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127-474: Tenebrae was originally a celebration of matins and lauds of the last three days of Holy Week ( Maundy Thursday , Good Friday , and Holy Saturday ) in the evening of the previous day ( Holy Wednesday , Maundy Thursday and Good Friday) to the accompaniment of special ceremonies that included the display of lighted candles on a special triangular candelabra. Modern celebrations called Tenebrae may be of quite different content and structure, based for example on

254-575: A Mass celebrated in the evening before a feast, not before the hour of First Vespers. The psalmody of the Office of Readings consists of three psalms or portions of psalms, each with its own antiphon. These are followed by two extended readings with their responsories, the first from the Bible (but not from the Gospels), and the second being patristic, hagiographical, or magisterial. As already mentioned,

381-529: A French man M. Cambacérès introduced the plaited wick soaked with mineral salts, which when burnt, curled towards the outer edge of the flame and become incinerated by it, thereby trimming itself. These are referred to as "self-trimming" or "self-consuming" wicks. In 1823, Michel Eugène Chevreul and Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac separate out stearin in animal fats, and obtained a patent in 1825 to produce candles that are harder and can burn brighter. The manufacture of candles became an industrialized mass market in

508-652: A Gospel reading may optionally be added, preceded by vigil canticles, in order to celebrate a vigil. These are given in an appendix of the book of the Liturgy of the Hours . To those who find it seriously difficult, because of their advanced age or for reasons peculiar to them, to observe the revised Liturgy of the Hours Pope Paul VI gave permission to keep using the previous Roman Breviary either in whole or in part. In 2007 Pope Benedict XVI allowed all clergy of

635-484: A better knowledge of the Psalter or the lessons"; in the summer nights the interval was short, only enough for the monks to "go out for the necessities of nature". The vigil office was also shortened in the summer months by replacing readings with a passage of scripture recited by heart, but keeping the same number of psalms. Both in summer and in winter the vigil office was longer than on other days, with more reading and

762-404: A byproduct of petroleum refining. Candles can also be made from microcrystalline wax , beeswax (a byproduct of honey collection ), gel (a mixture of polymer and mineral oil ), or some plant waxes (generally palm, carnauba , bayberry , or soybean wax ). The size of the flame and corresponding rate of burning is controlled largely by the candle wick . The kind of wax also affects

889-428: A candle holder for a pillar-style candle. A pedestal of any kind, with the appropriate-sized fireproof top, is another option. A large glass bowl with a large flat bottom and tall mostly vertical curved sides is called a hurricane. The pillar-style candle is placed at the bottom center of the hurricane. A hurricane on a pedestal is sometimes sold as a unit. A bobèche is a drip-catching ring, which may also be affixed to

1016-414: A candle made to particular specifications (a "standard candle"). The modern unit is defined in a more precise and repeatable way, but was chosen such that a candle's luminous intensity is still about one candela. The hottest part of a candle flame is just above the very dull blue part to one side of the flame, at the base. At this point, the flame is about 1,400 °C (2,550 °F). However, this part of

1143-405: A candle. Commercial wicks are made from braided cotton. The wick's capillarity determines the rate at which the melted hydrocarbon is conveyed to the flame. If the capillarity is too great, the molten wax streams down the side of the candle. Wicks are often infused with a variety of chemicals to modify their burning characteristics. For example, it is usually desirable that the wick not glow after

1270-471: A candlestick exists in an Etruscan tomb at Orvieto , and the earliest excavated Etruscan candlestick dates from the 7th century BC. Candles may have evolved from taper with wick of oakum and other plant fibre soaked in fat, pitch or oil and burned in lamps or pots. Candles of antiquity were made from various forms of natural fat, tallow, and wax, and Romans made true dipped candles from tallow and beeswax. Beeswax candles were expensive and their use

1397-856: A canticle and two psalms, in place of the three psalms of the other days in the Ambrosian Rite and of every day in the Roman Rite . In the Mozarabic liturgy , on the contrary, Matins is a system of antiphons, collects, and versicles which make them quite a departure from the Roman system. In the Eastern Churches , matins is called orthros in Greek ( ὄρθρος , meaning "early dawn" or "daybreak") and Oútrenya in Slavonic (Оўтреня). It

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1524-664: A central Christ candle, are lit on the Tenebrae hearse after the Opening Prayer. They are consequently extinguished after each of the Tenebrae lessons. Prior to the reading of the sixteenth lesson, the Christ candle on the Tenebrae hearse is extinguished and then the church bells are tolled. The sixteenth lesson is read in darkness, followed by the conclusion of the liturgy. The Polish National Catholic service usually takes place on Good Friday, mostly at night. A standing cross

1651-572: A constant flame. The candle shortens as the solid fuel is consumed, so does the wick. Wicks of pre-19th century candles required regular trimming with scissors or " snuffers " to promote steady burning and prevent smoking. In modern candles, the wick is constructed so that it curves over as it burns, and the end of the wick gets trimmed by itself through incineration by fire . The word candle comes from Middle English candel , from Old English and from Anglo-Norman candele , both from Latin candēla , from candēre 'to shine'. Prior to

1778-986: A description, the vigils on Sundays terminated with the solemn reading of the Gospel , in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre . This practice of reading the Gospel has been preserved in the Benedictine liturgy. In the Tridentine Roman Liturgy this custom, so ancient and so solemn, was no longer represented but by the Homily ; but after the Second Vatican Council it has been restored for the celebration of vigils. The Ambrosian Liturgy , better perhaps than any other, preserved traces of

1905-611: A few settings by Manuel Cardoso . The Tenebrae responsories have been set by, among others, Lassus , Gesualdo , Victoria , Marc-Antoine Charpentier , Francesco Antonio Vallotti , and Jan Dismas Zelenka . Gregorio Allegri 's setting of the Miserere psalm , to be sung at the Tenebrae Lauds, is one of the best known compositions for the service. Also Gesualdo includes a setting of that psalm in his Responsoria et alia ad Officium Hebdomadae Sanctae spectantia , along with

2032-488: A few that were reserved for other canonical hours: Psalms 4, 5, 21/22−25/26, 41/42, 50/51, 53/54, 62/63, 66/67, 89/90−92/93. The consecutive order was not observed for the invitatory psalms, recited every day, and in the matins of feasts. Each reading was followed by a responsory , except the last one, when this was followed by the Te Deum . Matins underwent profound changes in the 20th century. The first of these changes

2159-523: A god and shared a meal. The solemn celebration of vigils in the churches of Jerusalem in the early 380s is described in the Peregrinatio Aetheriae . Prayer at midnight and at cockcrow was associated with passages in the Gospel of Matthew and the Gospel of Mark . On the basis of the Gospel of Luke , too, prayer at any time of the night was seen as having eschatological significance. The quotation from Tertullian above refers to

2286-410: A huge spike in sales of scented candles in recent years. The COVID-19 pandemic and the ensuing lockdowns led to a dramatic increase in the sales of scented candles, diffusers and room sprays. With the fairly consistent and measurable burning of a candle, a common use of candles was to tell the time . The candle designed for this purpose might have time measurements, usually in hours, marked along

2413-400: A hundred times lower than an incandescent light bulb . If a 1  candela source emitted uniformly in all directions, the total radiant flux would be only about 18.40 mW. The luminous intensity of a typical candle is approximately one candela . The SI unit, candela, was in fact based on an older unit called the candlepower , which represented the luminous intensity emitted by

2540-534: A moment of silence is held for Christ's death. Then the candle is placed back; the lights in the church are turned back on; and the final hymns are sung. Congregationalist versions of Tenebrae service, particularly on Maundy Thursday or Good Friday, often contain readings from the gospels which describe the time between the Last Supper and the Passion of Christ . Some Western Rite Orthodox parishes observe

2667-399: A number of methods: dipping the wick in molten fat or wax, rolling the candle by hand around a wick, or pouring fat or wax onto a wick to build up the candle. In the 14th century Sieur de Brez introduced the technique of using a mould, but real improvement for the efficient production of candles with mould was only achieved in the 19th century. Wax and tallow candles were made in monasteries in

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2794-521: A quite different choice of psalms for lauds. The situation before the 1911 reform is illustrated in 19th-century publications such as Prosper Guéranger 's Passiontide and Holy Week , (Dublin 1870) and The Complete Office of Holy Week According to the Roman Missal and Breviary, in Latin and English (Benziger 1875). It is more difficult to find similar online 20th-century publication, but the text of

2921-625: A reading by the abbot from the Gospels, after which another hymn was sung. In the Roman Breviary , use of which was made obligatory throughout the Latin Church (with exceptions for forms of the Liturgy of the Hours that could show they had been in continuous use for at least two hundred years) by Pope Pius V in 1568, matins and lauds were seen as a single canonical hour, with lauds as an appendage to matins. Its matins began, as in

3048-609: A setting of the Benedictus. After the 1970 revision of the Roman Breviary , now called the Liturgy of the Hours , a 1988 circular letter from the Congregation for Divine Worship recommended communal celebration of the Office of Readings and Morning Prayer − which were formerly called matins and lauds − on Good Friday and Holy Saturday, and remarked that this office was "formerly called 'Tenebrae'". The General Instruction of

3175-409: A significant form of indoor lighting until the invention of other types of light sources. Although electric light has largely made candle use nonessential for illumination, candles are still commonly used for functional, symbolic and aesthetic purposes and in specific cultural and religious settings. Early candles may be made of beeswax , but these candles were expensive and their use was limited to

3302-607: A single nocturn with only three readings. In 1947, Pope Pius XII entrusted examination of the whole question of the Breviary to a commission which conducted a worldwide consultation of the Catholic bishops. He authorized recitation of the psalms in a new Latin translation and in 1955 ordered a simplification of the rubrics. In 1960, Pope John XXIII issued his Code of Rubrics , which assigned nine-readings matins only to first-class and second-class feasts and therefore reduced

3429-591: A sufficient number of clergy was universal in the Roman Rite until the reform of the Holy Week ceremonies by Pope Pius XII in 1955. He restored the Easter Vigil as a night office, moving that Easter liturgy from Holy Saturday morning to the following night and likewise moved the principal liturgies of Holy Thursday and Good Friday from morning to afternoon or evening. Thus matins and lauds of Good Friday and Holy Saturday could no longer be anticipated on

3556-427: A taper for lighting, are still found in those churches which regularly use large candles. Glass candle-holders are sometimes cracked by thermal shock from the candle flame, particularly when the candle burns down to the end. When burning candles in glass holders or jars, users should avoid lighting candles with chipped or cracked containers, and stop use once a half-inch or less of wax remains. A former worry regarding

3683-406: Is added. A candle wick works by capillary action , drawing ("wicking") the melted wax or fuel up to the flame. When the liquid fuel reaches the flame, it vaporizes and combusts . The candle wick influences how the candle burns. Important characteristics of the wick include diameter, stiffness, fire resistance , and tethering. A candle wick is a piece of string or cord that holds the flame of

3810-402: Is also used. The root form of chandelier is from the word for candle, but now usually refers to an electric fixture. The word chandelier is sometimes now used to describe a hanging fixture designed to hold multiple tapers. Many candle holders use a friction-tight socket to keep the candle upright. In this case, a candle that is slightly too wide will not fit in the holder, and a candle that

3937-678: Is called the Advent candle , although this term is also used to refer to a candle that are used in an Advent wreath . For most of recorded history candles were made from tallow (rendered from beef or mutton-fat) or beeswax . From the mid-1800s, they were also made from spermaceti , a waxy substance derived from the Sperm whale , which in turn spurred demand for the substance. Candles were also made from stearin (initially manufactured from animal fats but now produced almost exclusively from palm waxes). Today, most candles are made from paraffin wax ,

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4064-617: Is certain that candles could not have developed before the early Bronze Age ; however, it is unclear when and where candles were first used. Objects that could be candlesticks have been found in Babylonian and middle Minoan cultures, as well in the tomb of Tutankhamun . The "candles" used in these early periods would not have resembled the current forms; more likely they were made of plant materials dipped in animal fat. Early evidence of candle use may be found in Italy, where depiction of

4191-702: Is not universal. In its Book of Occasional Services, the Episcopal Church (United States) provides for a single Tenebrae service on Holy Wednesday in the evening. That service preserves the number of nine Tenebrae lessons, each followed by a responsory. Church Publishing also offers a booklet called, In the Shadows of Holy Week: The Office of Tenebrae. It provides the full ancient form of Tenebrae as it appears in basic outline in The Book of Occasional Services. This booklet develops that outline providing all of

4318-402: Is only needed for the federals and the tapers. For tea light candles, there is a variety of candle holders, including small glass holders and elaborate multi-candle stands. The same is true for votives . Wall sconces are available for tea light and votive candles. For pillar-type candles, the assortment of candle holders is broad. A fireproof plate, such as a glass plate or small mirror, can be

4445-461: Is put on the altar with a black veil over it and 12 to 14 candles are placed behind it. The service has a combination of Bitter Lamentations , Matins, and Vespers. Several of the PNCC clergy, vested with cantors , are seated at the high place and the service is chanted. Gradually a minor cleric puts out each candle except for the top one that is taken around the sanctuary into the vestry . At that time

4572-421: Is slightly too narrow will wobble. Candles that are too big can be trimmed to fit with a knife; candles that are too small can be fitted with aluminium foil. Traditionally, the candle and candle holders were made in the same place, so they were appropriately sized, but international trade has combined the modern candle with existing holders, which makes the ill-fitting candle more common. This friction-tight socket

4699-402: Is the consubstantial, unitary, and undivided Holy Trinity...Amen. Candle#Christianity A candle is an ignitable wick embedded in wax , or another flammable solid substance such as tallow , that provides light , and in some cases, a fragrance . A candle can also provide heat or a method of keeping time . Candles have been used for over two millennia around the world, and were

4826-505: Is the last of the four night offices, which also include vespers , compline , and midnight office. In traditional monasteries it is celebrated daily so as to end at sunrise. In parishes it is normally served only on Sundays and feast days . Matins is the longest and most complex of the daily cycle of liturgies. The akolouth (fixed portion of the liturgy) is composed primarily of psalms and litanies . The sequences (variable parts) of matins are composed primarily of hymns and canons from

4953-671: Is the longest of the regular orthros liturgies. If celebrated in its entirety it can last up to three hours. In the Syriac Orthodox Church and Indian Orthodox Church (both of which are Oriental Orthodox Churches ), as well as the Mar Thoma Syrian Church (an Oriental Protestant denomination), the Midnight Office is known as Sapro and is prayed at 6 am using the Shehimo breviary. In

5080-440: Is traditionally known as a chandler . The combustion of the candle proceeds in self-sustaining manner. As the wick of candle is lit, the heat melts and ignites a small amount of solid fuel (the wax), which vaporizes and combines with oxygen in the air to form a flame . The flame then melts the top of the mass of solid fuel, which moves upward through the wick via capillary action to be continually burnt, thereby maintaining

5207-550: The Benedictus Gospel canticle , followed by Christus factus est , a silent Pater Noster, and the appointed collect . The Gloria Patri is not said after each psalm. The principal Tenebrae ceremony is the gradual extinguishing of candles upon a stand in the sanctuary called a hearse. Eventually, the Roman Rite settled on fifteen candles, one of which is extinguished after each of the nine psalms of matins and

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5334-576: The Bible , is made, symbolizing the earthquake that took place, and the agony of creation, at the death of Christ. Certain Tenebrae responsory settings have led their own life in Lutheran practice, for instance: Most Anglican churches that celebrate the Tenebrae service do so only on Wednesday, so as not to deflect attention from the Holy Thursday and Good Friday practices. But this practice

5461-655: The Catholic Church , "Tenebrae" is the name given to the celebration, with special ceremonies, of matins and lauds , the first two hours of the Divine Office of each of the last three days of Holy Week . In the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church Tenebrae was celebrated in all churches with a sufficient number of clergy until the liturgical reforms of Pope Pius XII in the 1950s. The traditions regarding this service go back at least to

5588-677: The Latin Church to fulfil their canonical obligations by using the 1961 Roman Breviary issued under Pope John XXIII (but not earlier editions such as that of Pius X or Pius V). This is done by traditionalist Catholic communities, such as the Priestly Fraternity of St. Peter and the Institute of Christ the King Sovereign Priest . In the office of the Church of Jerusalem, of which the pilgrim Ætheria gives us

5715-664: The Lutheran and Anglican traditions, as well as in Methodist and Reformed (inclusive of Continental Reformed , Presbyterian and Congregationalist denominations) churches that hold them, all contain "the pattern of extinguishing the candles (and the overhead lights) and restoring the Christ candle", along with the strepitus . Some liturgical Baptist congregations also hold Tenebrae Services. Variations of Tenebrae are sometimes celebrated in less formal or non-denominational churches as well. In Lutheran churches that observe

5842-562: The National Fire Protection Association , candles are a leading source of residential fires in the United States with almost 10% of civilian injuries and 6% of fatalities from fire attributed to candles. A candle flame that is longer than its laminar smoke point will emit soot . Proper wick trimming will reduce soot emissions from most candles. The liquid wax is hot and can cause skin burns, but

5969-596: The Octoechos (an eight-tone cycle of hymns for each day of the week, covering eight weeks), and from the Menaion (hymns for each calendar day of the year). Matins opens with what is called the "Royal Beginning", so called because the psalms (19 and 20) are attributed to King David and speak of the Messiah , the "king of kings"; in former times, the ektenia (litany) also mentioned the emperor by name. The Sunday orthros

6096-553: The Safavid capital of Isfahan during the 1500s and 1600s. However, candle makers had a relatively low social position in Safavid Iran, comparable to barbers , bathhouse workers, fortune tellers, bricklayers, and porters . In the 18th and 19th centuries, spermaceti , a waxy substance produced by the sperm whale , was used to produce a superior candle that burned longer, brighter and gave off no offensive smell. Later in

6223-555: The Sarum Rite . It is one of the two daily times for prayer, the other being Evensong , which combines St. Benedict's Vespers and Compline. In Oriental Orthodox Christianity and Oriental Protestant Christianity , the office is prayed at 6 am, being known as Sapro in the Syriac and Indian traditions; it is prayed facing the eastward direction of prayer by all members in these denominations, both clergy and laity, being one of

6350-515: The Seven Last Words or readings of the Passion of Jesus . They may be held on only one day of Holy Week, especially Spy Wednesday (Holy Wednesday). They may be held during the daylight hours and the number of candles, if used, may vary. Tenebrae liturgical celebrations of this kind now exist in the Catholic Church 's Latin liturgical rites , Lutheranism , Anglicanism , Methodism , Reformed churches and Western Rite Orthodoxy . In

6477-505: The seven fixed prayer times . "Matins" is sometimes used in other Protestant denominations to describe any morning service. From the time of the early Church , the practice of seven fixed prayer times have been taught; in Apostolic Tradition , Hippolytus instructed Christians to pray seven times a day "on rising, at the lighting of the evening lamp, at bedtime, at midnight" and "the third, sixth and ninth hours of

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6604-417: The 18th century, colza oil and rapeseed oil came into use as much cheaper substitutes. A number of improvements were made to candle in the 19th century. In older candles, the wick of a burning candle was not in direct contact with air, so it charred instead of being burnt. The charred wick inhibited further burning and produced black smoke, so the wick needed to be constantly trimmed or "snuffed". In 1825,

6731-415: The 1961 Roman Breviary. Several religious and secular institutes and societies of apostolic life have availed themselves of this permission. The 1955 and 1960 changes incorporated into that edition of the Breviary continue to exclude anticipation of matins and lauds to the previous evening, whether celebrated with or without the Tenebrae ceremonies. Services called Tenebrae, differing in several respects from

6858-405: The 1970s. Today, most metal-cored wicks use zinc or a zinc alloy , which has become the industry standard. Wicks made from specially treated paper and cotton are also available. Candles emit volatile organic compounds into the environment, which releases carbon into the air. The combustion process of lighting a candle includes the release of light, heat, carbon dioxide and water vapor, to fuel

6985-419: The 20th century Ernst Krenek wrote a Lamentatio Jeremiae prophetae , Op. 93 (1941–1942), and Igor Stravinsky composed Threni (1957–1958). Each day, the lessons of the second nocturn are from writings of St. Augustine , and the lessons of the third nocturn from two New Testament epistles . These are chanted to the ordinary lesson tone and have been relatively neglected by composers, though there are

7112-414: The 20th century and were often combined with an extinguisher. In modern candles, the wick is made in such a way that it curves over as it burns, which ensures that the end of the wick gets incinerated by fire , thereby trimming itself. A candle flame is formed because wax vaporizes on burning. A candle flame is widely recognized as having between three and five regions or "zones": The main determinant of

7239-477: The 20th century, candles were more common in northern Europe. In southern Europe and the Mediterranean, oil lamps predominated. In the developed world today, candles are used mainly for their aesthetic value and scent, particularly to set a soft, warm, or romantic ambiance, for emergency lighting during electrical power failures , and for religious or ritual purposes. In the 21st century, there has been

7366-545: The Armenian liturgy of the hours, Matins is known as the Midnight Office (Armenian: ի մեջ գիշերի ""i mej gisheri""). The Armenian Book of Hours, or Zhamagirk` (Armenian: Ժամագիրք) states that the Midnight Office is celebrated in commemoration of God the Father. Much of the liturgy consists of the kanon (Armenian: Կանոնագլուխ ""kanonagloukh""), consisting of a sequence of psalms, hymns, prayers, and in some instances readings from

7493-605: The Gospels, varying according to tone of the day, feast, or liturgical season. The Armenian kanon is quite different in form from the canon of the Byzantine matins liturgy, though both likely share a common ancestor in the pre-dawn worship of the Jerusalem liturgy. Introduction (common to all liturgical hours): "Blessed is our Lord Jesus Christ. Amen. Our father...Amen." Fixed Preface “Lord, if you open my lips, my mouth shall declare your praise.” (twice) Acclamation: “Blessed

7620-544: The Liturgy of the Hours says: "Before morning Lauds on Good Friday and Holy Saturday, the Office of Readings is, if possible, to be celebrated publicly and with the people taking part." The Ceremonial of Bishops (1984) says: "It is also desirable that, if at all possible, the bishop take part with the clergy and people in the office of readings and morning prayer on Good Friday and Holy Saturday." The Office of Readings and Morning Prayer have only 6 psalms (3 in either hour), not

7747-562: The Roman matins, and with a few special features quite Ambrosian. As revised after the Second Vatican Council , the Ambrosian liturgy of the hours uses for what once called matins either the designation "the part of matins that precedes lLauds in the strict sense" or simply Office of Readings. Its structure is similar to that of the Roman Liturgy of the Hours, with variations such as having on Sundays three canticles, on Saturdays

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7874-533: The Tenebrae services as reformed by Pope Pius X in 1911 is available in the 1924 edition of the Liber Usualis . The 1961 edition, with English rubrics and explanations, is available on more than one site. The lessons of the first nocturn at matins are taken on all three days from the Book of Lamentations and are sung to a specific Gregorian reciting tone , which has been called "the saddest melody within

8001-402: The aesthetics of a candle sometimes install an electric flameless candle to avoid the hazards. International markets have developed a range of standards and regulations to ensure compliance, while maintaining and improving safety , including: Decorative candleholders, especially those shaped as a pedestal, are called candlesticks ; if multiple candle tapers are held, the term candelabrum

8128-725: The aggregate comprising the Midnight office , orthros , and the first hour . Lutherans preserve recognizably traditional Matins , distinct from the office of morning prayer . In the Anglican Daily Office , Matins, occasionally spelled Mattins, combines the hours of Matins and Lauds as established by St. Benedict in Roman Catholicism and observed in England until the Reformation, most grandly in

8255-404: The all-night vigil liturgy held at Easter. A similar liturgy came to be held in the night that led to any Sunday. By the fourth century this Sunday vigil had become a daily observance, but no longer lasted throughout the night. What had been an all-night vigil became a liturgy only from cockcrow to before dawn. Saint Benedict wrote about it as beginning at about 2 in the morning ("the eighth hour of

8382-499: The amount and temperature are generally rather limited and the burns are seldom serious. The best way to avoid getting burned from splashed wax is to use a candle snuffer instead of blowing on the flame. A candle snuffer is usually a small metal cup on the end of a long handle. Placing the snuffer over the flame cuts off the oxygen supply. Snuffers were common in the home when candles were the main source of lighting before electric lights were available. Ornate snuffers, often combined with

8509-455: The brightness of six candles, the darkness grows as a candle is extinguished each week in anticipation of Jesus dying on the cross on Good Friday." This abbreviated Tenebrae liturgy begins worship services on Sundays during Lent. The Sisterhood of Saint John the Divine have their own liturgy, "The Order of Tenebrae", published in 1933. In the Methodist tradition, fourteen candles, along with

8636-431: The burn rate, with beeswax and coconut wax burning longer than paraffin or soy wax. Production methods utilize extrusion moulding . More traditional production methods entail melting the solid fuel by the controlled application of heat. The liquid is then poured into a mould, or a wick is repeatedly immersed in the liquid to create a dipped tapered candle. Often fragrance oils , essential oils or aniline -based dye

8763-425: The candle burning via a self-sustaining chain of events: the heat of the flame melts the top of the mass of solid fuel; the liquefied fuel then moves upward through the wick via capillary action ; the liquefied fuel finally vaporizes to burn within the candle's flame. As the fuel (wax) is melted and burned, the candle becomes shorter. The end of the plaited wick bends and get consumed in the flame. The incineration of

8890-433: The candle industry declined rapidly upon the introduction of superior methods of lighting, including kerosene and lamps and the 1879 invention of the incandescent light bulb . From this point on, candles came to be marketed as more of a decorative item. Before the invention of electric lighting , candles and oil lamps were commonly used for illumination. In areas without electricity, they are still used routinely. Until

9017-493: The celebration, the Tenebrae service is typically held on Holy Wednesday (Spy Wednesday) as the following days that form the Paschal Triduum have set liturgies. There is a gradual dimming of the lights and extinguishing of the candles as the service progresses. Toward the end of the service, the Christ candle, if present, is removed from the sanctuary. A concluding Strepitus , or loud noise, typically made by slamming shut

9144-405: The darkness of early morning. The earliest use of the term was in reference to the canonical hour, also called the vigil , which was originally celebrated by monks from about two hours after midnight to, at latest, the dawn, the time for the canonical hour of lauds (a practice still followed in certain orders). It was divided into two or (on Sundays) three nocturns . Outside of monasteries, it

9271-414: The day before, later than the hour of vespers. In sum: The structure is the same for all three days. The first part of the service is matins , which in its pre-1970 form is composed of three nocturns , each consisting of three psalms, a versicle , a silent Pater noster , and three readings, each followed by a responsory . The pre-1970 lauds consists of five psalms, a short versicle and response, and

9398-442: The day, being hours associated with Christ's Passion." With respect to praying in the early morning, Hippolytus wrote: "Likewise, at the hour of the cock-crow, rise and pray. Because at this hour, with the cock-crow, the children of Israel refused Christ, who we know through faith, hoping daily in the hope of eternal light in the resurrection of the dead." The every-night monastic canonical hour that later became known as matins

9525-454: The days of the week, the longer psalms were divided into shorter portions, as only the very long Psalm 118/119 had been previously. Matins no longer had 18 psalms on Sundays, 12 on ordinary days and 9 on the more important feasts: on every day it had 9 psalms, either distributed among three nocturns or recited all together, maintaining the distinction between celebrations as three nocturns with nine readings (including Sundays) and those arranged as

9652-461: The elite and the churches. Tallow was a cheaper but a less aesthetically pleasing alternative. A variety of different materials have been developed in the modern era for making candles, including paraffin wax , which together with efficient production techniques, made candles affordable for the masses. Various devices can be used to hold candles, such as candlesticks , or candelabras , chandeliers , lanterns and sconces . A person who makes candles

9779-861: The elite, and most commoners used oil lamps instead. According to legend, the practice of using lamps and candles in mosque started with Tamim al-Dari who lit a lamp he brought from Syria in the Prophet's Mosque in Medina. The Umayyad caliph Al-Walid II was known to have used candles in the court in Damascus, while the Abbasid caliph al-Mutawakkil was said to have spent 1.2 million silver dirhams annually on candles for his royal palaces. In early modern Syria, candles were in high demand by all socioeconomic classes because they were customarily lit during marriage ceremonies. There were candle makers' guilds in

9906-588: The end of the 3rd century, were documented as Easter candles in Spain and Italy in the fourth century, the Christian festival Candlemas was named after it, and Pope Sergius I instituted the procession of lighted candles. Papal bulls decreed that tallow be excluded for use in altar candles, and a high beeswax content is necessary for candles of the high altar. In medieval Europe, candles were initially used primarily in Christian churches. Its use spread later to

10033-642: The end of the dawn office (until excised in the 1911 reform of the Roman Breviary by Pope Pius X ; see Lauds ), was applied to the whole of that office, substituting for the lost name of "matins" or variants such as laudes matutinae (morning praises) and matutini hymni (morning hymns). An early instance of the application of the named "matins" to the vigil office is that of the Council of Tours in 567 , which spoke of ad matutinum sex antiphonae . The Rule of Saint Benedict clearly distinguished matins as

10160-400: The five of lauds. The six altar candles are put out during the Benedictus, gradually reducing also the lighting in the church throughout the chanting of the canticle. Then any remaining lights in the church are extinguished and the last candle on the hearse is hidden behind the altar (if the altar is such as does not hide the light, the candle, still lit, is put inside a candle lantern ), ending

10287-416: The flame is extinguished. Typical agents are ammonium nitrate and ammonium sulfate . Based on measurements of a taper-type, paraffin wax candle, a modern candle typically burns at a steady rate of about 0.1 g/min, releasing heat at roughly 80 W. The light produced is about 13  lumens , for a luminous efficacy of about 0.16 lumens per watt (luminous efficacy of a source) – almost

10414-512: The flame is very small and releases little heat energy. The blue color is due to chemiluminescence , while the visible yellow color is due to radiative emission from hot soot particles. The soot is formed through a series of complex chemical reactions, leading from the fuel molecule through molecular growth, until multi-carbon ring compounds are formed. The thermal structure of a flame is complex, hundreds of degrees over very short distances leading to extremely steep temperature gradients. On average,

10541-455: The flame temperature is about 1,000 °C (1,800 °F). The color temperature is approximately 1,000 K. For a candle to burn, a heat source (commonly a naked flame from a match or lighter ) is used to light the candle's wick, which melts and vaporizes a small amount of fuel (the wax). Once vaporized, the fuel combines with oxygen in the atmosphere to ignite and form a constant flame . This flame provides sufficient heat to keep

10668-546: The flame. Candle use can be unsafe if fragrances are inhaled at high doses Non-toxic candles have been created as an alternative to prevent these volatile organic compounds from being released into the environment. Candle companies such as "The Plant Project" have created candles that are more environmentally sustainable and better for lung health. These alternatives include non-toxic wax blends, safe fragrances and eco-friendly packaging. Safer candles include candles made from coconut, soy, vegetable, and beeswax. Users who seek

10795-410: The great vigils or pannychides , with their complex and varied display of processions, psalmodies, etc. The same liturgy also preserved vigils of long psalmody. This nocturnal office adapted itself at a later period to a more modern form, approaching more and more closely to the Roman liturgy. Here too were found the three nocturns, with Antiphon , psalms, lessons, and responses, the ordinary elements of

10922-423: The height of a candle flame is the diameter of the wick. This is evidenced in tealights where the wick is very thin and the flame is very small. Candles whose main purpose is illumination use a much thicker wick. One of Michael Faraday 's significant works was The Chemical History of a Candle , where he gives an in-depth analysis of the evolutionary development, workings and science of candles. According to

11049-495: The hours of night — no idle and reckless waste of the occasions of prayer" ( nulla sint horis nocturnis precum damna, nulla orationum pigra et ignava dispendia ). The Apostolic Tradition speaks of prayer at midnight and again at cockcrow, but seemingly as private, not communal, prayer. At an earlier date, Pliny the Younger reported in about 112 that Christians gathered on a certain day before light, sang hymns to Christ as to

11176-711: The households of the wealthy as a luxury item. In northern Europe, rushlight made of greased rushes were commonly used especially in England, but tallow candles were used during the Middle Ages, with a mention of tallow candles in English appearing in 1154. Beeswax was widely used in church ceremonies, and compared to animal-based tallow, it burns cleanly without smoky flame, and does not release an unpleasant smell like tallow. Beeswax candles were expensive, and relatively few people could afford to burn them in their homes in medieval Europe. The candles were produced using

11303-534: The invention of candles, ancient people used open fire, torches, splinters of resinous wood, and lamps to provide artificial illumination at night. Primitive oil lamps in which a lit wick rested in a pool of oil or fat were used from the Paleolithic period, and pottery and stone lamps from the Neolithic period have been found. Because candle making requires a reliable supply of animal or vegetable fats, it

11430-458: The late 19th century, Price's Candles , based in London, was the largest candle manufacturer in the world. Founded by William Wilson in 1830, the company pioneered the implementation of the technique of steam distillation , and was thus able to manufacture candles from a wide range of raw materials, including skin fat, bone fat, fish oil and industrial greases. Despite advances in candle making,

11557-524: The masses. In the mid-1850s, James Young succeeded in distilling paraffin wax from coal and oil shales at Bathgate in West Lothian and developed a commercially viable method of production. Paraffin could be used to make inexpensive candles of high quality. It was a bluish-white wax, which burned cleanly and left no unpleasant odor, unlike tallow candles. By the end of the 19th century, candles were made from paraffin wax and stearic acid . By

11684-476: The materials necessary for a recitation of the office: All of the psalms, canticles, responsories, antiphons, and readings are reproduced in full. Rubrics guide participants through each phase of the service. Parishes of the Anglican Church of Canada that do celebrate Tenebrae follow a variety of practices. The Church of St. Mary Magdalene (Toronto) is notable for the excellence of its music, of which

11811-479: The medieval period, and in rural households, tallow candles may be made at home. By the 13th century, candle making had become a guild craft in England and France, with a French guild documented as early as 1061. The candle makers (chandlers) went from house to house making candles from the kitchen fats saved for that purpose, or made and sold their own candles from small candle shops. By the 16th century, beeswax candles were appearing as luxury household items among

11938-417: The mid 19th century. In 1834, Joseph Morgan, a pewterer from Manchester , England, patented a machine that revolutionised candle making. It allowed for continuous production of molded candles by using a cylinder with a moveable piston to eject candles as they solidified. This more efficient mechanized production produced about 1,500 candles per hour. This allowed candles to be an affordable commodity for

12065-430: The middle of the night is as old as the Church. Tertullian ( c.  155  – c.  240 ) speaks of the "nocturnal convocations" ( nocturnae convocationes ) of Christians and their "absence all the night long at the paschal solemnities" ( sollemnibus Paschae abnoctantes ) Cyprian ( c.  200 – 258) also speaks of praying at night, but not of doing so as a group: "Let there be no failure of prayers in

12192-510: The monastic matins, with versicles and the invitatory Psalm 94 (Psalm 95 in the Masoretic text) chanted or recited in the responsorial form, that is to say, by one or more cantors singing one verse, which the choir repeated as a response to the successive verses sung by the cantors. A hymn was then sung. After that introduction, Sunday matins had three sections (" nocturns "), the first with 12 psalms and 3 very short scriptural readings;

12319-565: The musical Tenebrae services are exemplary. Christ Church Cathedral (Fredericton) uses Tenebrae in a sung traditional language form on the Wednesday evening of Holy Week which includes lessons from Jeremiah with responding psalms, the fourth being from John 17, and Benedictus. At the Church of the Epiphany (Oakville) Tenebrae is described as the reversal of the Advent wreath: "starting Lent with

12446-472: The night") and ending in winter well before dawn (leaving an interval in which the monks were to devote themselves to study or meditation), but having to be curtailed in summer in order to celebrate lauds at daybreak. The word matins is derived from the Latin adjective matutinus , meaning 'of or belonging to the morning'. It was at first applied to the psalms recited at dawn, but later became attached to

12573-477: The nighttime hour, to which he applied Psalm 118/119 :62, "At midnight I rise to praise you, because of your righteous rules". The word vigil also took on a different meaning: not only a prayerful night watch before a religious feast, but the day before a feast. The canonical hour began with the versicle "Lord, open our lips: And we shall praise your name" (the latter said three times) followed by Psalm 3 and Psalm 94/95 (the invitatory ). The invitatory

12700-422: The ninth century. Matins, originally celebrated a few hours after midnight, and lauds, originally celebrated at dawn, were anticipated by the late Middle Ages on the afternoon or evening of the preceding day, and were given the name "Tenebrae" because concluding when darkness was setting in. The celebration of matins and lauds of these days on the previous evening in the form referred to as Tenebrae in churches with

12827-446: The older form's 14, after each of which a candle was extinguished. The readings are no longer 3, divided into 9 sections, but 2 longer readings, and there is provision for extending the Office of Readings on more solemn occasions. In the older form, liturgical practice on those days differed from that on other days, even those of Lent: for instance, Gloria Patri was not included at the end of psalms and responsories. The office of Tenebrae

12954-464: The original form and not necessarily connected with Holy Week , are held even where the pre-Vatican II 1961 Roman Breviary is not used: Unlike the original well-attended Tenebrae, these modern adaptations have attracted little attention on the part of musical composers. Some Protestant denominations retained elements of the Roman Tenebrae liturgy, or added others. The Tenebrae services in

13081-419: The prayer originally offered, according to the fourth-century Apostolic Constitutions , at cockcrow and, according to the sixth-century Rule of Saint Benedict , at could be calculated to be the eighth hour of the night (the hour that began at about 2 a.m.). Between the vigil office and the dawn office in the long winter nights there was an interval, which "should be spent in study by those [monks] who need

13208-552: The preceding evening, and even matins and lauds of Holy Thursday was allowed to be anticipated only in the case of cathedral churches in which the Chrism Mass was held on Holy Thursday morning. The 1960 Code of Rubrics , which was incorporated in the next typical edition of the Roman Breviary, published on 5 April 1961, a year ahead of the publication of the 1962 edition of the Roman Missal, allowed no anticipation whatever of lauds, though matins alone could still be anticipated to

13335-432: The readings of Sunday matins to three. In 1970, Pope Paul VI published a revised form of the Liturgy of the Hours , in which the psalms were arranged in a four-week instead of a one-week cycle, but the variety of other texts was greatly increased, in particular the scriptural and patristic readings, while the hagiographical readings were purged of non-historical legendary content. What had previously been called matins

13462-407: The recitation of canticles in addition to the psalms. Outside monasteries few rose at night to pray. The canonical hour of the vigil was said in the morning, followed immediately by lauds, and the name of "matins" became attached to the lengthier part of what was recited at that time of the day, while the name of "lauds", a name originally describing only the three Psalms 148−150 recited every day at

13589-586: The rest of the year. On Sundays, the office was longer, and therefore began a little earlier. Each set of six psalms was followed by four readings instead of three after the first set and a single recitation by heart after the second set. Then three canticles taken from Old Testament books other than the Psalms were recited, followed by four readings from the New Testament, the singing of the Te Deum , and

13716-511: The sacristy. All rise and then leave in silence. The 1 November 1911 reform of the Roman Breviary by Pope Pius X radically reorganized the weekly recitation of the Psalter. In the Tridentine Roman Breviary of Pope Pius V (1568), Psalms 62/63 and 66/67 (treated as a single unit) and Psalms 148–150 (again treated as a single unit) were recited at lauds every day of the week. Pius X eliminated such repetitions and provided

13843-404: The safety of candles was that a lead core was used in the wicks to keep them upright in container candles. Without a stiff core, the wicks of a container candle could sag and drown in the deep wax pool. Concerns rose that the lead in these wicks would vaporize during the burning process, releasing lead vapors – a known health and developmental hazard. Lead core wicks have not been common since

13970-480: The second with 3 psalms and 3 equally short patristic readings; and the third with 3 psalms and 3 short extracts from a homily. Matins of feasts of double or semidouble rank had 3 nocturns, each with 3 psalms and 3 readings. On a feast of simple rank, a feria or a vigil day, matins had 12 psalms and 3 readings with no division into nocturns. The psalms used at matins in the Roman Breviary from Sunday to Saturday were Psalms 1−108/109 in consecutive order, omitting

14097-421: The service in total darkness. The strepitus (Latin for "great noise"), made by slamming a book shut, banging a hymnal or breviary against the pew, or stomping on the floor, symbolizes the earthquake that followed Christ's death, although it may have originated as a simple signal to depart. After the candle has been shown to the people, it is extinguished, and then put "on the credence table," or simply taken to

14224-666: The service of Tenebrae. Among the Byzantine Rite Orthodox the nearest equivalent is Matins of Great Friday , when a candlestick with 12 candles is set up in the center of the temple behind the analogion from which the Twelve Passion Gospels are read. However, here after each reading one of the candles is lit rather than extinguished. Matins Matins (also Mattins ) is a canonical hour in Christian liturgy , originally sung during

14351-485: The seven nights", i.e., the nights of the week). English versions of this document often obscure its use of the term vigil, translating it as "Night Hour" or "Night Office". Thus Leonard J. Doyle's English version uses "Night Office" to represent indifferently the unaccompanied noun vigilia ("vigil"), the phrase nocturna vigilia ("nightly vigil"), and the phrases nocturna hora ("night hour) and nocturna laus ("nocturnal praise"). The practice of rising for prayer in

14478-467: The wax. The Song dynasty in China (960–1279) used candle clocks . By the 18th century, candle clocks were being made with weights set into the sides of the candle. As the candle melted, the weights fell off and made a noise as they fell into a bowl. In the days leading to Christmas, some people burn a candle a set amount to represent each day, as marked on the candle. The type of candle used in this way

14605-670: The wealthy. Candles were widely used in the 17th and 18th centuries, and a party in Dresden was said to have been lit by 14,000 candles in 1779. In the Middle East, during the Abbasid and Fatimid Caliphates, beeswax was the dominant material used for candle making. Beeswax was often imported from long distances; for example, candle makers from Egypt used beeswax from Tunis . As in Europe, these candles were expensive and limited to

14732-650: The whole range of music". The Lamentations of Jeremiah the Prophet have been set to polyphonic music by many composers, including Palestrina , Tallis and Lassus . Such High-Renaissance polyphonic choral settings of Lamentations at Tenebrae, culminating in those of Lassus (1584), share the same texts with, but in musical idiom are to be distinguished from, the French Baroque genre of Leçons de ténèbres , as composed by Marc-Antoine Charpentier (54 settings, H.91 - H.144), Michel Lambert , and François Couperin . In

14859-436: The wick limits the length of the exposed portion of the wick, thus maintaining a constant burning temperature and rate of fuel consumption. Pre-19th century wicks required regular trimming with scissors (or a specialized wick trimmer), usually to about one-quarter inch (~0.7 cm), to promote steady burning and to prevent it from releasing black smoke. Special candle scissors called " snuffers " were produced for this purpose in

14986-502: The wind, and one of the Psalms says to the Lord: "A thousand years in your sight are but as yesterday when it is past, or as a watch in the night." The sixth-century Rule of Saint Benedict uses the term vigiliae ("vigils") fifteen times to speak of these celebrations, accompanying it four times with the adjective nocturnae ("nocturnal") and once with the words septem noctium ("of

15113-409: The word vigil the meaning it had in early Christianity. Pope John XIII's Code of Rubrics still used the word vigil to mean the day before a feast, but recognized the quite different character of the Easter Vigil , which, "since it is not a liturgical day, is celebrated in its own way, as a night watch". The Roman liturgy now uses the term vigil either in this sense of "a night watch" or with regard to

15240-474: Was abandoned at the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem only in 1977 − although the rule against anticipation of Matins and Lauds to the previous evening was already in effect there − because the times of Catholic Holy Week services had to remain unchanged due to the established rights of other churches. Summorum Pontificum (2007) permits clerics bound to recitation of the Divine Office to use

15367-400: Was at first called a vigil, from Latin vigilia . For soldiers, this word meant a three-hour period of being on the watch during the night. Even for civilians, night was commonly spoken of as divided into four such watches: the Gospels use the term when recounting how, at about "the fourth watch of the night", Jesus came to his disciples who in their boat were struggling to make headway against

15494-532: Was followed by a responsory . The second set of six psalms was followed by a passage from the Apostle Paul recited by heart and by some prayers. The Night Office then concluded with a versicle and a litany that began with Kyrie eleison . Since summer nights are shorter, from Easter to October a single passage from the Old Testament, recited by heart, took the place of the three readings used during

15621-557: Was generally recited at other times of the day, often in conjunction with lauds. In the Liturgy of the Hours of the Roman Catholic Church , Matins is also called “the Office of Readings”, which includes several psalms, a chapter of a book of Scripture (assigned according to the liturgical seasons), and a reading from the works of patristic authors or saints. In the Byzantine Rite , these vigils correspond to

15748-424: Was given the name of "Office of Readings" (Officium lectionis and was declared appropriate for celebrating at any hour, while preserving its nocturnal character for those who wished to celebrate a vigil. For that purpose alternative hymns are provided and an appendix contains material, in particular canticles and readings from the Gospels, to facilitate celebration of a vigil. The Catholic Church has thus restored to

15875-572: Was limited to the wealthy, instead oil lamps were the more commonly used lighting devices in Roman times. Ancient Greece used torches and oil lamps, and likely adopted candle use in a later period from Rome. Early record in China suggests that candle was used in the Qin dynasty before 200 BC. These early Chinese candles may have been made from whale fat. In Christianity, candles gained significance in their decorative, symbolic and ceremonial uses in churches. Wax candles, or candela cerea recorded at

16002-411: Was the reform of the Roman Breviary by Pope Pius X in 1911, resulting in what Pope Paul VI called "a new Breviary". The reservation of Psalms 1-108/109 to matins and the consecutive order within that group were abandoned, and, apart from the invitatory psalm, which continued in its place at matins every day, no psalm was ordinarily repeated within the same week. To facilitate an even distribution among

16129-480: Was to be recited slowly out of consideration for any late-arriving monk, since anyone appearing after its conclusion was punished by having to stand in a place apart. After this a hymn was sung. Next came two sets of six psalms followed by readings. (Such sets would later be called nocturns .) The first set was of six psalms followed by three readings from the Old or New Testaments or from Church Fathers . Each reading

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