerous narrative techniques used within fiction are generally thought inappropriate for use in non-fiction. They are still present particularly in older works, but are often muted so as not to overshadow

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840-637: A novelty was an opinion shared in the 1858 Dictionary of Photography , which called the process "somewhat trifling and childish". Microphotography was first suggested as a document preservation method in 1851 by the astronomer James Glaisher , and in 1853 by John Herschel , another astronomer. Both men attended the 1851 Great Exhibition in London, where the exhibit on photography greatly influenced Glaisher. He called it "the most remarkable discovery of modern times", and argued in his official report for using microphotography to preserve documents. A pigeon post

910-524: A number of musical works, including the opera Black River by Conrad Susa , which was composed in 1975 and revised 1981; the 1999 "dramatic cantata" Songs of Madness and Sorrow by Daron Hagen ; and the 1999 album Wisconsin Death Trip by the industrial metal band Static-X . British post-punk band Echo & the Bunnymen used photographs from the book as artwork for their 2001 album Flowers , as well as its singles. A song performed by Jerry Joseph

980-401: A reduced size. The prints were on photographic paper and did not exceed 40 mm, to permit insertion in a goose-quill or thin metal tube, which protected against the elements. The pigeons each carried a dispatch that was tightly rolled and tied with a thread, and then attached to a tail feather of the pigeon. The dispatch was protected by being inserted in the quill, which was then attached to

1050-726: A separate universe." Inspired by the images, Lesy began researching the history of the town via microforms of contemporaneous newspaper articles from the Black River Falls newspaper, the Badger State Banner , which detailed numerous accounts of economic turmoil, crime, disease, mental illness, and violence. Lesy selected approximately 200 of Van Schaick's photographs for inclusion in the book, which he originally presented as his doctoral thesis at Rutgers University . Pantheon Books first published Wisconsin Death Trip in 1973. It has been reprinted several times in

1120-412: A simple, inexpensive ($ 2.00 in 1950), monocular microfilm viewing device, known as the "Seidell viewer", that was sold during the 1940s and 1950s. A microfilm printer contains a xerographic copying process, like a photocopier . The image to be printed is projected with synchronised movement on to the drum. These devices offer either small image preview for the operator or full size image preview, when it

1190-414: A single film may be inserted into a dark slide or the camera may be fitted with a roll film holder which after an exposure advances the film into a box and cuts the frame off the roll for processing as a single film. For engineering drawings, a freestanding open steel structure is often provided. A camera may be moved vertically on a track. Drawings are placed on a large table for filming, with centres under

1260-406: A single stream of microimages along the film set so that lines of text are parallel to the sides of the film or 10,000 small documents, perhaps cheques or betting slips, with both sides of the originals set side by side on the film. Aperture cards are Hollerith cards into which a hole has been cut. A 35 mm microfilm chip is mounted in the hole inside of a clear plastic sleeve or secured over

1330-401: A square inch, and that a one-foot cube could contain 1.5 million volumes. In 1906, Paul Otlet and Robert Goldschmidt proposed the livre microphotographique as a way to alleviate the cost and space limitations imposed by the codex format. Otlet's overarching goal was to create a World Center Library of Juridical, Social and Cultural Documentation, and he saw microfiche as a way to offer

1400-554: A stable and durable format that was inexpensive, easy to use, easy to reproduce, and extremely compact. In 1925, the team spoke of a massive library where each volume existed as master negatives and positives, and where items were printed on demand for interested patrons. In the 1920s, microfilm began to be used in a commercial setting. New York City banker George McCarthy was issued a patent in 1925 for his "Checkograph" machine, designed to make micrographic copies of cancelled checks for permanent storage by financial institutions. In 1928,

1470-470: A step and repeat mechanism to advance the film after each exposure. The simpler versions use a dark slide loaded by the operator in a dark room; after exposure the film is individually processed, which may be by hand or using a dental X-ray processor. Cameras for high output are loaded with a roll of 105 mm film. The exposed film is developed as a roll; this is sometimes cut to individual fiche after processing or kept in roll form for duplication. Equipment

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1540-689: A storage medium than earlier methods of film information storage, such as the Photoscope, the Film-O-Graph, the Fiske-O-Scope, and filmslides. The year 1938 also saw another major event in the history of microfilm when University Microfilms International (UMI) was established by Eugene Power . For the next half century, UMI would dominate the field, filming and distributing microfilm editions of current and past publications and academic dissertations. After another short-lived name change, UMI

1610-411: A stream that might be sent to a computer pen plotter. It produces corresponding frames of microfilm. These produce microfilm as 35 or 16 mm film or aperture cards. Computer Output Microfiche was used to distribute massive amounts of frequently changed data to institutions or companies which could not afford computer terminals but already used microfiche readers for a variety of reasons. In some cases

1680-479: Is also possible. Some fiction may include non-fictional elements; semi-fiction is fiction implementing a great deal of non-fiction, (such as a fictional description based on a true story). Some non-fiction may include elements of unverified supposition , deduction , or imagination for the purpose of smoothing out a narrative , but the inclusion of open falsehoods would discredit it as a work of non-fiction. The publishing and bookselling businesses sometimes use

1750-482: Is an exceptionally compact version of a microfiche or microfilm, storing analog data at much higher densities. Ultrafiche can be created directly from computers using appropriate peripherals. They are typically used for storing data gathered from extremely data-intensive operations such as remote sensing. Microcards are an opaque, non-reversed format, sometimes known as microopaques. They were invented in 1948 by Fremont Rider and described in his book, The Scholar and

1820-402: Is available that accepts a data stream from a mainframe computer. This exposes film to produce images as if the stream had been sent to a line printer and the listing had been microfilmed. Because of the source one run may represent many thousands of pages. The process is known as computer output microfilm or computer output microfiche (COM). Within the equipment character images are made by

1890-581: Is built into a box. In some versions this is for bench top use, other versions are portable. The operator maintains a stack of material to be filmed in a tray, the camera automatically takes one document after another for advancement through the machine. The camera lens sees the documents as they pass a slot. Film behind the lens advances exactly with the image. Special purpose flow cameras film both sides of documents, putting both images side by side on 16 mm film. These cameras are used to record cheques and betting slips. All microfiche cameras are planetary with

1960-411: Is called a reader printer. Microform printers can accept positive or negative films and positive or negative images on paper. New machines allow the user to scan a microform image and save it as a digital file. 105 × 148 mm flat film is used for microimages of very large engineering drawings. These may carry a title photographed or written along one edge. Typical reduction is about 20, representing

2030-405: Is divided in five sections, with the opening and closing chapters focusing primarily on births, children, and child death ; the middle three chapters focus on an array of incidents involving adults. The various occurrences are relayed via actual articles originally published in the local newspaper, the Badger State Banner , by editor Frank Cooper and his son George, as well as written documents from

2100-423: Is in use. They may offer a choice of magnifications. They usually have motors to advance and rewind film. When coding blips are recorded on the film a reader is used that can read the blips to find any required image. Portable readers are plastic devices that fold for carrying; when open they project an image from microfiche on to a reflective screen. For example, with M. de Saint Rat , Atherton Seidell developed

2170-809: Is one of the two fundamental approaches to story and storytelling , in contrast to narrative fiction , which is largely populated by imaginary characters and events. Non-fiction writers can show the reasons and consequences of events, they can compare, contrast, classify, categorise and summarise information, put the facts in a logical or chronological order, infer and reach conclusions about facts, etc. They can use graphic, structural and printed appearance features such as pictures , graphs or charts , diagrams , flowcharts , summaries , glossaries , sidebars , timelines , table of contents , headings , subheadings , bolded or italicised words, footnotes , maps , indices , labels , captions , etc. to help readers find information. While specific claims in

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2240-501: Is provided 16, 35 and 105 mm wide in lengths of 30 metres (100 ft) and longer, and is usually unperforated. Roll film is developed, fixed and washed by continuous processors. Sheet film is supplied in ISO A6 size. This is either processed by hand or using a dental X-ray processor. Camera film is supplied ready mounted in aperture cards. Aperture cards are developed, fixed and washed immediately after exposure by equipment fitted to

2310-980: The Eastman Kodak Company bought McCarthy's invention and began marketing check microfilming devices under its "Recordak" division. Between 1927 and 1935, the Library of Congress microfilmed more than three million pages of books and manuscripts in the British Library ; in 1929 the Social Science Research Council and the American Council of Learned Societies joined to create a Joint Committee on Materials for Research, chaired for most of its existence by Robert C. Binkley , which looked closely at microform's potential to serve small print runs of academic or technical materials. In 1933, Charles C. Peters developed

2380-624: The Wisconsin Historical Society . The collection had been acquired by the historical society in 1970, after having been left stored in Van Schaick's unused studio for thirty years following his death in 1940. Van Schaik had left behind a total of approximately 30,000 glass plate negatives, approximately 8,000 of which were salvaged by the historical society. "I thought some of the studio portraits were pretty amazing," Lesy recalled. "The whole experience that day seemed like

2450-494: The daguerreotype process, John Benjamin Dancer was one of the first to produce microphotographs , in 1839. He achieved a reduction ratio of 160:1. Dancer refined his reduction procedures with Frederick Scott Archer 's wet collodion process , developed in 1850–51, but he dismissed his decades-long work on microphotographs as a personal hobby and did not document his procedures. The idea that microphotography could be no more than

2520-611: The American author Robert Goolrick also cites it as an inspiration for his novel A Reliable Wife. Stephen King 's book of novellas, Full Dark, No Stars , cites Wisconsin Death Trip as the inspiration for the story 1922 . The American author Stewart O'Nan "acknowledges his great debt to Michael Lesy," citing Wisconsin Death Trip as an inspiration for his novel A Prayer for the Dying . (NB: at least one early Picador edition misattributes this to "Michael Levy".) In commentary on

2590-701: The Future of the Research Library . To create microform media, a planetary camera is mounted with the vertical axis above a copy that is stationary during exposure. High volume output is possible with a rotary camera which moves the copy smoothly through the camera to expose film which moves with the reduced image. Alternatively, it may be produced by computers, i.e. COM (computer output microfilm). Normally microfilming uses high resolution panchromatic monochrome stock. Positive color film giving good reproduction and high resolution can also be used. Roll film

2660-717: The United States, first by Anchor Books in January 1991, and later by the University of New Mexico Press in January 2000. An eBook version was released by the University of New Mexico Press in August 2016. The 1999 film adaptation was directed by James Marsh as a docudrama . It was shot primarily in black-and-white , with contrasting color sequences of modern life in the area. It combined re-enactments of some of

2730-405: The aperture with adhesive tape. They are used for engineering drawings in all engineering disciplines. There are libraries of these containing over 3 million cards. Aperture cards may be stored in drawers or in freestanding rotary units. A microfiche is a sheet of flat film, 105 × 148 mm in size, the same size as the international standard for paper size ISO A6 . It carries

2800-765: The book in the creation of their show about rural America. Author Neil Gaiman cites the book as "hugely influential in the headspace" that led to his 2001 novel American Gods , later adapted into a television series of the same name. Nonfiction Non-fiction (or nonfiction ) is any document or media content that attempts, in good faith , to convey information only about the real world , rather than being grounded in imagination . Non-fiction typically aims to present topics objectively based on historical, scientific, and empirical information. However, some non-fiction ranges into more subjective territory, including sincerely held opinions on real-world topics. Often referring specifically to prose writing, non-fiction

2870-455: The boundaries between fiction and non-fiction are continually blurred and argued upon, especially in the field of biography ; as Virginia Woolf said: "if we think of truth as something of granite-like solidity and of personality as something of rainbow-like intangibility and reflect that the aim of biography is to weld these two into one seamless whole, we shall admit that the problem is a stiff one and that we need not wonder if biographers, for

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2940-608: The camera. Early cut sheet microforms and microfilms (to the 1930s) were printed on nitrate film , which poses high risks to their holding institutions, as nitrate film is chemically unstable and a fire hazard. From the late 1930s to the 1980s, microfilms were usually printed on a cellulose acetate base, which is prone to tears, vinegar syndrome , and redox blemishes. Vinegar syndrome is the result of chemical decay and produces "buckling and shrinking, embrittlement, and bubbling". Redox blemishes are yellow, orange or red spots 15–150 micrometres in diameter created by oxidative attacks on

3010-499: The card. This permits automated reproduction, as well as permitting mechanical card-sorting equipment to sort and select microfilm drawings. Aperture card mounted microfilm is roughly 3% of the size and space of conventional paper or vellum engineering drawings. Some military contracts around 1980 began to specify digital storage of engineering and maintenance data because the expenses were even lower than microfilm, but these programs are now finding it difficult to purchase new readers for

3080-580: The dispatches onto paper. Additionally, the US Victory Mail , and the British "Airgraph" system it was based on, were used for delivering mail between those at home and troops serving overseas during World War II . The systems worked by photographing large amounts of censored mail reduced to thumb-nail size onto reels of microfilm, which weighed much less than the originals would have. The film reels were shipped by priority air freight to and from

3150-522: The events described in the book with a voice-over narration by Ian Holm . Its visual style was intended to carry the content of the film; as Marsh said: "I wanted to convey in the film the real pathos contained in a four line newspaper report that simultaneously records and dismisses the end of someone's life." In the years following its publication, Wisconsin Death Trip developed a cult following and has been cited as an inspiration for numerous other works of music, literature, and film. The book inspired

3220-409: The film, and are largely due to poor storage conditions. The simplest microfilm camera that is still in use is a rail mounted structure at the top of which is a bellows camera for 105 x 148 mm film. A frame or copy board holds the original drawing vertical. The camera has a horizontal axis which passes through the center of the copy. The structure may be moved horizontally on rails. In a darkroom

3290-592: The harsh elements of Midwestern rural life during the expansion of the American Frontier and imminent urbanization, and their role in sordid incidents that unfolded in and around the community. Michael Lesy began developing Wisconsin Death Trip while studying for a master's degree at the University of Wisconsin in the late 1960s, during which he came across a collection of portraits and photographs by Black River Falls photographer Charles Van Schaick—taken between 1890 and 1900—that had been preserved by

3360-504: The help of a range of structures or formats such as: And so on. Common literary examples of non-fiction include expository , argumentative , functional, and opinion pieces ; essays on art or literature; biographies ; memoirs ; journalism ; and historical, scientific , technical , or economic writings (including electronic ones). Microform Three formats are common: microfilm (reels), microfiche (flat sheets), and aperture cards . Microcards, also known as "micro-opaques",

3430-431: The home fronts, sent to their prescribed destinations for enlarging at receiving stations near the recipients, and printed out on lightweight photo paper. These facsimiles of the letter-sheets were reproduced about one-quarter the original size and the miniature mails were then delivered to the addressee. Use of these microfilm systems saved significant volumes of cargo capacity needed for war supplies. An additional benefit

3500-412: The information within the work. Simplicity, clarity, and directness are some of the most important considerations when producing non-fiction. Audience is important in any artistic or descriptive endeavour, but it is perhaps most important in non-fiction. In fiction, the writer believes that readers will make an effort to follow and interpret an indirectly or abstractly presented progression of theme, whereas

3570-414: The lens. Fixed lights illuminate the copy. These cameras are often over 4 metres (13 ft) high. These cameras accept roll film stock of 35 or 16 mm. For office documents a similar design may be used but bench standing. This is a smaller version of the camera described above. These are provided either with the choice of 16 or 35 mm film or accepting 16 mm film only. Non adjustable versions of

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3640-499: The microphotograph was reattached to a glass frame and was then projected by magic lantern on the wall. The message contained in the microfilm could then be transcribed or copied. By 28 January 1871, when Paris and the Government of National Defense surrendered, Dagron had delivered 115,000 messages to Paris by carrier pigeon. The chemist Charles-Louis Barreswil proposed the application of photographic methods with prints of

3710-406: The most part failed to solve it." Including information that the author knows to be untrue within such works is usually regarded as dishonest. Still, certain kinds of written works can legitimately be either fiction or non-fiction, such as journals of self-expression, letters , magazine articles, and other expressions of imagination. Though they are mostly either one or the other, a blend of both

3780-400: The office camera are provided. These have a rigid frame or an enveloping box that holds a camera at a fixed position over a copy board. If this is to work at more than one reduction ratio there are a choice of lenses. Some cameras expose a pattern of light, referred to as blips, to digitally identify each adjacent frame. This pattern is copied whenever the film is copied for searching. A camera

3850-796: The old formats. Microfilm first saw military use during the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71. During the Siege of Paris , the only way for the provisional government in Tours to communicate with Paris was by pigeon post . As the pigeons could not carry paper dispatches, the Tours government turned to microfilm. Using a microphotography unit evacuated from Paris before the siege, clerks in Tours photographed paper dispatches and compressed them to microfilm, which were carried by homing pigeons into Paris and projected by magic lantern while clerks copied

3920-478: The phrase " literary non-fiction " to distinguish works with a more literary or intellectual bent, as opposed to the bulk of non-fiction subjects. Based on the author's intention or the purpose of the content, the main genres of non-fiction are instructional, explanatory, discussion-based, report-based (non-chronological), opinion-based (persuasive) and relating (chronological recounting) non-fiction. Non-fictional works of these different genres can be created with

3990-432: The pressures of crime, pestilence , mental illness , and urbanization . Wisconsin Death Trip developed a cult following in the years following its publication. In 1999, British filmmaker James Marsh adapted the book into a critically-acclaimed docudrama film of the same name . It was subsequently reprinted in 1991 by Anchor Books , and by the University of New Mexico Press in 2000. Wisconsin Death Trip charts

4060-415: The production of non-fiction has more to do with the direct provision of information. Understanding of the potential readers' use for the work and their existing knowledge of a subject are both fundamental for effective non-fiction. Despite the claim to truth of non-fiction, it is often necessary to persuade the reader to agree with the ideas and so a balanced, coherent, and informed argument is vital. However,

4130-421: The quantities involved justified getting a microfiche reader just to read COM fiche. The first COM devices date back to around 1955 and were used in scientific programming as substitutes for paper-based plotters . Then during the 1960s, business applications sought to use COM. This was part of the effort to find alternatives to paper-based reports in dealing with the information explosion . By 1969, some of

4200-718: The sanction of the American Library Association at its annual meeting in 1936, when it officially endorsed microforms. In 1937 Herman H. Fussler of the University of Chicago set up an exhibition of microform at the World Congress of Universal Documentation . Harvard University Library was the first major institution to realize the potential of microfilm to preserve broadsheets printed on high-acid newsprint and it launched its "Foreign Newspaper Project" to preserve such ephemeral publications in 1938. Roll microfilm proved far more satisfactory as

4270-423: The tail feather. The developments in microphotography continued through the next decades, but it was not until the turn of the century that its potential for practical usage was applied more broadly. In 1896, Canadian engineer Reginald A. Fessenden suggested microforms were a compact solution to engineers' unwieldy but frequently consulted materials. He proposed that up to 150,000,000 words could be made to fit in

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4340-416: The town newspaper—with additional narration by Lesy, as well as excerpts from works by Hamlin Garland , Sinclair Lewis , and Glenway Wescott , which thematically parallel the incidents depicted. The text is accompanied by contemporaneous photographs and portraits taken in Black River Falls by photographer Charles Van Schaick. Thematically, the book emphasizes the harsh aspects of Midwestern rural life under

4410-535: The two-disc DVD release of the Bob Dylan biopic I'm Not There , director Todd Haynes said that much of the imagery for the town of Riddle in the Richard Gere segment of the film was inspired by Lesy's book. Director Walter Murch also used the book as an historical source for the 1985 cult classic Return to Oz . The creators of the show The Heart, She Holler have discussed being influenced by

4480-459: Was also a space-saving measure. In his 1945 book, The Scholar and the Future of the Research Library , Fremont Rider calculated that research libraries were doubling in space every sixteen years. His suggested solution was microfilming, specifically with his invention, the microcard. Once items were put onto film, they could be removed from circulation and additional shelf space would be made available for rapidly expanding collections. The microcard

4550-411: Was in operation during the Siege of Paris (1870-1871). René Dagron photographed pages of newspapers in their entirety which he then converted into miniature photographs. He subsequently removed the collodion film from the glass base and rolled it tightly into a cylindrical shape which he then inserted into miniature tubes that were transported fastened to the tail feathers of the pigeons. Upon receipt

4620-483: Was inspired by the title of the film. Most recently, the book was adapted into a bluegrass/roots-rock opera by Tim Raphael and composer Jeff Berkson, which had its world premiere at Georgetown University 's Davis Performing Arts Center on February 1, 2008. The soundtrack for the film adaptation of the book features original music by DJ Shadow and John Cale . The Australian author Rod Jones cites Wisconsin Death Trip as an inspiration for his novel Billy Sunday , and

4690-452: Was made a part of ProQuest Information and Learning in 2001. Systems that mount microfilm images in punched cards have been widely used for archival storage of engineering information. For example, when airlines demand archival engineering drawings to support purchased equipment (in case the vendor goes out of business, for example), they normally specify punch-card-mounted microfilm with an industry-standard indexing system punched into

4760-413: Was printed to microfiche during the 1970s and distributed to customers in this form. Additionally, microfiche was used to write out long casework for some proofs such as the four color theorem . The medium has numerous characteristics: Desktop readers are boxes with a translucent screen at the front on to which is projected an image from a microform. They have suitable fittings for whatever microform

4830-631: Was superseded by microfiche. By the 1960s, microfilming had become standard policy. In 1948, the Australian Joint Copying Project started; the intention to film records and archives from the United Kingdom relating to Australia and the Pacific. Over 10,000 reels were produced, making it one of the largest projects of its kind. Around the same time, Licensed Betting Offices in the UK began using microphotography as

4900-455: Was that the small, lightweight reels of microfilm were almost always transported by air, and as such were delivered much more quickly than any surface mail service could have managed. Libraries began using microfilm in the mid-20th century as a preservation strategy for deteriorating newspaper collections. Books and newspapers that were deemed in danger of decay could be preserved on film and thus access and use could be increased. Microfilming

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