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164-405: The Tara Brooch is an Irish Celtic brooch , dated to the late-7th or early-8th century. It is of the pseudo-penannular type (with a fully closed head or hoop), and made from bronze , silver and gold. Its head consists of an intricately decorated circular ring, and overall, its front and reverse sides are equally decorated; each holds around 50 inserted cast panels packed with filigree . The brooch

328-491: A High King of Ireland . The brooch was hidden on the east coast of Ireland some time during the 11th or 12th century, most likely to protect it from Viking or Norman invaders. It was re-discovered around 1850, but the exact find-spot and circumstances are unknown. Despite its title, it was not found at the Hill of Tara but on or near the beach around Bettystown on the coast of County Meath . The name by which it became known

492-581: A dignified speech he made during Claudius's triumph persuaded the emperor to spare his life. The Silures were still not pacified, and Cartimandua's ex-husband Venutius replaced Caratacus as the most prominent leader of British resistance. On Nero 's accession, Roman Britain extended as far north as Lindum . Gaius Suetonius Paulinus , the conqueror of Mauretania (modern day Algeria and Morocco ), then became governor of Britain, and in 60 and 61 he moved against Mona ( Anglesey ) to settle accounts with Druidism once and for all. Paulinus led his army across

656-1032: A scribal error of Civ. Col. Londin. for an original Civ. Col. Leg. II ( Caerleon ). On the basis of the Verona List, the priest and deacon who accompanied the bishops in some manuscripts are ascribed to the fourth province. In the 12th century, Gerald of Wales described the supposedly metropolitan sees of the early British church established by the legendary SS   Fagan and " Duvian ". He placed Britannia Prima in Wales and western England with its capital at " Urbs Legionum " ( Caerleon ); Britannia Secunda in Kent and southern England with its capital at " Dorobernia " ( Canterbury ); Flavia in Mercia and central England with its capital at " Lundonia " ( London ); " Maximia " in northern England with its capital at Eboracum ( York ); and Valentia in " Albania which

820-557: A witch-hunt , which forced the vicarius Flavius Martinus to intervene. When Paulus retaliated by accusing Martinus of treason, the vicarius attacked Paulus with a sword, with the aim of assassinating him, but in the end he committed suicide. As the 4th century progressed, there were increasing attacks from the Saxons in the east and the Scoti (Irish) in the west. A series of forts had been built, starting around 280, to defend

984-504: A "gripping beast" biting the terminal plate. The mixture of types seen in the 10th century Penrith Hoard is typical. Insular brooches had been taken back to Scandinavia, and began to be produced there in the 10th century for wearing singly by men at the shoulder; Viking women wore pairs of characteristic oval brooches on the upper breast. Most were simpler than Insular examples, and several hundred in "tinned bronze rather than silver" are known. The 10th century Danish Møllerløkken Brooch

1148-580: A building inscription there dated 108, before being destroyed in the east of the Empire, possibly during the Bar Kokhba revolt . The invasion was delayed by a troop mutiny until an imperial freedman persuaded them to overcome their fear of crossing the Ocean and campaigning beyond the limits of the known world. They sailed in three divisions, and probably landed at Richborough in Kent ; at least part of

1312-520: A claim by the landowner), and Waterhouse chose to link it to the site associated with the High Kings of Ireland, "fully aware that this would feed the Irish middle-class fantasy of being descended from them". Describing the trend in the mid-20th century, Adolf Mahr described the tendency for giving brooches —and more importantly their replicas— such titles as "fanciful (and sometimes ridiculous)...by

1476-420: A death sentence ordered by the emperor Maximian on charges of having abetted Frankish and Saxon pirates and having embezzled recovered treasure. He consolidated control over all the provinces of Britain and some of northern Gaul while Maximian dealt with other uprisings. An invasion in 288 failed to unseat him and an uneasy peace ensued, with Carausius issuing coins and inviting official recognition. In 293,

1640-579: A defeat at battle. A 12th century codex , the Book of Leinster , contains a section titled "The siege of Howth " which mentions a precious brooch buried after a defeat, leading some art historians to speculate that a similar fate befell the Tara Brooch. Celtic Revival jewellery become fashionable in the 1840s. Utilising this trend, Waterhouse later placed the Tara Brooch as the centerpiece of his replica Celtic brooches in his Dublin shop, and exhibited it at

1804-579: A difference in decorative styles between front and back, with "Celtic" triskeles and other spiral motifs restricted to the back, while the front has more interlace and zoomorphic elements. These features are also shared by the most ornate brooches in London and Edinburgh, respectively the Londesborough and Hunterston Brooches . This may be because decoration on the backs relies more on engraving than filigree, which would risk wires getting caught in

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1968-521: A difficult challenge, and Lucius Alfenus Senecio 's report to Rome in 207 describes barbarians "rebelling, over-running the land, taking loot and creating destruction". In order to rebel, of course, one must be a subject – the Maeatae clearly did not consider themselves such. Senecio requested either reinforcements or an Imperial expedition, and Severus chose the latter, despite being 62 years old. Archaeological evidence shows that Senecio had been rebuilding

2132-515: A firm of Dublin jewellers". By the time the Tara brooch passed to what is now the National Museum of Ireland in the 1870s, the "Tara brooch" had become a generic term for Celtic Revival brooches, some of which were now being made by Indian workshops for export to Europe. Penannular brooches are a characteristic type of Berber traditional silver jewellery , worn until the second half of

2296-559: A flattish area often decorated with enamel or glass inlay, mostly using abstracted patterns but sometimes zoomorphic decoration. The length of the pin is now often about twice the diameter of the ring. The Irish cultural zone in this period included much of Western Scotland, and in Pictish East Scotland a similar development took place, though the forms are somewhat different here. The decoration paralleled that on other metalwork fittings such as pieces of harness-tackle, and

2460-405: A large number of soldiers were garrisoned on the island. This required that the emperor station a trusted senior man as governor of the province. As a result, many future emperors served as governors or legates in this province, including Vespasian , Pertinax , and Gordian I . There is no historical source describing the decades that followed Agricola's recall. Even the name of his replacement

2624-564: A mark of royal status, along with wearing a purple cloak, and it is probably as such that they are worn by Christ on a high cross at Monasterboice and by the Virgin Mary on another. All surviving examples, numbering over 50 (not all complete) in the case of the Irish ones, have been recovered by excavation, or at least finding in the ground, but where the detailed circumstances of the find are known, few are from graves, and finds in hoards are much more common. When they were in graves,

2788-480: A more objective strategic assessment of the benefits of the Antonine Wall could be made. The Romans did not entirely withdraw from Scotland at this time: the large fort at Newstead was maintained along with seven smaller outposts until at least 180. During the twenty-year period following the reversion of the frontier to Hadrian's Wall in 163/4, Rome was concerned with continental issues, primarily problems in

2952-421: A penannular brooch, the pin is pushed through folds of the cloth, which are then pulled back inside the ring; the free end of the pin passes through the gap in the ring. The pin is then rotated around the ring by 90 degrees or so, so that as long as the pin is held down by slight pressure it cannot escape over the terminals, and the fastening is secure. With pseudo-penannular brooches, things are not so simple and

3116-653: A province was no longer exercised by one official and the governor was stripped of military command which was handed over to the Dux Britanniarum by 314. The governor of a province assumed more financial duties (the procurators of the Treasury ministry were slowly phased out in the first three decades of the 4th century). The Dux was commander of the troops of the Northern Region, primarily along Hadrian's Wall and his responsibilities included protection of

3280-479: A regular pattern of small tapering projections, like the two lowest brooches from the Penrith Hoard illustrated here. These, and other globular endings to terminals and pin-heads, were common, but flattened terminals continued to be made, now ornamented by round silver bosses amid simple repeated patterns, or interlace that is larger in scale than in the earlier ornate badges. In these, the ring often ends in

3444-520: A so-called Gallic Empire was established when Postumus rebelled against Gallienus . Britannia was part of this until 274 when Aurelian reunited the empire. Around the year 280, a half- British officer named Bonosus was in command of the Roman's Rhenish fleet when the Germans managed to burn it at anchor. To avoid punishment, he proclaimed himself emperor at Colonia Agrippina ( Cologne ) but

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3608-582: A storm during his campaigns in Germany in 16 AD, they came back with tales of monsters. Rome appears to have encouraged a balance of power in southern Britain, supporting two powerful kingdoms: the Catuvellauni , ruled by the descendants of Tasciovanus , and the Atrebates , ruled by the descendants of Commius . This policy was followed until 39 or 40 AD, when Caligula received an exiled member of

3772-444: Is a scheme of classification originally set out, in relation to earlier types, by Elizabeth Fowler in the 1960s, which has since been extended in various versions to cover later types. Brooches of either penannular or annular type, where the pin is very large in relation to the ring, so that the ring cannot play any part in the fastening of the brooch, may be called "ring brooches", "pin brooches", or "brooch-pins"; or, especially where

3936-485: Is all the more likely, given the high number of detailed and complex patterns condensed into very small spaces. The head (or "hoop" or "ring") is made from cast and gilt silver and is decorated on both sides using techniques and patterns influenced by the Iron Age La Tène style. It consists of two large concentric circles, around 28 decorative panels, and a series of rounded studs lining both arms. The head

4100-551: Is almost the full range known to man." Two techniques that do not appear are the "true pierced openwork interasile , much used in Byzantine jewellery", and the cloisonné work that typified much Western European jewellery, and especially large fibulae, at the time, whether in enamel or stone inlays like the garnets used so effectively at Sutton Hoo and in the Anglo-Saxon Staffordshire Hoard . In

4264-401: Is attached to the upper end of the head by a long oval and gilded panel shaped like a serpent with glass eyes. It is hinged to two ancillary panels with paired animal heads (which may be wolves or dragons) at the ends and two human faces formed from purple glass. The plaited (interlaced) silver chain is attached to the hook by a swivel. Most likely, it was originally wrapped around pieces of

4428-416: Is closed, but there are still two separately defined terminals, which are joined by a further element. The penannular type is a simple and efficient way of fastening loosely woven cloth (where the pin will not leave a permanent hole), but the pseudo-penannular type is notably less efficient. The brooches were worn by both men and women, usually singly at the shoulder by men and on the breast by women, and with

4592-539: Is derived from the earlier tradition of torcs and gorgets (both types of neck-rings). By the 7th century, Irish kings had adopted the late Roman Empire use of brooches to fulfill this purpose. The tradition continued into the Byzantine empire; mosaics in the Basilica of San Vitale show the emperor Justinian (b. 482) wearing a brooch on an imperial purple cloak. Fully-sealed brooches were fashioned by rotating

4756-406: Is fully circular but does not have a gap between its terminals through which a fastening pin could pass. It is bilaterally symmetrical with a basic structure of a circular hook, semi-circular and linked terminals, a long pin, and a string likely used for additional support to keep it in place against the wearers cloth. Although its core made of silver, its surface is so highly gilded and decorated that

4920-485: Is intricate and complex filigree patterns formed by minute bands of silver wire. Eighteen panels retain their gilt filigree ; the others are either corroded or have been broken off since the brooch was rediscovered in 1850. Other decorative elements include cast depictions of animals (mostly thin-bodied fish) and abstract motifs, separated by glass studs, enamel, and amber. The friezes on the head contain chip-carved roundels (circular discs). Other La Tène elements include

5084-708: Is known of his campaigns with scant archaeological evidence, but fragmentary historical sources suggest he reached the far north of Britain and won a major battle in early summer before returning south. His son Constantine (later Constantine the Great ) spent a year in northern Britain at his father's side, campaigning against the Picts beyond Hadrian's Wall in the summer and autumn. Constantius died in York in July 306 with his son at his side. Constantine then successfully used Britain as

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5248-628: Is no ring, but the elaborate head is connected to a pin of very variable length by a short tab of metal that can move on joints at both ends; there is also usually a cord for winding round the pin to secure it. Only 14 of these brooches have been found to date in Ireland, many incomplete, and none elsewhere; five of these are from Dublin, the earliest from the 940s. They appear for about a further two centuries; typical medieval ring brooches dated to after 1200 have few distinctively Irish characteristics. The brooches we have today have been discovered since

5412-484: Is now Scotland " with its capital at St Andrews . Modern scholars generally dispute the last: some place Valentia at or beyond Hadrian's Wall but St Andrews is beyond even the Antonine Wall and Gerald seems to have simply been supporting the antiquity of its church for political reasons. A common modern reconstruction places the consular province of Maxima at Londinium, on the basis of its status as

5576-401: Is open on its top half, while the lower half is made of two fused terminals, and is thus solid and closed (i.e. pseudo-penannular), although its design does suggest an opening. The front of the head is lined with twenty-eight sunken panels soldered onto gold sheets. They are held in place by the then new technique of "jewellers' stitches" (also known as "bead settings" or "milli-graining"), that

5740-573: Is said to have visited the island in the 6th or 5th century BC and the Greek explorer Pytheas in the 4th. It was regarded as a place of mystery, with some writers refusing to believe it existed. The first direct Roman contact was when Julius Caesar undertook two expeditions in 55 and 54 BC, as part of his conquest of Gaul , believing the Britons were helping the Gallic resistance. The first expedition

5904-604: Is the most elaborate example known, with a simple overall design with ball terminals and pin-head, but with rich detailing such as interlace panels on the ring and filigree sections on the balls. Other Insular types were also produced in Viking areas of England, especially Scandinavian York . The penannular brooch fell from common use by the end of the 11th century, a time when Ireland and Scotland, and Scandinavia, were adopting general Western European styles in many areas of both art and life. A distinctly Irish type of brooch found at

6068-611: Is unknown. Archaeology has shown that some Roman forts south of the Forth–Clyde isthmus were rebuilt and enlarged; others appear to have been abandoned. By 87 the frontier had been consolidated on the Stanegate . Roman coins and pottery have been found circulating at native settlement sites in the Scottish Lowlands in the years before 100, indicating growing Romanisation . Some of the most important sources for this era are

6232-598: Is used to describe the distinct style of art originating in the British Isles and combining Germanic, Celtic, Pictish and Mediterranean elements. Although some simpler and relatively early penannular brooches are found in Anglo-Saxon contexts, and some sub-types predominantly so, as far as is known the Anglo-Saxons did not use these brooch styles for prestige elite jewellery. However, there are elements in

6396-520: The Legio VI Victrix legion with him from Germania Inferior . This replaced the famous Legio IX Hispana , whose disappearance has been much discussed. Archaeology indicates considerable political instability in Scotland during the first half of the 2nd century, and the shifting frontier at this time should be seen in this context. In the reign of Antoninus Pius (138–161)

6560-561: The Battle of Mons Graupius . Battle casualties were estimated by Tacitus to be upwards of 10,000 on the Caledonian side and about 360 on the Roman side. The bloodbath at Mons Graupius concluded the forty-year conquest of Britain, a period that possibly saw between 100,000 and 250,000 Britons killed. In the context of pre-industrial warfare and of a total population of Britain of c.  2 million , these are very high figures. Under

6724-811: The Battle of Watling Street . Boudica died not long afterwards, by self-administered poison or by illness. During this time, the Emperor Nero considered withdrawing Roman forces from Britain altogether. There was further turmoil in 69, the " Year of the Four Emperors ". As civil war raged in Rome, weak governors were unable to control the legions in Britain, and Venutius of the Brigantes seized his chance. The Romans had previously defended Cartimandua against him, but this time were unable to do so. Cartimandua

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6888-738: The Britons had been overrun or culturally assimilated by the Belgae during the British Iron Age and had been aiding Caesar's enemies. The Belgae were the only Celtic tribe to cross the sea into Britain, for to all other Celtic tribes this land was unknown. He received tribute, installed the friendly king Mandubracius over the Trinovantes , and returned to Gaul . Planned invasions under Augustus were called off in 34, 27, and 25 BC. In 40 AD, Caligula assembled 200,000 men at

7052-482: The Channel on the continent, only to have them gather seashells ( musculi ) according to Suetonius , perhaps as a symbolic gesture to proclaim Caligula's victory over the sea. Three years later, Claudius directed four legions to invade Britain and restore the exiled king Verica over the Atrebates . The Romans defeated the Catuvellauni , and then organized their conquests as the province of Britain. By 47 AD,

7216-655: The Great Exhibition of 1851 in London, the Great Industrial Exhibition of 1853 in Dublin, and Exposition Universelle of 1855 in Paris. His Tara brooch replicas were smaller by about a third than the original and far simpler in design. Waterhouse chose the brooch's name, deliberately but falsely linking it to the site associated with the High Kings of Ireland, "fully aware that this would feed

7380-519: The Iceni . The Silures were led by Caratacus , and he carried out an effective guerrilla campaign against Governor Publius Ostorius Scapula . Finally, in 51, Ostorius lured Caratacus into a set-piece battle and defeated him . The British leader sought refuge among the Brigantes, but their queen, Cartimandua , proved her loyalty by surrendering him to the Romans. He was brought as a captive to Rome, where

7544-453: The Kashmir shawls that were also fashionable at the time were often loosely woven and not unsuitable for fastening in the original way. Different versions were made at different price levels, though even the most expensive struggled to recreate the full intricacy of the originals. The National Museum of Ireland is clearly not correct in saying that the fashion began after Queen Victoria

7708-479: The Lindisfarne Gospels , thought to date to about 698–715. Many of the similarities are to the carpet pages , highly detailed ornamental pages filled with decoration, which share with the brooch a certain horror vacui that leaves no area unembellished, and also complex decoration that is extremely small and perfectly executed, and best appreciated when seen at a larger than actual scale, whether in

7872-643: The Menai Strait and massacred the Druids and burnt their sacred groves. While Paulinus was campaigning in Mona , the southeast of Britain rose in revolt under the leadership of Boudica . She was the widow of the recently deceased king of the Iceni, Prasutagus. The Roman historian Tacitus reports that Prasutagus had left a will leaving half his kingdom to Nero in the hope that the remainder would be left untouched. He

8036-462: The Viking Age in Ireland and Scotland. Both penannular and pseudo-penannular brooches feature a long pin attached by its head to a ring; the pin can move freely around the ring as far as the terminals, which are close together. In the true penannular type, the ring is not closed; there is a gap between the terminals wide enough for the pin to pass through. In the pseudo-penannular type, the ring

8200-441: The junior emperor Constantius Chlorus launched a second offensive, besieging the rebel port of Gesoriacum ( Boulogne-sur-Mer ) by land and sea. After it fell, Constantius attacked Carausius's other Gallic holdings and Frankish allies and Carausius was usurped by his treasurer, Allectus . Julius Asclepiodotus landed an invasion fleet near Southampton and defeated Allectus in a land battle. As part of Diocletian's reforms ,

8364-538: The 17th century, and their odds on their survival once found have increased greatly over that period, as their value as artefacts has overtaken their scrap value. In the 19th century, as part of the Celtic Revival , many brooches copying or inspired by earlier styles were made. Much of the responsibility for the fashion for high-quality Celtic Revival jewellery belongs to George Waterhouse, a jeweller from Sheffield , England, who moved to Dublin in 1842. Before

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8528-473: The 20th century by Berber ( endonym : Amazigh) women in the Maghreb . They were usually worn in symmetrical pairs and used to fix parts of unsewn draped garments, one to each side, with the pins pointing straight up. Traditionally made by Jewish silversmiths, some are plain and large brooches, not unlike some later Celtic or Viking examples, and other types have a very elaborately decorated triangular base to

8692-687: The 2nd-century emperors Hadrian and Antoninus Pius , two walls were built to defend the Roman province from the Caledonians, whose realms in the Scottish Highlands were never controlled. Around 197 AD, the Severan Reforms divided Britain into two provinces: Britannia Superior and Britannia Inferior . During the Diocletian Reforms , at the end of the 3rd century, Britannia was divided into four provinces under

8856-508: The 8th-century Moylough Belt-Shrine and Ardagh Chalice (8 and 9th-centuries). The combination of red and blue glass is unusual for the period. The reverse contains two trapezoids in the La Tène style, set against a silver and niello background. On each side, the bridge between the head and terminals contains a single large dome shaped stud. The two terminals and their bridge resemble the heads of two beasts biting at either other. The pin

9020-702: The Britannic achievements of an emperor . Roman citizens settled in Britain from many parts of the Empire. Britain was known to the Classical world . The Greeks , the Phoenicians and the Carthaginians traded for Cornish tin in the 4th century BC. The Greeks referred to the Cassiterides , or "tin islands", and placed them near the west coast of Europe. The Carthaginian sailor Himilco

9184-469: The Caledonians. By 210 Severus had returned to York, and the frontier had once again become Hadrian's Wall. He assumed the title Britannicus but the title meant little with regard to the unconquered north, which clearly remained outside the authority of the Empire. Almost immediately, another northern tribe, the Maeatae, went to war. Caracalla left with a punitive expedition , but by the following year his ailing father had died and he and his brother left

9348-549: The Catuvellaunian dynasty and planned an invasion of Britain that collapsed in farcical circumstances before it left Gaul. When Claudius successfully invaded in 43 AD, it was in aid of another fugitive British ruler, Verica of the Atrebates. The invasion force in 43 AD was led by Aulus Plautius , but it is unclear how many legions were sent. The Legio II Augusta , commanded by future emperor Vespasian ,

9512-658: The College in Dublin, one a silver shawl brooch, in smaller size than the original" was her reaction to the November gift. A later gift from Albert included a setting of a cairngorm he had picked up when walking in the Scottish Highlands , a more authentic type of gem than the brightly coloured foreign stones used in much Celtic Revival jewellery. The discovery of the Tara Brooch in 1850 could therefore not have been better timed in terms of attracting public interest. It

9676-649: The Danubian provinces . Increasing numbers of hoards of buried coins in Britain at this time indicate that peace was not entirely achieved. Sufficient Roman silver has been found in Scotland to suggest more than ordinary trade, and it is likely that the Romans were reinforcing treaty agreements by paying tribute to their implacable enemies, the Picts . In 175, a large force of Sarmatian cavalry, consisting of 5,500 men, arrived in Britannia, probably to reinforce troops fighting unrecorded uprisings. In 180, Hadrian's Wall

9840-444: The Dublin jeweller George Waterhouse, for marketing reasons, to make his reproductions more culturally resonant. At the time, Waterhouse's main source of income was selling replicas of recently found Celtic Revival jewellery, and according to Whitfield was "in the habit of attaching romantic and high-sounding names to brooches of which they sold replicas". The circumstances of its finding meant that no contemporary archeological survey

10004-572: The Hadrianic border was briefly extended north to the Forth–Clyde isthmus, where the Antonine Wall was built around 142 following the military reoccupation of the Scottish lowlands by a new governor, Quintus Lollius Urbicus . The first Antonine occupation of Scotland ended as a result of a further crisis in 155–157, when the Brigantes revolted. With limited options to despatch reinforcements,

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10168-474: The Irish middle-class fantasy of being descended from them". He produced several replicas, which were generally smaller and less detailed than the original. The Dublin exhibition was visited by Queen Victoria who had an interest in the Hill of Tara, liked these Celtic brooches and purchased a number of facsimiles of the brooch, although she did not know that it had actually been found in Bettystown. Prince Albert had already bought two similar pieces for her when

10332-627: The Irish ones, which may indicate a shorter period of production, possibly from "the mid-eighth to the beginning of the ninth centuries". Each surviving design is unique, but the range of types established in the more modest earlier brooches are developed and elaborated upon. There was no previous tradition of very ornate brooches in Ireland, and this development may have come from contact with Continental elites who wore large fibulae as marks of status. Such contacts were certainly made, especially by travelling monks. Archaeological, and some literary, evidence suggests that brooches in precious metal were

10496-409: The Irish tradition would have used casting. The brooches appear to have been made by "native" metalworkers, but worn by both Vikings and Gaels. The very popular thistle brooches have terminals and often pin-heads that are like thistle flowers, with a ball topped by a round projection, often flared; they are called by the term regardless of whether or not the ball is "brambled"—that is, formed with

10660-532: The Long Peace. Even so, the number of buried hoards found from this period rises, suggesting continuing unrest. A string of forts were built along the coast of southern Britain to control piracy; and over the following hundred years they increased in number, becoming the Saxon Shore Forts . During the middle of the 3rd century, the Roman Empire was convulsed by barbarian invasions, rebellions and new imperial pretenders. Britannia apparently avoided these troubles, but increasing inflation had its economic effect. In 259

10824-409: The Maghreb since ancient times. Roman Britain Roman Britain was the territory that became the Roman province of Britannia after the Roman conquest of Britain , consisting of a large part of the island of Great Britain . The occupation lasted from AD 43 to AD 410. Julius Caesar invaded Britain in 55 and 54 BC as part of his Gallic Wars . According to Caesar,

10988-427: The Paris Exposition Universelle (1855) , as well as the Dublin exhibition visited by the Queen in 1853 (Victoria had already seen it; it had been specially sent to Windsor Castle for her inspection). Waterhouse had invented the brooch's name; in fact, it has nothing to do with the Hill of Tara , and while likely found some 28 km away the actual circumstances of its find still remain unclear (essentially to avoid

11152-408: The Romans held the lands southeast of the Fosse Way . Control over Wales was delayed by reverses and the effects of Boudica's uprising , but the Romans expanded steadily northwards. The conquest of Britain continued under command of Gnaeus Julius Agricola (77–84), who expanded the Roman Empire as far as Caledonia . In mid-84 AD, Agricola faced the armies of the Caledonians , led by Calgacus , at

11316-408: The Romans moved their troops south, and this rising was suppressed by Governor Gnaeus Julius Verus . Within a year the Antonine Wall was recaptured, but by 163 or 164 it was abandoned. The second occupation was probably connected with Antoninus's undertakings to protect the Votadini or his pride in enlarging the empire, since the retreat to the Hadrianic frontier occurred not long after his death when

11480-448: The Scottish ones mostly retain true penannular forms. Most are silver-gilt , the gilding often partial. Some are gilded base metal, of bronze or copper-alloy; only one solid gold Irish brooch is known, a 9th-century one from Loughan, County Londonderry , which is less elaborate than most of the series, though the standard of work is very high. However, some brooches have a hidden recess which may have contained small lead weights to make

11644-403: The Wall and passing through eastern Scotland on a route similar to that used by Agricola. Harried by punishing guerrilla raids by the northern tribes and slowed by an unforgiving terrain, Severus was unable to meet the Caledonians on a battlefield. The emperor's forces pushed north as far as the River Tay , but little appears to have been achieved by the invasion, as peace treaties were signed with

11808-519: The area or even total withdrawal followed by slighting of the forts by the Picts rather than an unrecorded military defeat. The Romans were also in the habit of destroying their own forts during an orderly withdrawal, in order to deny resources to an enemy. In either case, the frontier probably moved south to the line of the Stanegate at the Solway – Tyne isthmus around this time. A new crisis occurred at

11972-792: The assumption that the early bishoprics mimicked the imperial hierarchy, scholars use the list of bishops for the 314 Council of Arles . The list is patently corrupt: the British delegation is given as including a Bishop "Eborius" of Eboracum and two bishops "from Londinium " (one de civitate Londinensi and the other de civitate colonia Londinensium ). The error is variously emended: Bishop Ussher proposed Colonia , Selden Col. or Colon. Camalodun. , and Spelman Colonia Cameloduni (all various names of Colchester ); Gale and Bingham offered colonia Lindi and Henry Colonia Lindum (both Lincoln ); and Bishop Stillingfleet and Francis Thackeray read it as

12136-482: The beginning of Hadrian 's reign (117): a rising in the north which was suppressed by Quintus Pompeius Falco . When Hadrian reached Britannia on his famous tour of the Roman provinces around 120, he directed an extensive defensive wall, known to posterity as Hadrian's Wall , to be built close to the line of the Stanegate frontier. Hadrian appointed Aulus Platorius Nepos as governor to undertake this work who brought

12300-477: The brooch was missing only a single panel. The earliest surviving reproductions are two 1852 wood engravings which show it, according to Whitfield, "in near perfect condition" with the majority of the now missing filigree, studs, and inserted interlace designs intact. Although named after the Hill of Tara (seat and necropolis of the High Kings of Ireland), the brooch bears no connection to Tara. The brooch

12464-534: The brooches found with the Ardagh Chalice show both types. The main body was normally cast, and a number of elements of two-piece moulds have been found. Many brooches have cells for studs or bosses that are most often round hemispheres, but may be square, lozenges or other shapes; very often the studs themselves are now missing. These are in a variety of materials including glass, enamel, amber , and gemstones found locally, although not including any of

12628-596: The burials are often much later than the date of the brooch, as in a brooch in the Irish 8th century style found in a Norse burial in Westray , Orkney , and possibly the Kilmainham Brooch. Elaborate brooches often have one or more names—presumed to be those of owners—scratched on the reverse, often in runes . Plainer brooches in bronze and similar alloys continue to be found in much larger numbers. The most elaborate Irish brooches are pseudo-penannular, while

12792-606: The classic modern "precious stones", or even the garnets found in Anglo-Saxon jewellery. However the millefiori glass rods sometimes used appear to have been imported from Italy, like those used in the Anglo-Saxon jewellery from Sutton Hoo ; examples of the rods have been excavated in both Ireland and England. Like the Insular chalices and other metalwork, the very ornate Irish brooches were mostly made in many pieces which are pinned or slotted together. Filigree decoration

12956-408: The cloth vertically, leaving the ring hanging unattached to the cloth; this does not seem very secure. The third method relied on a length of chain or cord attached to the ring near the "terminals" (which in pseudo-penannular brooches do not actually terminate), which was used to secure the pin by tying it down, perhaps with a small pin at the end, which was also put through the cloth. The Tara Brooch

13120-411: The clothing on which the brooch was worn. Few of the major brooches, or indeed other metalwork, have been found in contexts that can be easily dated, and much of the dating of at least the earlier ones comes from comparison with Insular illuminated manuscripts , though the dating of these is often itself far from certain. The Tara Brooch has long been recognised as having clear stylistic similarities to

13284-551: The coasts, but these preparations were not enough when, in 367, a general assault of Saxons, Picts , Scoti and Attacotti , combined with apparent dissension in the garrison on Hadrian's Wall, left Roman Britain prostrate. The invaders overwhelmed the entire western and northern regions of Britannia and the cities were sacked. This crisis, sometimes called the Barbarian Conspiracy or the Great Conspiracy ,

13448-473: The conquest of the Britons, a distinctive Romano-British culture emerged as the Romans introduced improved agriculture , urban planning , industrial production , and architecture . The Roman goddess Britannia became the female personification of Britain. After the initial invasions, Roman historians generally only mention Britain in passing. Thus, most present knowledge derives from archaeological investigations and occasional epigraphic evidence lauding

13612-651: The continent. The second invasion involved a substantially larger force and Caesar coerced or invited many of the native Celtic tribes to pay tribute and give hostages in return for peace. A friendly local king, Mandubracius , was installed, and his rival, Cassivellaunus , was brought to terms. Hostages were taken, but historians disagree over whether any tribute was paid after Caesar returned to Gaul. Caesar conquered no territory and left no troops behind, but he established clients and brought Britain into Rome's sphere of influence . Augustus planned invasions in 34, 27 and 25 BC, but circumstances were never favourable, and

13776-442: The day, and the British governor committed suicide. Severus soon purged Albinus's sympathisers and perhaps confiscated large tracts of land in Britain as punishment. Albinus had demonstrated the major problem posed by Roman Britain. In order to maintain security, the province required the presence of three legions, but command of these forces provided an ideal power base for ambitious rivals. Deploying those legions elsewhere would strip

13940-485: The defences of Hadrian's Wall and the forts beyond it, and Severus's arrival in Britain prompted the enemy tribes to sue for peace immediately. The emperor had not come all that way to leave without a victory, and it is likely that he wished to provide his teenage sons Caracalla and Geta with first-hand experience of controlling a hostile barbarian land. An invasion of Caledonia led by Severus and probably numbering around 20,000 troops moved north in 208 or 209, crossing

14104-598: The direction of a vicarius , who administered the Diocese of the Britains . A fifth province, Valentia , is attested in the later 4th century. For much of the later period of the Roman occupation, Britannia was subject to barbarian invasions and often came under the control of imperial usurpers and imperial pretenders . The final Roman withdrawal from Britain occurred around 410; the native kingdoms are considered to have formed Sub-Roman Britain after that. Following

14268-407: The earliest Insular metalwork pieces to depict animals in the zoomorphic style that became widespread in Irish art between the 8th and late 12th centuries. It is larger than most other Celtic brooches : the hoop is unusually large with a maximum diameter of 8.7 cm (3.4 in) while the pin is relatively long at 32 cm (13 in). The brooch of the pseudo-penannular type, in that the hoop

14432-587: The early 8th century. In the late 19th century, the antiquarian Margaret Stokes was the first to observe that the use of trumpet spirals places it at least at the end of the so-called "Golden Age" of Insular art , given that the design had fallen out of use by 1050. Common elements between the Hunterston and Tara brooches and the Lindisfarne Gospels include curvilinear patterns and renderings of animal and birds in interlace . Archeologists think

14596-473: The east. Once Niger was neutralised, Severus turned on his ally in Britannia; it is likely that Albinus saw he would be the next target and was already preparing for war. Albinus crossed to Gaul in 195, where the provinces were also sympathetic to him, and set up at Lugdunum . Severus arrived in February 196, and the ensuing battle was decisive. Albinus came close to victory, but Severus's reinforcements won

14760-404: The elites of Ireland and Scotland from about 700 to 900, which are popularly known as Celtic brooches or similar terms. They are the most significant objects in high-quality secular metalwork from Early Medieval Celtic art , or Insular art , as art historians prefer to call it. The type continued in simpler forms such as the thistle brooch into the 11th century, during what is often known as

14924-399: The emperorship emerged, including Septimius Severus and Clodius Albinus . The latter was the new governor of Britannia, and had seemingly won the natives over after their earlier rebellions; he also controlled three legions, making him a potentially significant claimant. His sometime rival Severus promised him the title of Caesar in return for Albinus's support against Pescennius Niger in

15088-424: The end of the Viking period is the kite brooch , whose name derives from the almond shape called a "kite" in heraldry , though the shapes of the heads are actually highly variable. They were apparently worn, like the larger brooches, singly with the pin pointing upwards. Only "about half a dozen" exist in silver, including examples that are much larger than average, with pins up to 7.9 cm long. In these, there

15252-498: The end of the decade, he and the long-established Dublin firm West & Son of College Green (later moving to Grafton Street ) were finding it necessary to register their designs to prevent copying. Of the various types of objects made, the brooches were both the "most resonant" and those which could be sold with the least alteration to the original form and design, although the jewellers generally reduced their size and fitted them with conventional pins and catches behind, even though

15416-507: The few remaining early Christian reliquaries and other pieces of church metalwork. By shortly after 700, highly elaborate, large brooches in precious metal and gems were being produced. These were clearly expressions of high status for the wearer, and use the full repertoire of goldsmith 's techniques at a very high level of skill. They continued to be produced for about 200 years; the Pictish brooches are much more homogeneous in design than

15580-481: The final march to the Catuvellaunian capital, Camulodunum ( Colchester ). Vespasian subdued the southwest, Cogidubnus was set up as a friendly king of several territories, and treaties were made with tribes outside direct Roman control. British archaeologist Richard Hingley said that the Roman conquest of Britain , beginning with Julius Caesar 's expeditions and culminating with the construction of Hadrian's Wall ,

15744-684: The following years, the Romans conquered more of the island, increasing the size of Roman Britain. Governor Gnaeus Julius Agricola , father-in-law to the historian Tacitus , conquered the Ordovices in 78. With the XX Valeria Victrix legion, Agricola defeated the Caledonians in 84 at the Battle of Mons Graupius , in north-east Scotland. This was the high-water mark of Roman territory in Britain: shortly after his victory, Agricola

15908-521: The force may have landed near Fishbourne, West Sussex . The Catuvellauni and their allies were defeated in two battles: the first, assuming a Richborough landing, on the river Medway , the second on the river Thames . One of their leaders, Togodumnus , was killed, but his brother Caratacus survived to continue resistance elsewhere. Plautius halted at the Thames and sent for Claudius, who arrived with reinforcements, including artillery and elephants, for

16072-447: The front-side of the terminals are intended to represent the gap in open brooches. They are richly ornamented with filigree and a row of three studs. The reverse is coloured in gold, black and red and contains further La Tène designs including a frieze of four roundels. The hoop and terminals are joined by silver grilled glass studs in red and blue that adopt contemporary Germanic garnet cloisonné techniques, and in part resemble those on

16236-399: The frontier. He had significant autonomy due in part to the distance from his superiors. The tasks of the vicarius were to control and coordinate the activities of governors; monitor but not interfere with the daily functioning of the Treasury and Crown Estates, which had their own administrative infrastructure; and act as the regional quartermaster-general of the armed forces. In short, as

16400-469: The garment to hold the brooch more securely. Other theories suggest it was used as a safety chain to prevent it from being dropped, or that the brooch was once part of a pair linked together by the chain. When discovered, the brooch was almost fully intact but has sustained substantial losses since. Ten of the front inserts and three studs are now missing, while two more have lost their filigree. Comparison with mid-19th century photographs show that when found,

16564-537: The gilded brooches, enamel is restricted to studs that punctuate the composition like gems; the larger areas of champlevé found on the flared terminals of earlier types perhaps continue in simpler types, though dating is difficult. On some brooches the decoration is too detailed to be appreciated when the brooch is being worn, and some of the most elaborate brooches have their backs, invisible when worn, decorated almost as elaborately as their fronts. The Tara Brooch shows both features, and in addition, shares with some others

16728-403: The great majority of the island, and were able to draw tribute from the Viking towns. The period is characterised by a greatly increased availability of silver, presumably the result of Viking raiding and trading, and most brooches are made from silver throughout, as gilding and decoration in other materials nearly disappears. The brooches are often large and relatively massive, but plainer than

16892-573: The island of its garrison, leaving the province defenceless against uprisings by the native Celtic tribes and against invasion by the Picts and Scots . The traditional view is that northern Britain descended into anarchy during Albinus's absence. Cassius Dio records that the new Governor, Virius Lupus , was obliged to buy peace from a fractious northern tribe known as the Maeatae . The succession of militarily distinguished governors who were subsequently appointed suggests that enemies of Rome were posing

17056-405: The later Middle Ages – and that "it is not surprising that it should have produced jewels which reflected European fashions". The Tara Brooch is widely considered the most elaborately constructed and decorated surviving Insular object, with metalwork that exceeds in richness of ornamentation both the 8th century Ardagh and early 9th century Derrynaflan chalices It is older than both, and one of

17220-456: The manner in which they were used is still debated; the method was probably not the same for all brooches. One method may have been to pull folds of the cloth through the ring until they could be pierced by the pin, and then pull the cloth back until the pin rested on the ring. This would work best with brooches with a pin not much longer than the diameter of the ring, which some have, but others do not. The second method might have been simply to pin

17384-522: The mid-9th century. The extant Irish examples have silver rather than bronze bases, as well as more decorated pinheads, a wider variety of inlay material such as red gold, amber , enamel , millefiori and glass, and larger terminals which had become the focal point for decoration. Goldsmithing was a prominent craft in prehistoric Irish society. Through 7th century trade and missionary contacts with Anglo-Saxon , Frankish and Lombardic cultures, Irish craftsmen developed sophistication in goldwork and adopted

17548-430: The most elaborate earlier ones, neither using older local decorative styles nor the Viking styles that were adopted in other media. This continues a trend that can be detected in later brooches from the preceding period, before much Viking influence can have made itself felt. The 9th century Roscrea Brooch is one of a number of transitional brooches; though its form is highly ornate, with a large flat triangular pin head,

17712-407: The names Britannia I , Britannia II , Maxima Caesariensis , and Flavia Caesariensis ; all of these seem to have initially been directed by a governor ( praeses ) of equestrian rank. The 5th-century sources list a fifth province named Valentia and give its governor and Maxima's a consular rank. Ammianus mentions Valentia as well, describing its creation by Count Theodosius in 369 after

17876-555: The native Irish were more successful than the English and Scots in preventing large-scale Viking takeovers of areas for settlement by farmers. By about the year 1000, the situation was relatively stable, with a mixed population of Norse-Gaels in the towns and areas close to them, while the Gaelic Irish, whose elite often formed political alliances, trading partnerships and inter-marriages with Viking leaders, remained in control of

18040-419: The north with its capital at Eboracum (York). Valentia is placed variously in northern Wales around Deva ( Chester ); beside Hadrian's Wall around Luguvalium ( Carlisle ); and between the walls along Dere Street . Emperor Constantius returned to Britain in 306, despite his poor health, with an army aiming to invade northern Britain, the provincial defences having been rebuilt in the preceding years. Little

18204-659: The original or in photographs. Both combine elements from many stylistic origins into a style that is distinctly Insular: La Tène Celtic art, Germanic animal style , and classical and other Mediterranean styles. The Vikings began to raid Ireland from 795, with catastrophic effect for the monasteries in particular. However, although the Vikings established several longphorts , initially fortified encampments for over-wintering, and later towns like Dublin , Wexford , Cork , and Waterford (the first real urban centres in Ireland),

18368-401: The patterns around the center of the head and terminals, which are silver and a dark red at the terminals but lined with gold at the head. The reverse is equally decorated, which is unusual given that it would have been hidden against the wearer's garment. Its decorations include rows of chip-carved interlace animals and birds, terminating in trumpet spirals. The three large and thin panels on

18532-519: The pin pointing up; an Irish law code says that in the event of injury from a pin to another person, the wearer is not at fault if the pin did not project too far and the brooch was worn in these ways by the sexes. The most elaborate examples were clearly significant expressions of status at the top of society, which were also worn by clergy, at least in Ireland, though probably to fasten copes and other vestments rather than as everyday wear. The Senchas Mór , an early Irish law tract, specified that

18696-551: The pin within the gap by 90 degrees. Penannular broochs were too small to have been pushed through cloth. Instead, they were likely fixed in place by pushing the pin-shaft through the cloth, and fastened horizontally behind the head with stitches running through loops on the borders, and further secured by wrapping the chain around the pin. Depictions in illuminated manuscripts indicate that highly quality brooches generally placed over purple dye cloaks ( brats in Gaelic) just below

18860-679: The pin, which can dwarf the ring. A heavy necklace often hangs between the two brooches, usually attached to a ring at the bottom of the brooch. Local names for the brooches are said to include melia , melehfa , bzima , kitfiyya , and khellala in Maghrebi Arabic , and tabzimt , tizerzay , and tazersit in Berber languages. As brooches similar in form and function are known from the Bronze Age and later Roman and Visigoth brooches , such fibulae are believed to have been in use in

19024-408: The point where it crosses at the other side; the Tara Brooch has been displayed set up in both ways. The latter arrangement seems more common in later brooches, of the 9th century. It is fair to say that scholars remain slightly puzzled that the effective and simple penannular brooch developed in this direction, though it is presumed that the reuniting of the terminals of pseudo-penannular brooches

19188-403: The precious metal used seem more valuable than it actually was. In Ireland, the head of the pin might be turned into a focus for decoration, sometimes using a "kite"-shaped plate, such as that on the Tara Brooch; in Scotland, the pin-heads were simple circles formed by bending the pin back on itself. Scottish terminals are more often distinct lobed or square shapes extending beyond the circle of

19352-408: The province to press their claim to the throne. As one of his last acts, Severus tried to solve the problem of powerful and rebellious governors in Britain by dividing the province into Britannia Superior and Britannia Inferior . This kept the potential for rebellion in check for almost a century. Historical sources provide little information on the following decades, a period known as

19516-466: The provinces of Roman Britain were organized as a diocese governed by a vicarius under a praetorian prefect who, from 318 to 331, was Junius Bassus who was based at Augusta Treverorum ( Trier ). The vicarius was based at Londinium as the principal city of the diocese. Londinium and Eboracum continued as provincial capitals and the territory was divided up into smaller provinces for administrative efficiency. Civilian and military authority of

19680-471: The quelling of the Great Conspiracy . Ammianus considered it a re-creation of a formerly lost province, leading some to think there had been an earlier fifth province under another name (may be the enigmatic "Vespasiana"? ), and leading others to place Valentia beyond Hadrian's Wall , in the territory abandoned south of the Antonine Wall . Reconstructions of the provinces and provincial capitals during this period partially rely on ecclesiastical records. On

19844-400: The rebels' next target, but concluded it could not be defended. Abandoned, it was destroyed, as was Verulamium (St. Albans). Between seventy and eighty thousand people are said to have been killed in the three cities. But Paulinus regrouped with two of the three legions still available to him, chose a battlefield, and, despite being outnumbered by more than twenty to one, defeated the rebels in

20008-582: The relationship between Britain and Rome settled into one of diplomacy and trade. Strabo , writing late in Augustus's reign, claimed that taxes on trade brought in more annual revenue than any conquest could. Archaeology shows that there was an increase in imported luxury goods in southeastern Britain. Strabo also mentions British kings who sent embassies to Augustus, and Augustus's own Res Gestae refers to two British kings he received as refugees. When some of Tiberius 's ships were carried to Britain in

20172-493: The right shoulder. Positioning them below the right shoulder was another tradition that originated from the Romans, whose military placed it there so as to keep their cloak on the left and not impede access to their sword. Penannular brooches appear in Ireland from the 5th century, presumably made by craftsmen working in Roman Britain traditions. Surviving Irish brooches became more elaborate than Anglo-Saxon examples from

20336-505: The ring is small and plain, "ringed pins". In these, the design of the pin head typically shows that the pin is intended to sit underneath the ring (seen from the front), rather than on top of it as in the larger brooches. "Celtic" is a term avoided by specialists in describing objects, and especially artistic styles, of the Early Middle Ages from the British Isles, but is firmly fixed in the popular mind. The term Insular art

20500-531: The ring is thick plain silver, the gold filigree panels occupy relatively small areas, and their workmanship is a "coarse" or "crude" imitation of that of earlier works. The Kilamery Brooch is another ornate and high quality example, with a marked emphasis on plain flat silver surfaces. There are rare exceptions in which a highly decorated brooch shows Scandinavian stylistic and technical influence, notably an Irish brooch from Rathlin Island , with areas stamped where

20664-407: The ring on both sides, while in Irish examples, the terminals typically extend inside the ring forming another curve, but not much outside it, or sometimes form a straight line across the interior of the ring. Irish brooches may only join the two terminals by narrow strips, or not only eliminate the gap entirely, but have a central zone of decoration where the gap between the terminals would have been;

20828-401: The ring or other simple patterns. Often the extra thickness at the terminal, necessary to prevent the pin just falling off, is achieved simply by turning back the ends of the ring. In the late Roman period in Britain in the 3rd and 4th centuries, a type of penannular brooch with zoomorphic decoration to the terminals appeared, with human or animal heads, still not much wider than the rest of

20992-573: The ring, but the design retains features of a penannular brooch—for example, emphasizing two terminals. Some pseudo-penannular brooches are very similar in design to other penannular brooches, but have a small section joining the two terminals. Others have fully joined terminals, and emphasize in their design the central area where the gap would be—for example the Tara Brooch. Pseudo-penannular brooches may also be described as "annular", or as "ring brooches". The terms "open brooch" or "open ring brooch" are also sometimes used for penannular brooches. There

21156-411: The ring. Some examples had enamel decoration, and the pin did not extend much beyond the ring. These are found especially in southwestern Britain and Wales , and seem to have developed in these areas. This type fell from favour in southern Britain by the 5th century, but was developed in Ireland by the 6–7th centuries. These types considerably extended the size of the terminals, which now presented

21320-490: The seat of the diocesan vicarius ; places Prima in the west according to Gerald's traditional account but moves its capital to Corinium of the Dobunni ( Cirencester ) on the basis of an artifact recovered there referring to Lucius Septimius, a provincial rector ; places Flavia north of Maxima, with its capital placed at Lindum Colonia ( Lincoln ) to match one emendation of the bishops list from Arles; and places Secunda in

21484-401: The silver is barely visible. It is composed of many individually formed pieces, with most of its filigree decorations inserted into small trays. Eighteen of these inserts survive, out of a total of twenty-eight trays. The brooch's complex geometry includes concentric and ancillary circles, rectangular inserts, and an outline likely planned with sketches made with a compass on parchment. This

21648-441: The sole civilian official with superior authority, he had general oversight of the administration, as well as direct control, while not absolute, over governors who were part of the prefecture; the other two fiscal departments were not. The early-4th-century Verona List , the late-4th-century work of Sextus Rufus , and the early-5th-century List of Offices and work of Polemius Silvius all list four provinces by some variation of

21812-404: The sons of major kings, when being fostered , should have "brooches of gold having crystal inserted in them", while the sons of minor kings need wear only silver brooches. "Annular" means formed as a ring and "penannular" formed as an incomplete ring; both terms have a range of uses. "Pseudo-penannular" is a coinage restricted to brooches, and refers to those brooches where there is no opening in

21976-484: The starting point of his march to the imperial throne, unlike the earlier usurper, Albinus. In the middle of the century, the province was loyal for a few years to the usurper Magnentius , who succeeded Constans following the latter's death. After the defeat and death of Magnentius in the Battle of Mons Seleucus in 353, Constantius II dispatched his chief imperial notary Paulus Catena to Britain to hunt down Magnentius's supporters. The investigation deteriorated into

22140-471: The style of Irish and Scottish brooches deriving from Anglo-Saxon art , and related to Insular work in other media, especially illuminated manuscripts . Fibula is Latin for "brooch" and is used in modern languages to describe the many types of Roman and post-Roman Early Medieval brooches with pins and catches behind the main face of the brooch. The brooches discussed here are sometimes also called fibulae , but rarely by English-speaking specialists. With

22304-543: The style sometimes referred to by historians as "Hiberno-Saxon" or "late Celtic". The Tara brooch is usually dated to the late–7th or early 8th century, based on technical analysis and stylistic comparisons, in particular to its similarities to the Hunterston Brooch , produced in either Ireland or western Scotland at the turn of the 8th century, and the Lindisfarne Gospels produced in Northumberland in

22468-525: The tribes of the Picts : several Roman forts were destroyed by fire, with human remains and damaged armour at Trimontium (at modern Newstead , in SE Scotland) indicating hostilities at least at that site. There is also circumstantial evidence that auxiliary reinforcements were sent from Germany, and an unnamed British war of the period is mentioned on the gravestone of a tribune of Cyrene . Trajan's Dacian Wars may have led to troop reductions in

22632-579: The two of them visited Dublin in 1849. In 1868, the brooch was sold to the Royal Irish Academy . By the 1870s, "Tara brooch" had become a generic term for Celtic Revival brooches, some of which were by then being made by Indian workshops for export to Europe. Celtic brooch Beginning as utilitarian fasteners in the Iron Age and Roman period, they are especially associated with the highly ornate brooches produced in precious metal for

22796-421: The western empire, and fought a successful campaign against the Picts and Scots around 384. His continental exploits required troops from Britain, and it appears that forts at Chester and elsewhere were abandoned in this period, triggering raids and settlement in north Wales by the Irish. His rule was ended in 388, but not all the British troops may have returned: the Empire's military resources were stretched to

22960-445: The workshops behind these objects were in contact and sharing techniques and design ideas. The Irish style drew influence from Anglo-Saxon formats and the chip carving and inlay methods of Germanic polychrome jewelry. In addition, by the 7th century, Irish missionaries had become exposed to Central European and Mediterranean cultures. Whitfield has noted that Ireland was then relatively outward-looking and cosmopolitan – compared to

23124-465: The writing tablets from the fort at Vindolanda in Northumberland , mostly dating to 90–110. These tablets provide evidence for the operation of a Roman fort at the edge of the Roman Empire, where officers' wives maintained polite society while merchants, hauliers and military personnel kept the fort operational and supplied. Around 105 there appears to have been a serious setback at the hands of

23288-473: Was "more like the work of fairies than of human beings". Art historians see only the contemporary Hunterston Brooch ( c.  700 AD ) as an equal in craftsmanship and design. The archaeologist Niamh Whitfield called it "the most ornate and intricate piece of medieval jewellery ever found in Ireland", while the NMI describes it as representing "the pinnacle of early medieval Irish metalworkers’ achievement". It

23452-407: Was a drawn-out process rather than an inevitable or swift victory. After capturing the south of the island, the Romans turned their attention to what is now Wales . The Silures , Ordovices and Deceangli remained implacably opposed to the invaders and for the first few decades were the focus of Roman military attention, despite occasional minor revolts among Roman allies like the Brigantes and

23616-698: Was acquired by the Royal Irish Academy in 1868, and transferred to the National Museum of Ireland in 1890 where it remains on permanent display. The Tara brooch was likely made for a High King of Ireland or a dignitary or cleric, probably from the Kingdom of Brega , a branch of the Uí Néills , who ruled over much of today's Leinster . The owner would have worn it on ceremonial occasions. Gilt and silver zoomorphic brooches were status symbols in Early Medieval Ireland and Britain. The format

23780-433: Was breached by the Picts and the commanding officer or governor was killed there in what Cassius Dio described as the most serious war of the reign of Commodus . Ulpius Marcellus was sent as replacement governor and by 184 he had won a new peace, only to be faced with a mutiny from his own troops. Unhappy with Marcellus's strictness, they tried to elect a legate named Priscus as usurper governor; he refused, but Marcellus

23944-501: Was chosen by its first commercial owner, the Dublin-based jeweler George Waterhouse, as a marketing ploy for selling copies during the height of the 19th century Celtic Revival . For this reason, many art historians describe it with inverted commas as the "Tara" brooch. Its decoration and ornamentation are so detailed and minute that parts can only be fully seen using magnification, leading to one 19th-century critic writing that it

24108-404: Was constructed from numerous individually made pieces; all of the borders and its terminals contain multiple panels holding multi-coloured studs, interlace patterns, filigree, and Celtic spirals. The brooch is widely considered the most complex and ornate of its kind and would have been commissioned as a fastener for the cloak of a high-ranking cleric or as ceremonial insignia of high office for

24272-532: Was crushed by Marcus Aurelius Probus . Soon afterwards, an unnamed governor of one of the British provinces also attempted an uprising. Probus put it down by sending irregular troops of Vandals and Burgundians across the Channel. The Carausian Revolt led to a short-lived Britannic Empire from 286 to 296. Carausius was a Menapian naval commander of the Britannic fleet ; he revolted upon learning of

24436-437: Was evacuated, and Venutius was left in control of the north of the country. After Vespasian secured the empire, his first two appointments as governor, Quintus Petillius Cerialis and Sextus Julius Frontinus , took on the task of subduing the Brigantes and Silures respectively. Frontinus extended Roman rule to all of South Wales , and initiated exploitation of the mineral resources, such as the gold mines at Dolaucothi . In

24600-486: Was found in c. 1850 on the beach at Bettystown, near Laytown , in County Meath, not far from Drogheda and about 25 kilometers from Tara. The finder, the son of a local peasant woman, is said to have found it in a container buried in the sand, though it is likely that it was found inland, by a river, and she said it was found at the beach to avoid a legal claim by the landowner. The title was given by an early owner,

24764-414: Was immediately recognised as the culminating masterpiece (though early in date) of the Irish development of large and superbly worked ornate brooches, a status it has retained ever since. The brooch was soon acquired by George Waterhouse, who used it as the centre of displays of his replicas and imitations of Celtic brooches in his Dublin shop, also exhibiting it at The Great Exhibition in London in 1851 and

24928-482: Was lucky to leave the province alive. The Roman army in Britannia continued its insubordination: they sent a delegation of 1,500 to Rome to demand the execution of Tigidius Perennis , a Praetorian prefect who they felt had earlier wronged them by posting lowly equites to legate ranks in Britannia. Commodus met the party outside Rome and agreed to have Perennis killed, but this only made them feel more secure in their mutiny. The future emperor Pertinax (lived 126–193)

25092-497: Was made of the find-spot. However, late 20th century excavations of the area by the beach found a large burial site in use from the pre-historic to the Early medieval period. This has led to speculation that the brooch was buried as part of a hoard, but no other objects have been found. Equally, the date and reasons for its burial are unknown; most likely it was placed in the earth to hide it from Viking or Norman invaders, or following

25256-490: Was more a reconnaissance than a full invasion and gained a foothold on the coast of Kent but was unable to advance further because of storm damage to the ships and a lack of cavalry. Despite the military failure, it was a political success, with the Roman Senate declaring a 20-day public holiday in Rome to honour the unprecedented achievement of obtaining hostages from Britain and defeating Belgic tribes on returning to

25420-414: Was often made on "trays" which fitted into the main ring — on the Tara Brooch many of these are now missing (most were still in place when it was found in 1850). Techniques include chip-carving , cast "imitation chip-carving", filigree , engraving , inlays of various types including niello , glass and champlevé enamel, and various hammering and chasing techniques: "the range of materials and techniques

25584-421: Was partly to strengthen the brooch. In many penannular brooches, the gap between the terminals is now too narrow for the pin to pass through; whether this was always the case is uncertain. Small and simple penannular brooches in bronze, iron, and, rarely, silver were common in the Roman period as a practical fastener, but were not used for high-status objects, and any decoration was normally limited to bands around

25748-528: Was presented with a replica of the "Cavan Brooch" on her visit to Dublin to see the Great Industrial Exhibition in 1853; the Royal Collection has two brooches that Prince Albert bought for her from West & Son in 1849 on an earlier visit to Dublin, which were already being made in editions. Albert presented them in November and at Christmas that year: "...such beautiful souvenirs, both made after those very curious old Irish ornaments we saw in

25912-475: Was probably fastened in this way. In some cases the pin was fitted with a bolt or rivet to make it removable. A further complication is that in some pseudo-penannular brooches the pin is fixed to lie in front of the ring, as in the Londesborough Brooch (below), but in others it crosses through the ring, starting with the head end in front of the ring, but the middle of the pin behind the ring by

26076-461: Was recalled from Britain back to Rome and awarded the ornaments of a triumph, before returning to continue as governor. By 87 the decision was taken to abandon most of the land north of the Cheviot Hills allowing for troops to be moved to other frontiers which were under pressure. Tacitus reports Agricola as feeling bitter about this turn of events. For much of the history of Roman Britain,

26240-415: Was sent to Britannia to quell the mutiny and was initially successful in regaining control, but a riot broke out among the troops. Pertinax was attacked and left for dead, and asked to be recalled to Rome, where he briefly succeeded Commodus as emperor in 192. The death of Commodus put into motion a series of events which eventually led to civil war. Following the short reign of Pertinax, several rivals for

26404-417: Was settled by Count Theodosius from 368 with a string of military and civil reforms. Theodosius crossed from Bononia ( Boulogne-sur-Mer ) and marched on Londinium where he began to deal with the invaders and made his base. An amnesty was promised to deserters which enabled Theodosius to regarrison abandoned forts. By the end of the year Hadrian's Wall was retaken and order returned. Considerable reorganization

26568-703: Was the only one directly attested to have taken part. The Legio IX Hispana , the XIV Gemina (later styled Martia Victrix ) and the XX (later styled Valeria Victrix ) are known to have served during the Boudican revolt of 60/61, and were probably there since the initial invasion. This is not certain because the Roman army was flexible, with units being moved around whenever necessary. The IX Hispana may have been permanently stationed, with records showing it at Eboracum ( York ) in 71 and on

26732-490: Was undertaken in Britain, including the creation of a new province named Valentia, probably to better address the state of the far north. A new Dux Britanniarum was appointed, Dulcitius, with Civilis to head a new civilian administration. Another imperial usurper, Magnus Maximus , raised the standard of revolt at Segontium ( Caernarfon ) in north Wales in 383, and crossed the English Channel . Maximus held much of

26896-491: Was wrong. When his will was enforced, Rome responded by violently seizing the tribe's lands in full. Boudica protested. In consequence, Rome punished her and her daughters by flogging and rape. In response, the Iceni, joined by the Trinovantes , destroyed the Roman colony at Camulodunum ( Colchester ) and routed the part of the IXth Legion that was sent to relieve it. Paulinus rode to London (then called Londinium ),

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