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78-516: The collection of 620 marble and alabaster statues and sarcophagi dating to the Roman Empire period has been described as the "most important private museum of sculpture in the world" by Italian art critic Federico Zeri and, according to The Daily Telegraph , has been "said to rival [the ancient sculptures] of the Vatican ." The Encyclopædia Britannica considers the most significant of

156-476: A recommended exposure limit (REL) of 10 mg/m total exposure and 5 mg/m respiratory exposure over an 8-hour workday. Dust, debris and temperature fluctuations from working marble can endanger the eye health of employees. For the staff involved in marble processing, it is necessary to provide eye protection equipment, and it is recommended to improve the education of all workers on occupational health risks and strengthen preventive measures. As

234-554: A clue as to the temperatures and pressures at the time of metamorphism. These reactions are possible because of rapid diffusion of atoms at elevated temperature. Pore fluid between mineral grains can be an important medium through which atoms are exchanged. A particularly important group of neocrystallization reactions are those that release volatiles such as water and carbon dioxide . During metamorphism of basalt to eclogite in subduction zones , hydrous minerals break down, producing copious quantities of water. The water rises into

312-416: A decarbonation reaction is: In plastic deformation pressure is applied to the protolith , which causes it to shear or bend, but not break. In order for this to happen temperatures must be high enough that brittle fractures do not occur, but not so high that diffusion of crystals takes place. As with pressure solution, the early stages of plastic deformation begin during diagenesis. Regional metamorphism

390-570: A growth of 12% annually for the 2000–2006 period, compared to 10.5% annually for the 2000–2005 period. The largest dimension marble application is tile. The stone and marble industry is one of the largest industries in Palestine, contributing 20-25% of its total industrial revenues, generating USD $ 400–$ 450 million in revenue annually. The industry employs 15,000–20,000 workers across the West Bank across 1200–1700 facilities, and amounts to 4.5% of

468-427: A large amount of waste not being land-filled, reducing environmental pollution, thereby realizing the sustainability of marble. Converting waste to generate economic income and restore degraded soil can improve the environment. The nature of marble is soft and porous, so it is easily stained by colored liquids and scratches easily. Maintenance and cleaning is particularly important. Metamorphism Metamorphism

546-517: A metabasalt. When the protolith cannot be determined, the rock is classified by its mineral composition or its degree of foliation. Metamorphic grade is an informal indication of the amount or degree of metamorphism. In the Barrovian sequence (described by George Barrow in zones of progressive metamorphism in Scotland), metamorphic grades are also classified by mineral assemblage based on

624-411: A metamorphic event. The facies are named after the metamorphic rock formed under those facies conditions from basalt . The particular mineral assemblage is somewhat dependent on the composition of that protolith, so that (for example) the amphibolite facies of a marble will not be identical with the amphibolite facies of a pellite. However, the facies are defined such that metamorphic rock with as broad

702-646: A potential hazard. Mitigations such as dust filters, or dust suppression are suggested, but more research needs to be carried out on the efficacy of safety measures. In the United States, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set the legal limit ( permissible exposure limit ) for marble exposure in the workplace as 15 mg/m total exposure and 5 mg/m respiratory exposure over an 8-hour workday. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set

780-457: A rare type of magma called a carbonatite that is highly enriched in carbonates and low in silica . Cooling bodies of carbonatite magma give off highly alkaline fluids rich in sodium as they solidify, and the hot, reactive fluid replaces much of the mineral content in the aureole with sodium-rich minerals. A special type of contact metamorphism, associated with fossil fuel fires, is known as pyrometamorphism . Hydrothermal metamorphism

858-425: A typical process using magnesium fluorosilicate (MgSiF 6 ) and hydrochloric acid (HCl) taking place. The resulting calcium hexafluorosilicate (CaSiF 6 ) is bonded to the surface of the marble. This is harder, more glossy and stain resistant compared to the original surface. The other often used method of finishing marble is to polish with oxalic acid (H 2 C 2 O 4 ), an organic acid. The resulting reaction

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936-415: Is a common result of metamorphism, rock that is intensely deformed may eliminate strain energy by recrystallizing as a fine-grained rock called mylonite . Certain kinds of rock, such as those rich in quartz, carbonate minerals , or olivine, are particularly prone to form mylonites, while feldspar and garnet are resistant to mylonitization. Phase change metamorphism is the creating of a new mineral with

1014-480: Is a general term for metamorphism that affects entire regions of the Earth's crust. It most often refers to dynamothermal metamorphism , which takes place in orogenic belts (regions where mountain building is taking place), but also includes burial metamorphism , which results simply from rock being buried to great depths below the Earth's surface in a subsiding basin. To many geologists, regional metamorphism

1092-399: Is a rock composed of calcium and magnesium carbonate , mostly white and pink. Common marble varieties are granular limestone or dolomite . The hardness of marble is very high, because the internal structure of the rock is very uniform after long-term natural aging, and the internal stress disappears, so the marble will not be deformed due to temperature, and has strong wear resistance. It

1170-439: Is a very popular building material. The following table is a summary of the features of Marble. White marble has been prized for its use in sculptures since classical times . This preference has to do with its softness, which made it easier to carve, relative isotropy and homogeneity, and a relative resistance to shattering. Also, the low index of refraction of calcite allows light to penetrate 12.7 to 38 millimeters into

1248-538: Is as follows: In this case the calcium oxalate (CaC 2 O 4 ) formed in the reaction is washed away with the slurry, leaving a surface that has not been chemically changed. The haloalkaliphilic methylotrophic bacterium Methylophaga murata was isolated from deteriorating marble in the Kremlin . Bacterial and fungal degradation was detected in four samples of marble from Milan Cathedral ; black Cladosporium attacked dried acrylic resin using melanin. Marble

1326-664: Is called the metamorphic aureole , the contact aureole , or simply the aureole. Contact metamorphic rocks are usually known as hornfels . Rocks formed by contact metamorphism may not present signs of strong deformation and are often fine-grained and extremely tough. The Yule Marble used on the Lincoln Memorial exterior and the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier in Arlington National Cemetery

1404-697: Is completed during early stages of metamorphism. For a sandstone protolith, the dividing line between diagenesis and metamorphism can be placed at the point where strained quartz grains begin to be replaced by new, unstrained, small quartz grains, producing a mortar texture that can be identified in thin sections under a polarizing microscope. With increasing grade of metamorphism, further recrystallization produces foam texture , characterized by polygonal grains meeting at triple junctions, and then porphyroblastic texture , characterized by coarse, irregular grains, including some larger grains ( porphyroblasts .) Metamorphic rocks are typically more coarsely crystalline than

1482-488: Is composed of mylonite. Mylonite is distinguished by its strong foliation, which is absent in most cataclastic rock. It is distinguished from the surrounding rock by its finer grain size. There is considerable evidence that cataclasites form as much through plastic deformation and recrystallization as brittle fracture of grains, and that the rock may never fully lose cohesion during the process. Different minerals become ductile at different temperatures, with quartz being among

1560-410: Is practically synonymous with dynamothermal metamorphism. This form of metamorphism takes place at convergent plate boundaries , where two continental plates or a continental plate and an island arc collide. The collision zone becomes a belt of mountain formation called an orogeny . The orogenic belt is characterized by thickening of the Earth's crust, during which the deeply buried crustal rock

1638-539: Is subjected to high temperatures and pressures and is intensely deformed. Subsequent erosion of the mountains exposes the roots of the orogenic belt as extensive outcrops of metamorphic rock, characteristic of mountain chains. Metamorphic rock formed in these settings tends to shown well-developed foliation . Foliation develops when a rock is being shortened along one axis during metamorphism. This causes crystals of platy minerals, such as mica and chlorite , to become rotated such that their short axes are parallel to

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1716-430: Is the most recognized metamorphic series in the world. However, Barrovian metamorphism is specific to pelitic rock, formed from mudstone or siltstone , and it is not unique even in pelitic rock. A different sequence in the northeast of Scotland defines Buchan metamorphism , which took place at lower pressure than the Barrovian. Burial metamorphism takes place simply through rock being buried to great depths below

1794-401: Is the result of the interaction of a rock with a high-temperature fluid of variable composition. The difference in composition between an existing rock and the invading fluid triggers a set of metamorphic and metasomatic reactions. The hydrothermal fluid may be magmatic (originate in an intruding magma), circulating groundwater , or ocean water. Convective circulation of hydrothermal fluids in

1872-610: Is the set of processes by which existing rock is transformed physically or chemically at elevated temperature, without actually melting to any great degree. The importance of heating in the formation of metamorphic rock was first recognized by the pioneering Scottish naturalist, James Hutton , who is often described as the father of modern geology. Hutton wrote in 1795 that some rock beds of the Scottish Highlands had originally been sedimentary rock , but had been transformed by great heat. Hutton also speculated that pressure

1950-600: Is the temperature at which the rock begins to melt. At this point, the process becomes an igneous process. The solidus temperature depends on the composition of the rock, the pressure, and whether the rock is saturated with water. Typical solidus temperatures range from 650 °C (1,202 °F) for wet granite at a few hundred megapascals (MPa) of pressure to about 1,080 °C (1,980 °F) for wet basalt at atmospheric pressure. Migmatites are rocks formed at this upper limit, which contains pods and veins of material that has started to melt but has not fully segregated from

2028-618: Is the transformation of existing rock (the protolith ) to rock with a different mineral composition or texture . Metamorphism takes place at temperatures in excess of 150 °C (300 °F), and often also at elevated pressure or in the presence of chemically active fluids, but the rock remains mostly solid during the transformation. Metamorphism is distinct from weathering or diagenesis , which are changes that take place at or just beneath Earth's surface. Various forms of metamorphism exist, including regional , contact , hydrothermal , shock , and dynamic metamorphism. These differ in

2106-581: The Ancient Greek μάρμαρον ( mármaron ), from μάρμαρος ( mármaros ), "crystalline rock, shining stone", perhaps from the verb μαρμαίρω ( marmaírō ), "to flash, sparkle, gleam"; R. S. P. Beekes has suggested that a " Pre-Greek origin is probable". This stem is also the ancestor of the English word "marmoreal", meaning "marble-like." While the English term "marble" resembles

2184-552: The French marbre , most other European languages (with words like "marmoreal") more closely resemble the original Ancient Greek. Marble is a rock resulting from metamorphism of sedimentary carbonate rocks , most commonly limestone or dolomite . Metamorphism causes variable re-crystallization of the original carbonate mineral grains. The resulting marble rock is typically composed of an interlocking mosaic of carbonate crystals . Primary sedimentary textures and structures of

2262-493: The dimension stone trade, the term marble is used for any crystalline calcitic rock (and some non-calcitic rocks) useful as building stone. For example, Tennessee marble is really a dense granular fossiliferous gray to pink to maroon Ordovician limestone, that geologists call the Holston Formation . Ashgabat , the capital city of Turkmenistan , was recorded in the 2013 Guinness Book of Records as having

2340-419: The Earth's surface in a subsiding basin. Here the rock is subjected to high temperatures and the great pressure caused by the immense weight of the rock layers above. Burial metamorphism tends to produce low-grade metamorphic rock. This shows none of the effects of deformation and folding so characteristic of dynamothermal metamorphism. Examples of metamorphic rocks formed by burial metamorphism include some of

2418-452: The Earth's surface. Impact metamorphism is, therefore, characterized by ultrahigh pressure conditions and low temperature. The resulting minerals (such as SiO 2 polymorphs coesite and stishovite ) and textures are characteristic of these conditions. Dynamic metamorphism is associated with zones of high strain such as fault zones. In these environments, mechanical deformation is more important than chemical reactions in transforming

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2496-401: The albite-epidote hornfels is often not formed, even though it is the lowest temperature grade. Magmatic fluids coming from the intrusive rock may also take part in the metamorphic reactions . An extensive addition of magmatic fluids can significantly modify the chemistry of the affected rocks. In this case the metamorphism grades into metasomatism . If the intruded rock is rich in carbonate

2574-441: The appearance of key minerals in rocks of pelitic (shaly, aluminous) origin: Low grade ------------------- Intermediate --------------------- High grade A more complete indication of this intensity or degree is provided by the concept of metamorphic facies . Metamorphic facies are recognizable terranes or zones with an assemblage of key minerals that were in equilibrium under specific range of temperature and pressure during

2652-463: The atoms to move and form new bonds with other atoms . Pore fluid present between mineral grains is an important medium through which atoms are exchanged. This permits recrystallization of existing minerals or crystallization of new minerals with different crystalline structures or chemical compositions (neocrystallization). The transformation converts the minerals in the protolith into forms that are more stable (closer to chemical equilibrium ) under

2730-515: The aureoles around batholiths can be up to several kilometers wide. The metamorphic grade of an aureole is measured by the peak metamorphic mineral which forms in the aureole. This is usually related to the metamorphic temperatures of pelitic or aluminosilicate rocks and the minerals they form. The metamorphic grades of aureoles at shallow depth are albite - epidote hornfels, hornblende hornfels, pyroxene hornfels, and sillimanite hornfels, in increasing order of temperature of formation. However,

2808-528: The characteristic temperatures, pressures, and rate at which they take place and in the extent to which reactive fluids are involved. Metamorphism occurring at increasing pressure and temperature conditions is known as prograde metamorphism , while decreasing temperature and pressure characterize retrograde metamorphism . Metamorphic petrology is the study of metamorphism. Metamorphic petrologists rely heavily on statistical mechanics and experimental petrology to understand metamorphic processes. Metamorphism

2886-403: The circulation of fluids through buried rock, to the list of processes that help bring about metamorphism. However, metamorphism can take place without metasomatism (isochemical metamorphism) or at depths of just a few hundred meters where pressures are relatively low (for example, in contact metamorphism). Rock can be transformed without melting because heat causes atomic bonds to break, freeing

2964-400: The conditions of pressure and temperature at which metamorphism takes place. Metamorphism is generally regarded to begin at temperatures of 100 to 200 °C (212 to 392 °F). This excludes diagenetic changes due to compaction and lithification , which result in the formation of sedimentary rocks. The upper boundary of metamorphic conditions lies at the solidus of the rock, which

3042-550: The crystals, while high pressures cause solution of the crystals within the rock at their points of contact ( pressure solution ) and redeposition in pore space. During recrystallization, the identity of the mineral does not change, only its texture. Recrystallization generally begins when temperatures reach above half the melting point of the mineral on the Kelvin scale. Pressure solution begins during diagenesis (the process of lithification of sediments into sedimentary rock) but

3120-400: The depth at which they were formed, as the temperature and confining pressure determine the deformation mechanisms which predominate. At the shallowest depths, a fault zone will be filled with various kinds of unconsolidated cataclastic rock , such as fault gouge or fault breccia . At greater depths, these are replaced by consolidated cataclastic rock, such as crush breccia , in which

3198-418: The direction of shortening. This results in a banded, or foliated, rock, with the bands showing the colors of the minerals that formed them. Foliated rock often develops planes of cleavage . Slate is an example of a foliated metamorphic rock, originating from shale , and it typically shows well-developed cleavage that allows slate to be split into thin plates. The type of foliation that develops depends on

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3276-487: The excavated material will be waste, this is often then used as chips for flooring or wall finish, and uses for which high-calcium limestone is suitable. Marble sludge waste can be used as a mineral filler in water-based paints. Using ground calcium carbonate as a filler in paint production can improve the brightness, hiding power and application performance of paint, and can also replace expensive pigments such as titanium dioxide . Recycling of marble waste leads to

3354-454: The favorite medium for Greek and Roman sculptors and architects (see classical sculpture ), marble has become a cultural symbol of tradition and refined taste. Its extremely varied and colorful patterns make it a favorite decorative material. Places named after the stone include Marblehead, Massachusetts ; Marblehead, Ohio ; Marble Arch , London; the Sea of Marmara ; India's Marble Rocks ; and

3432-399: The first to become ductile, and sheared rock composed of different minerals may simultaneously show both plastic deformation and brittle fracture. The strain rate also affects the way in which rocks deform. Ductile deformation is more likely at low strain rates (less than 10 sec ) in the middle and lower crust, but high strain rates can cause brittle deformation. At the highest strain rates,

3510-437: The formation of "black-crust" (accumulation of calcium sulphate, nitrates and carbon particles). Vinegar and other acidic solutions should be avoided in the cleaning of marble products. Crystallization refers to a method of imparting a glossy, more durable finish on to a marble floor (CaCO 3 ). It involves polishing the surface with an acidic solution and a steel wool pad on a flooring machine. The chemical reaction below shows

3588-623: The gods from Roman mythology and Roman copies of Greek statues . According to the newspaper The Daily Telegraph , the namesake of the collection and then the museum, the Roman Torlonia family , received ownership of the collection around 1800 or in the early 19th century. The previous owners, the Giustiniani family, had taken out a loan from the Torlonia dynasty and secured it with the collection, but then defaulted on paying back

3666-402: The influence of heat and pressure. It has a crystalline texture, and is typically not foliated ( layered ), although there are exceptions. In geology , the term marble refers to metamorphosed limestone , but its use in stonemasonry more broadly encompasses unmetamorphosed limestone. Marble is commonly used for sculpture and as a building material . The word "marble" derives from

3744-403: The larger rock fragments are cemented together by calcite or quartz. At depths greater than about 5 kilometers (3.1 mi), cataclasites appear; these are quite hard rocks consist of crushed rock fragments in a flinty matrix, which forms only at elevated temperature. At still greater depths, where temperatures exceed 300 °C (572 °F), plastic deformation takes over, and the fault zone

3822-566: The limestone. Green coloration is often due to serpentine resulting from originally magnesium-rich limestone or dolomite with silica impurities. These various impurities have been mobilized and recrystallized by the intense pressure and heat of the metamorphism. Acids react with the calcium carbonate in marble, producing carbonic acid (which decomposes quickly to CO 2 and H 2 O) and other soluble salts : Outdoor marble statues, gravestones , or other marble structures are damaged by acid rain whether by carbonation , sulfation or

3900-513: The loan. (According to earlier information by the same newspaper, however, Prince Giovanni Torlonia himself was the founder of the collection when, in 1810, "he bought some works and unearthed others on his land in Portus ".) Alessandro Torlonia, heir to Giovanni, opened the collection to visitors in their family palace on Via della Lungara , close to the Tiber River , in 1893. In the 1960s,

3978-502: The metamorphic grade. For instance, starting with a mudstone , the following sequence develops with increasing temperature: The mudstone is first converted to slate, which is a very fine-grained, foliated metamorphic rock, characteristic of very low grade metamorphism. Slate in turn is converted to phyllite , which is fine-grained and found in areas of low grade metamorphism. Schist is medium to coarse-grained and found in areas of medium grade metamorphism. High-grade metamorphism transforms

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4056-407: The metamorphic rock marble . In metamorphosed sandstone , recrystallization of the original quartz sand grains results in very compact quartzite , also known as metaquartzite, in which the often larger quartz crystals are interlocked. Both high temperatures and pressures contribute to recrystallization. High temperatures allow the atoms and ions in solid crystals to migrate, thus reorganizing

4134-475: The museum was dismantled and the 77-room palace was illegally converted into a 93-unit apartment building. The collection was put into storage and has not been publicly displayed. In May 2005 the government attempted to buy the collection for 1.2 billion but the offer was declined. Marble Marble is a metamorphic rock consisting of carbonate minerals (most commonly calcite (CaCO 3 ) or dolomite (CaMg(CO 3 ) 2 ) that have recrystallized under

4212-546: The nation's GDP. The vast majority of the industry's exports are to Israel. Marble in the geologic sense does not naturally outcrop in Palestine, and that the vast majority of commercially labeled marble produced in Palestine produced would be geologically considered limestone. Particulate air pollution exposure has been found to be elevated in the marble production industry. Exposure to the dust produced by cutting marble could impair lung function or cause lung disease in workers, such as silicosis . Skin and eye problems are also

4290-449: The ocean floor basalts produces extensive hydrothermal metamorphism adjacent to spreading centers and other submarine volcanic areas. The fluids eventually escape through vents on the ocean floor known as black smokers . The patterns of this hydrothermal alteration are used as a guide in the search for deposits of valuable metal ores. Shock metamorphism occurs when an extraterrestrial object (a meteorite for instance) collides with

4368-460: The original carbonate rock ( protolith ) have typically been modified or destroyed. Pure white marble is the result of metamorphism of a very pure ( silicate -poor) limestone or dolomite protolith. The characteristic swirls and veins of many colored marble varieties, sometimes called striations , are usually due to various mineral impurities such as clay , silt , sand , iron oxides , or chert which were originally present as grains or layers in

4446-438: The overlying mantle, where it lowers the melting temperature of the mantle rock, generating magma via flux melting . The mantle-derived magmas can ultimately reach the Earth's surface, resulting in volcanic eruptions. The resulting arc volcanoes tend to produce dangerous eruptions, because their high water content makes them extremely explosive. Examples of dehydration reactions that release water include: An example of

4524-401: The protolith from which they formed. Atoms in the interior of a crystal are surrounded by a stable arrangement of neighboring atoms. This is partially missing at the surface of the crystal, producing a surface energy that makes the surface thermodynamically unstable. Recrystallization to coarser crystals reduces the surface area and so minimizes the surface energy. Although grain coarsening

4602-516: The protolith. Chemical reactions digest the minerals of the protolith which yields new minerals. This is a very slow process as it can also involve the diffusion of atoms through solid crystals. An example of a neocrystallization reaction is the reaction of fayalite with plagioclase at elevated pressure and temperature to form garnet . The reaction is: Many complex high-temperature reactions may take place between minerals without them melting, and each mineral assemblage produced provides us with

4680-435: The refractory residue. The metamorphic process can occur at almost any pressure, from near surface pressure (for contact metamorphism) to pressures in excess of 16 kbar (1600 MPa). The change in the grain size and orientation in the rock during the process of metamorphism is called recrystallization . For instance, the small calcite crystals in the sedimentary rocks limestone and chalk change into larger crystals in

4758-437: The result is a skarn . Fluorine -rich magmatic waters which leave a cooling granite may often form greisens within and adjacent to the contact of the granite. Metasomatic altered aureoles can localize the deposition of metallic ore minerals and thus are of economic interest. Fenitization , or Na-metasomatism , is a distinctive form of contact metamorphism accompanied by metasomatism. It takes place around intrusions of

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4836-413: The rock may be so strongly heated that it briefly melts, forming a glassy rock called pseudotachylite . Pseudotachylites seem to be restricted to dry rock, such as granulite. Metamorphic rocks are classified by their protolith, if this can be determined from the properties of the rock itself. For example, if examination of a metamorphic rock shows that its protolith was basalt, it will be described as

4914-428: The rock to gneiss , which is coarse to very coarse-grained. Rocks that were subjected to uniform pressure from all sides, or those that lack minerals with distinctive growth habits, will not be foliated. Marble lacks platy minerals and is generally not foliated, which allows its use as a material for sculpture and architecture. Collisional orogenies are preceded by subduction of oceanic crust. The conditions within

4992-548: The rock. The minerals present in the rock often do not reflect conditions of chemical equilibrium, and the textures produced by dynamic metamorphism are more significant than the mineral makeup. There are three deformation mechanisms by which rock is mechanically deformed. These are cataclasis , the deformation of rock via the fracture and rotation of mineral grains; plastic deformation of individual mineral crystals; and movement of individual atoms by diffusive processes. The textures of dynamic metamorphic zones are dependent on

5070-607: The rocks of the Midcontinent Rift System of North America, such as the Sioux Quartzite , and in the Hamersley Basin of Australia. Contact metamorphism occurs typically around intrusive igneous rocks as a result of the temperature increase caused by the intrusion of magma into cooler country rock . The area surrounding the intrusion where the contact metamorphism effects are present

5148-500: The same chemical formula as a mineral of the protolith. This involves a rearrangement of the atoms in the crystals. An example is provided by the aluminium silicate minerals, kyanite , andalusite , and sillimanite . All three have the identical composition, Al 2 SiO 5 . Kyanite is stable at surface conditions. However, at atmospheric pressure, kyanite transforms to andalusite at a temperature of about 190 °C (374 °F). Andalusite, in turn, transforms to sillimanite when

5226-409: The stone before being scattered out, resulting in the characteristic waxy look which brings a lifelike luster to marble sculptures of any kind, which is why many sculptors preferred and still prefer marble for sculpting the human form. Construction marble is a stone which is composed of calcite, dolomite or serpentine that is capable of taking a polish. More generally in construction , specifically

5304-414: The subducting slab as it plunges toward the mantle in a subduction zone produce their own distinctive regional metamorphic effects , characterized by paired metamorphic belts . The pioneering work of George Barrow on regional metamorphism in the Scottish Highlands showed that some regional metamorphism produces well-defined, mappable zones of increasing metamorphic grade. This Barrovian metamorphism

5382-426: The temperature reaches about 800 °C (1,470 °F). At pressures above about 4 kbar (400 MPa), kyanite transforms directly to sillimanite as the temperature increases. A similar phase change is sometimes seen between calcite and aragonite , with calcite transforming to aragonite at elevated pressure and relatively low temperature. Neocrystallization involves the creation of new mineral crystals different from

5460-679: The towns of Marble, Minnesota ; Marble, Colorado ; Marble Falls, Texas , and Marble Hill, Manhattan, New York . The Elgin Marbles are marble sculptures from the Parthenon in Athens that are on display in the British Museum . Total world quarrying production in 2019 was approximately 316 million tonnes; however, quarrying waste accounted for 53% of this total production. In the process of marble mining and processing, around half or

5538-655: The widespread exchange of marble objects, including building elements, sculptures, and sarcophagi . There was a significant increase in the distribution of white marble from the late 1st century BC to the end of the 2nd century AD. A gradual decline in distribution started in the third century AD. According to the United States Geological Survey , U.S. domestic marble production in 2006 was 46,400 tons valued at about $ 18.1 million, compared to 72,300 tons valued at $ 18.9 million in 2005. Crushed marble production (for aggregate and industrial uses) in 2006

5616-463: The works a relief of Heracles freeing Theseus and Peirithoos (4th century BC, attributed to the school of Phidias ) and a sculpture of " Hestia Giustiniani " (5th century BC, attributed to Kalamis ). Overall, the collection contains 20 statues of Hercules , about 30 of Venus , and 100 of the Caesars and their families, among them a bust of Julius Caesar . Besides, it includes sculptures of

5694-415: The world's highest concentration of white marble buildings. The extraction of marble is performed by quarrying . Blocks are favoured for most purposes, and can be created through various techniques, including drilling and blasting, water jet and wedge methods. Limestones are often commercially and historically referred to as marble, which differs from the geological definition. In 1998, marble production

5772-753: Was China with a 64% market share, followed by India with 11% and Italy with 5%. White marbles throughout the Mediterranean basin were widely utilized during the Roman period. Extraction centers were unevenly distributed across the Italian Peninsula , mainland Greece , the Aegean Islands , Asia Minor , and smaller hubs like those in the Iberian Peninsula . The need for extensive trade arose due to this imbalance, leading to

5850-465: Was 11.8 million tons valued at $ 116 million, of which 6.5 million tons was finely ground calcium carbonate and the rest was construction aggregate . For comparison, 2005 crushed marble production was 7.76 million tons valued at $ 58.7 million, of which 4.8 million tons was finely ground calcium carbonate and the rest was construction aggregate. U.S. dimension marble demand is about 1.3 million tons. The DSAN World Demand for (finished) Marble Index has shown

5928-447: Was dominated by 4 countries that accounted for almost half of world production of marble and decorative stone. Italy and China were the world leaders, each representing 16% of world production, while Spain and India produced 9% and 8%, respectively. In 2018 Turkey was the world leader in marble export, with 42% share in global marble trade, followed by Italy with 18% and Greece with 10%. The largest importer of marble in 2018

6006-419: Was formed by contact metamorphism. Contact metamorphism is greater adjacent to the intrusion and dissipates with distance from the contact. The size of the aureole depends on the heat of the intrusion, its size, and the temperature difference with the wall rocks. Dikes generally have small aureoles with minimal metamorphism, extending not more than one or two dike thicknesses into the surrounding rock, whereas

6084-419: Was important in metamorphism. This hypothesis was tested by his friend, James Hall , who sealed chalk into a makeshift pressure vessel constructed from a cannon barrel and heated it in an iron foundry furnace. Hall found that this produced a material strongly resembling marble , rather than the usual quicklime produced by heating of chalk in the open air. French geologists subsequently added metasomatism ,

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