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117-795: The TWRA is engaged in hunter education and training through the Tennessee Hunter Education Program and provides support to the "Archery in the Schools Program" and financial support to safety and competitive shooting programs through the Tennessee Wildlife Federation's Tennessee Scholastic Clay Target Program . Prior to 1949, when the Tennessee Game and Fish Commission was established, wildlife law enforcement efforts were piecemeal and largely left to local sheriffs and police. In

234-433: A simple majority of those casting votes. This method can not be employed more often than once every six years. DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid ( / d iː ˈ ɒ k s ɪ ˌ r aɪ b oʊ nj uː ˌ k l iː ɪ k , - ˌ k l eɪ -/ ; DNA ) is a polymer composed of two polynucleotide chains that coil around each other to form a double helix . The polymer carries genetic instructions for

351-706: A Lieutenant. Captains are in charge of law enforcement activities within TWRA districts. Today, TWRA officers are tasked with enforcing state and federal game and non-game wildlife regulations, including hunting, fishing and trapping. The TWRA is also responsible for enforcing all boating laws (such as patrolling for intoxicated boaters, checking for correct boat registration, and enforcement of safety regulations) and maintaining public boat access areas. Although TWRA officers concentrate on wildlife-related law enforcement and rarely are called to enforce other laws, they carry not only state-level commissions, but commissions granted by

468-445: A buffer to recruit or titrate ions or antibiotics. Extracellular DNA acts as a functional extracellular matrix component in the biofilms of several bacterial species. It may act as a recognition factor to regulate the attachment and dispersal of specific cell types in the biofilm; it may contribute to biofilm formation; and it may contribute to the biofilm's physical strength and resistance to biological stress. Cell-free fetal DNA

585-462: A cell makes up its genome ; the human genome has approximately 3 billion base pairs of DNA arranged into 46 chromosomes. The information carried by DNA is held in the sequence of pieces of DNA called genes . Transmission of genetic information in genes is achieved via complementary base pairing. For example, in transcription, when a cell uses the information in a gene, the DNA sequence is copied into

702-445: A complementary RNA sequence through the attraction between the DNA and the correct RNA nucleotides. Usually, this RNA copy is then used to make a matching protein sequence in a process called translation , which depends on the same interaction between RNA nucleotides. In an alternative fashion, a cell may copy its genetic information in a process called DNA replication . The details of these functions are covered in other articles; here

819-491: A concentrated effort in the mid 1990s, in 1998 biologists with the agency declared the turkey reintroduction program complete. Wildlife Management Areas (WMAs) are publicly managed protected lands set aside for wildlife conservation and recreation, including camping, hiking, horseback riding, hunting, and fishing. TWRA manages over 1.5 million acres (6,100 km) spread across 123 WMAs statewide. Some WMAs are co-located with federally managed properties, such as Land Between

936-492: A double helix can thus be pulled apart like a zipper, either by a mechanical force or high temperature . As a result of this base pair complementarity, all the information in the double-stranded sequence of a DNA helix is duplicated on each strand, which is vital in DNA replication. This reversible and specific interaction between complementary base pairs is critical for all the functions of DNA in organisms. Most DNA molecules are actually two polymer strands, bound together in

1053-428: A full set of the mitochondrial genes. Each human mitochondrion contains, on average, approximately 5 such mtDNA molecules. Each human cell contains approximately 100 mitochondria, giving a total number of mtDNA molecules per human cell of approximately 500. However, the amount of mitochondria per cell also varies by cell type, and an egg cell can contain 100,000 mitochondria, corresponding to up to 1,500,000 copies of

1170-439: A helical fashion by noncovalent bonds; this double-stranded (dsDNA) structure is maintained largely by the intrastrand base stacking interactions, which are strongest for G,C stacks. The two strands can come apart—a process known as melting—to form two single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) molecules. Melting occurs at high temperatures, low salt and high pH (low pH also melts DNA, but since DNA is unstable due to acid depurination, low pH

1287-571: A higher number is also possible but this would be against the natural principle of least effort . The phosphate groups of DNA give it similar acidic properties to phosphoric acid and it can be considered as a strong acid . It will be fully ionized at a normal cellular pH, releasing protons which leave behind negative charges on the phosphate groups. These negative charges protect DNA from breakdown by hydrolysis by repelling nucleophiles which could hydrolyze it. Pure DNA extracted from cells forms white, stringy clumps. The expression of genes

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1404-667: A long-standing puzzle known as the " C-value enigma ". However, some DNA sequences that do not code protein may still encode functional non-coding RNA molecules, which are involved in the regulation of gene expression . Some noncoding DNA sequences play structural roles in chromosomes. Telomeres and centromeres typically contain few genes but are important for the function and stability of chromosomes. An abundant form of noncoding DNA in humans are pseudogenes , which are copies of genes that have been disabled by mutation. These sequences are usually just molecular fossils , although they can occasionally serve as raw genetic material for

1521-500: A mileage allowance). A few members are on enough committees to make something of a living from being legislators; most are independent businesspeople and attorneys , although the latter group is perhaps no longer the absolute majority of members that it at one time comprised. In keeping with Tennessee's agricultural roots, some senators and representatives are farmers. Lobbyists are not allowed to share meals with legislators on an individual basis, but they are not forbidden from inviting

1638-409: A narrower, deeper major groove. The A form occurs under non-physiological conditions in partly dehydrated samples of DNA, while in the cell it may be produced in hybrid pairings of DNA and RNA strands, and in enzyme-DNA complexes. Segments of DNA where the bases have been chemically modified by methylation may undergo a larger change in conformation and adopt the Z form . Here, the strands turn about

1755-597: A new bill to pass it requires a constitutional majority. According to the state constitution, three positions in state government collectively referred to as the "Constitutional Officers" — the secretary of state , state treasurer , and the Comptroller of the Treasury — are selected by the General Assembly in joint session , where each member of the General Assembly is afforded a single vote. Each office

1872-431: A process called translation . Within eukaryotic cells, DNA is organized into long structures called chromosomes . Before typical cell division , these chromosomes are duplicated in the process of DNA replication, providing a complete set of chromosomes for each daughter cell. Eukaryotic organisms ( animals , plants , fungi and protists ) store most of their DNA inside the cell nucleus as nuclear DNA , and some in

1989-442: A radius of 10 Å (1.0 nm). According to another study, when measured in a different solution, the DNA chain measured 22–26 Å (2.2–2.6 nm) wide, and one nucleotide unit measured 3.3 Å (0.33 nm) long. The buoyant density of most DNA is 1.7g/cm . DNA does not usually exist as a single strand, but instead as a pair of strands that are held tightly together. These two long strands coil around each other, in

2106-416: A second protein when read in the opposite direction along the other strand. In bacteria , this overlap may be involved in the regulation of gene transcription, while in viruses, overlapping genes increase the amount of information that can be encoded within the small viral genome. DNA can be twisted like a rope in a process called DNA supercoiling . With DNA in its "relaxed" state, a strand usually circles

2223-445: A simple TTAGGG sequence. These guanine-rich sequences may stabilize chromosome ends by forming structures of stacked sets of four-base units, rather than the usual base pairs found in other DNA molecules. Here, four guanine bases, known as a guanine tetrad , form a flat plate. These flat four-base units then stack on top of each other to form a stable G-quadruplex structure. These structures are stabilized by hydrogen bonding between

2340-801: A week during the session. Legislative sessions in both the House and Senate occur on Mondays, Wednesdays, and Thursdays. Tuesdays and the majority of Wednesdays are used primarily for committee meetings and hearings rather than actual sessions. Tuesdays and Wednesdays in the Tennessee Capitol also take on an eclectic flavor most weeks, as varied and diverse constituent groups set up display booths to inform lawmakers about their respective causes. Sessions begin each year in January and usually end by May; during recent fiscal crises meetings have spilled over into July. The time limit on reimbursed working days and

2457-399: Is also required to decide the result of the gubernatorial election by joint session according to the state constitution in the event of an exact tie in the popular vote, an extremely unlikely election result. The General Assembly can propose amendments to the state constitution, but only through one of the two available time-consuming processes: For the legislature to propose amendments to

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2574-550: Is awarded to the first candidate to receive a majority of the votes (67 of 132). The General Assembly selects the seven members of the State Election Commission. It selects four members from the majority party (the one controlling the majority of the 132 total seats) and three members from the minority party. A contested gubernatorial election is supposed to be decided by a joint session of the General Assembly, according to statutory law . The General Assembly

2691-447: Is called intercalation . Most intercalators are aromatic and planar molecules; examples include ethidium bromide , acridines , daunomycin , and doxorubicin . For an intercalator to fit between base pairs, the bases must separate, distorting the DNA strands by unwinding of the double helix. This inhibits both transcription and DNA replication, causing toxicity and mutations. As a result, DNA intercalators may be carcinogens , and in

2808-435: Is called a polynucleotide . The backbone of the DNA strand is made from alternating phosphate and sugar groups. The sugar in DNA is 2-deoxyribose , which is a pentose (five- carbon ) sugar. The sugars are joined by phosphate groups that form phosphodiester bonds between the third and fifth carbon atoms of adjacent sugar rings. These are known as the 3′-end (three prime end), and 5′-end (five prime end) carbons,

2925-444: Is composed of all members of the House and Senate Government Operations Committees. It reviews rules and regulations created by state departments and agencies. It has three subcommittees. Joint Committee on Pensions and Insurance It is composed of the officers of the House and Senate Finance, Ways, and Means committees, three members appointed by each finance committee chair, and two members appointed by each speaker. Furthermore,

3042-445: Is composed of one of four nitrogen-containing nucleobases ( cytosine [C], guanine [G], adenine [A] or thymine [T]), a sugar called deoxyribose , and a phosphate group . The nucleotides are joined to one another in a chain by covalent bonds (known as the phosphodiester linkage ) between the sugar of one nucleotide and the phosphate of the next, resulting in an alternating sugar-phosphate backbone . The nitrogenous bases of

3159-434: Is dependent on ionic strength and the concentration of DNA. As a result, it is both the percentage of GC base pairs and the overall length of a DNA double helix that determines the strength of the association between the two strands of DNA. Long DNA helices with a high GC -content have more strongly interacting strands, while short helices with high AT content have more weakly interacting strands. In biology, parts of

3276-689: Is for the General Assembly to put on the ballot the question of whether a limited constitutional convention should be called for the purpose of considering amendments to certain specified provisions of the constitution. If the voters approve this in a statewide election they then, at the next statewide election, elect delegates to this convention. This body then meets (in the House chamber of the Tennessee State Capitol) and makes its recommendations. These recommendations can be voted on in any election, either one specially called or in conjunction with other statewide elections, and need only pass by

3393-596: Is headquartered in Morristown, Tennessee in offices located along Cherokee Reservoir . It covers most of the counties of northeastern East Tennessee and is divided into districts 41 and 42. TWRA law enforcement officers are divided into a rank system similar to that of many law enforcement agencies, adopting the names and insignia of some ranks in the United States military . Majors are placed in charge of law enforcement activities within TWRA regions, assisted by

3510-691: Is headquartered in offices on Lake Graham outside of Jackson, Tennessee , and covers all of West Tennessee plus four counties along the Tennessee River in Middle Tennessee . It is subdivided into law enforcement districts 11 and 12. Region 2 is headquartered in offices at the Ellington Agricultural Center in Nashville, Tennessee. It covers most of Middle Tennessee except for the four counties straddling

3627-411: Is influenced by how the DNA is packaged in chromosomes, in a structure called chromatin . Base modifications can be involved in packaging, with regions that have low or no gene expression usually containing high levels of methylation of cytosine bases. DNA packaging and its influence on gene expression can also occur by covalent modifications of the histone protein core around which DNA is wrapped in

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3744-432: Is introduced by enzymes called topoisomerases . These enzymes are also needed to relieve the twisting stresses introduced into DNA strands during processes such as transcription and DNA replication . DNA exists in many possible conformations that include A-DNA , B-DNA , and Z-DNA forms, although only B-DNA and Z-DNA have been directly observed in functional organisms. The conformation that DNA adopts depends on

3861-422: Is nothing special about the four natural nucleobases that evolved on Earth. On the other hand, DNA is tightly related to RNA which does not only act as a transcript of DNA but also performs as molecular machines many tasks in cells. For this purpose it has to fold into a structure. It has been shown that to allow to create all possible structures at least four bases are required for the corresponding RNA , while

3978-517: Is rarely used). The stability of the dsDNA form depends not only on the GC -content (% G,C basepairs) but also on sequence (since stacking is sequence specific) and also length (longer molecules are more stable). The stability can be measured in various ways; a common way is the melting temperature (also called T m value), which is the temperature at which 50% of the double-strand molecules are converted to single-strand molecules; melting temperature

4095-428: Is recreated by an enzyme called DNA polymerase . This enzyme makes the complementary strand by finding the correct base through complementary base pairing and bonding it onto the original strand. As DNA polymerases can only extend a DNA strand in a 5′ to 3′ direction, different mechanisms are used to copy the antiparallel strands of the double helix. In this way, the base on the old strand dictates which base appears on

4212-428: Is the sequence of these four nucleobases along the backbone that encodes genetic information. RNA strands are created using DNA strands as a template in a process called transcription , where DNA bases are exchanged for their corresponding bases except in the case of thymine (T), for which RNA substitutes uracil (U). Under the genetic code , these RNA strands specify the sequence of amino acids within proteins in

4329-458: Is the state legislature of the U.S. state of Tennessee . It is a part-time bicameral legislature consisting of a Senate and a House of Representatives . The Speaker of the Senate carries the additional title and office of Lieutenant Governor of Tennessee. In addition to passing a budget for state government plus other legislation, the General Assembly appoints three state officers specified by

4446-516: Is the largest human chromosome with approximately 220 million base pairs , and would be 85 mm long if straightened. In eukaryotes , in addition to nuclear DNA , there is also mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) which encodes certain proteins used by the mitochondria. The mtDNA is usually relatively small in comparison to the nuclear DNA. For example, the human mitochondrial DNA forms closed circular molecules, each of which contains 16,569 DNA base pairs, with each such molecule normally containing

4563-489: Is to allow the cell to replicate chromosome ends using the enzyme telomerase , as the enzymes that normally replicate DNA cannot copy the extreme 3′ ends of chromosomes. These specialized chromosome caps also help protect the DNA ends, and stop the DNA repair systems in the cell from treating them as damage to be corrected. In human cells , telomeres are usually lengths of single-stranded DNA containing several thousand repeats of

4680-657: The DNA sequence . Mutagens include oxidizing agents , alkylating agents and also high-energy electromagnetic radiation such as ultraviolet light and X-rays . The type of DNA damage produced depends on the type of mutagen. For example, UV light can damage DNA by producing thymine dimers , which are cross-links between pyrimidine bases. On the other hand, oxidants such as free radicals or hydrogen peroxide produce multiple forms of damage, including base modifications, particularly of guanosine, and double-strand breaks. A typical human cell contains about 150,000 bases that have suffered oxidative damage. Of these oxidative lesions,

4797-406: The amino-acid sequences of proteins is determined by the rules of translation , known collectively as the genetic code . The genetic code consists of three-letter 'words' called codons formed from a sequence of three nucleotides (e.g. ACT, CAG, TTT). In transcription, the codons of a gene are copied into messenger RNA by RNA polymerase . This RNA copy is then decoded by a ribosome that reads

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4914-488: The colors and funeral services for active or retired officers. In 2014, the TWRA formed a chaplaincy program to support the spiritual needs of its commissioned law enforcement officers and promote resiliency among those placed in high-stress situations. It is designed as a voluntary, peer-supported program to provide trained chaplains to respond to traumatic incidents and assist in next-of-kin notification. The TWRA takes an active role in wildlife and fisheries conservation and

5031-581: The federal government as well, giving them the ability and responsibility to enforce all state, local, and federal codes. The TWRA maintains a modern forensics laboratory at the University of Tennessee, Martin that includes state of the art DNA analysis equipment. TWRA officers are often called to provide assistance in search and rescue operations, due to their extensive experience working in woodland environments. TWRA K-9 units are utilized during missing persons situations in rural or wild areas within

5148-420: The mitochondria as mitochondrial DNA or in chloroplasts as chloroplast DNA . In contrast, prokaryotes ( bacteria and archaea ) store their DNA only in the cytoplasm , in circular chromosomes . Within eukaryotic chromosomes, chromatin proteins, such as histones , compact and organize DNA. These compacting structures guide the interactions between DNA and other proteins, helping control which parts of

5265-503: The state constitution . It is also the initiating body in any process to amend the state's constitution. According to the Tennessee State Constitution of 1870, the General Assembly is a bicameral legislature and consists of a Senate of thirty-three members and a House of Representatives of ninety-nine members. The representatives are elected to two-year terms; according to a 1966 constitutional amendment

5382-461: The " Tennessee Marriage Protection Amendment ," specifying that only marriages between a man and a woman could be legally recognized in the state, was approved for submission to the voters in 2006. The ACLU had previously challenged the validity of the amendment by asserting that a constitutional obligation to publicly advertise the amendment had not been satisfied. However, on February 23, 2006, Davidson County Chancellor Ellen Hobbs Lyle ruled that

5499-419: The 3′ and 5′ carbons along the sugar-phosphate backbone confers directionality (sometimes called polarity) to each DNA strand. In a nucleic acid double helix , the direction of the nucleotides in one strand is opposite to their direction in the other strand: the strands are antiparallel . The asymmetric ends of DNA strands are said to have a directionality of five prime end (5′ ), and three prime end (3′), with

5616-591: The 5′ end having a terminal phosphate group and the 3′ end a terminal hydroxyl group. One major difference between DNA and RNA is the sugar, with the 2-deoxyribose in DNA being replaced by the related pentose sugar ribose in RNA. The DNA double helix is stabilized primarily by two forces: hydrogen bonds between nucleotides and base-stacking interactions among aromatic nucleobases. The four bases found in DNA are adenine ( A ), cytosine ( C ), guanine ( G ) and thymine ( T ). These four bases are attached to

5733-585: The Comptroller of the Treasury, state treasurer, and commissioners of Human Resources and Finance and Administration, as well as the director of the state retirement system, are included on an ex-officio basis. TACIR The Tennessee Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations is considered to be a joint committee of the legislature. See Tennessee Senate and Tennessee House of Representatives for current member lists and further information. Legislative days are scheduled no more than three days

5850-435: The DNA are transcribed. DNA is a long polymer made from repeating units called nucleotides . The structure of DNA is dynamic along its length, being capable of coiling into tight loops and other shapes. In all species it is composed of two helical chains, bound to each other by hydrogen bonds . Both chains are coiled around the same axis, and have the same pitch of 34 ångströms (3.4  nm ). The pair of chains have

5967-460: The DNA double helix that need to separate easily, such as the TATAAT Pribnow box in some promoters , tend to have a high AT content, making the strands easier to pull apart. In the laboratory, the strength of this interaction can be measured by finding the melting temperature T m necessary to break half of the hydrogen bonds. When all the base pairs in a DNA double helix melt,

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6084-610: The House is Cameron Sexton who was elected in 2019. The General Assembly districts of both houses are supposed to be reapportioned based on population as determined by the U.S. federal census on a decennial basis. This was not done between 1902 and 1962, resulting in the United States Supreme Court decision in Baker v. Carr (369 U.S. 186), which required this action to be taken. Afterwards, there were other lawsuits, including one which resulted in an order for

6201-666: The Lakes National Recreation Area and Cherokee National Forest . Since 1985, Tennessee has required completion of the Tennessee Hunter Education Program (THEP) as a prerequisite to obtaining a hunting permit in the state for all persons born on or after January 1, 1969. All hunters over the age of 10 are required to be in possession of a Hunter Education certificate while in the field, and those under 10 must be accompanied by an adult of at least 21 years of age who has completed

6318-401: The RNA sequence by base-pairing the messenger RNA to transfer RNA , which carries amino acids. Since there are 4 bases in 3-letter combinations, there are 64 possible codons (4  combinations). These encode the twenty standard amino acids , giving most amino acids more than one possible codon. There are also three 'stop' or 'nonsense' codons signifying the end of the coding region; these are

6435-491: The TAG, TAA, and TGA codons, (UAG, UAA, and UGA on the mRNA). Cell division is essential for an organism to grow, but, when a cell divides, it must replicate the DNA in its genome so that the two daughter cells have the same genetic information as their parent. The double-stranded structure of DNA provides a simple mechanism for DNA replication . Here, the two strands are separated and then each strand's complementary DNA sequence

6552-609: The Tennessee Scholastic Clay Target Program. This program is designed to provide elementary- to college-aged students in Tennessee with opportunities to compete in clay target shooting sports with their peers across the state. These programs are usually organized as school-endorsed athletic programs, however teams are also organized through 4-H clubs, Boy and Girl Scout Troops , or community groups. The program draws over 1,000 youth annually to

6669-559: The Tennessee Wildlife Resources Agency as the law enforcement body reporting to the Commission and establishing the regional structure that it retains to this day. By the end of the month, legislation had been introduced in the General Assembly to execute these changes. The TWRA is governed by the 13-member Tennessee Wildlife Resources Commission, whose members are citizens appointed by the governor ,

6786-442: The axis of the double helix once every 10.4 base pairs, but if the DNA is twisted the strands become more tightly or more loosely wound. If the DNA is twisted in the direction of the helix, this is positive supercoiling, and the bases are held more tightly together. If they are twisted in the opposite direction, this is negative supercoiling, and the bases come apart more easily. In nature, most DNA has slight negative supercoiling that

6903-474: The body to create a black - majority district in West Tennessee for the House in the late 1990s. Tennessee legislators' objectives are to enact, amend, and repeal Tennessee Laws. Powers specific to Tennessee legislators include appropriation of money, the levy and collection of taxes, and the right to authorize counties and towns to tax. The General Assembly is recognized by the state constitution as

7020-407: The canonical bases plus uracil. Twin helical strands form the DNA backbone. Another double helix may be found tracing the spaces, or grooves, between the strands. These voids are adjacent to the base pairs and may provide a binding site . As the strands are not symmetrically located with respect to each other, the grooves are unequally sized. The major groove is 22 ångströms (2.2 nm) wide, while

7137-467: The case of thalidomide, a teratogen . Others such as benzo[ a ]pyrene diol epoxide and aflatoxin form DNA adducts that induce errors in replication. Nevertheless, due to their ability to inhibit DNA transcription and replication, other similar toxins are also used in chemotherapy to inhibit rapidly growing cancer cells. DNA usually occurs as linear chromosomes in eukaryotes , and circular chromosomes in prokaryotes . The set of chromosomes in

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7254-581: The cell (see below) , but the major and minor grooves are always named to reflect the differences in width that would be seen if the DNA was twisted back into the ordinary B form . In a DNA double helix, each type of nucleobase on one strand bonds with just one type of nucleobase on the other strand. This is called complementary base pairing . Purines form hydrogen bonds to pyrimidines, with adenine bonding only to thymine in two hydrogen bonds, and cytosine bonding only to guanine in three hydrogen bonds. This arrangement of two nucleotides binding together across

7371-619: The chromatin structure or else by remodeling carried out by chromatin remodeling complexes (see Chromatin remodeling ). There is, further, crosstalk between DNA methylation and histone modification, so they can coordinately affect chromatin and gene expression. For one example, cytosine methylation produces 5-methylcytosine , which is important for X-inactivation of chromosomes. The average level of methylation varies between organisms—the worm Caenorhabditis elegans lacks cytosine methylation, while vertebrates have higher levels, with up to 1% of their DNA containing 5-methylcytosine. Despite

7488-480: The conditions found in cells, it is not a well-defined conformation but a family of related DNA conformations that occur at the high hydration levels present in cells. Their corresponding X-ray diffraction and scattering patterns are characteristic of molecular paracrystals with a significant degree of disorder. Compared to B-DNA, the A-DNA form is a wider right-handed spiral, with a shallow, wide minor groove and

7605-578: The course and who must remain in a position to take immediate control of the hunting device. The course is offered free of charge and consists of a minimum of 10 hours of classroom participation, although most courses generally last 12–16 hours. Students are then required to successfully pass a written examination and a live firing exercise. The course contains instruction on ethics, marksmanship, history of hunting and firearms, wildlife management and identification, laws, knowledge of firearms and ammunition, wilderness survival, emergency first aid, etc. The THEP

7722-405: The creation of new genes through the process of gene duplication and divergence . A gene is a sequence of DNA that contains genetic information and can influence the phenotype of an organism. Within a gene, the sequence of bases along a DNA strand defines a messenger RNA sequence, which then defines one or more protein sequences. The relationship between the nucleotide sequences of genes and

7839-449: The cytoplasm called the nucleoid . The genetic information in a genome is held within genes, and the complete set of this information in an organism is called its genotype . A gene is a unit of heredity and is a region of DNA that influences a particular characteristic in an organism. Genes contain an open reading frame that can be transcribed, and regulatory sequences such as promoters and enhancers , which control transcription of

7956-489: The development, functioning, growth and reproduction of all known organisms and many viruses . DNA and ribonucleic acid (RNA) are nucleic acids . Alongside proteins , lipids and complex carbohydrates ( polysaccharides ), nucleic acids are one of the four major types of macromolecules that are essential for all known forms of life . The two DNA strands are known as polynucleotides as they are composed of simpler monomeric units called nucleotides . Each nucleotide

8073-405: The double helix (from six-carbon ring to six-carbon ring) is called a Watson-Crick base pair. DNA with high GC-content is more stable than DNA with low GC -content. A Hoogsteen base pair (hydrogen bonding the 6-carbon ring to the 5-carbon ring) is a rare variation of base-pairing. As hydrogen bonds are not covalent , they can be broken and rejoined relatively easily. The two strands of DNA in

8190-440: The eastern two-thirds of the state. From 1971 until January 2007, Tennessee had the same lieutenant governor, John S. Wilder , a Democrat . Wilder was re-elected to the position even after Tennessee Republicans re-took the state senate in the 2004 election. However, in January 2007, after Republicans gained additional seats in the 2006 General Assembly elections, the Senate elected Republican Ron Ramsey (from East Tennessee ) to

8307-442: The edges of the bases and chelation of a metal ion in the centre of each four-base unit. Other structures can also be formed, with the central set of four bases coming from either a single strand folded around the bases, or several different parallel strands, each contributing one base to the central structure. In addition to these stacked structures, telomeres also form large loop structures called telomere loops, or T-loops. Here,

8424-481: The end of an otherwise complementary double-strand of DNA. However, branched DNA can occur if a third strand of DNA is introduced and contains adjoining regions able to hybridize with the frayed regions of the pre-existing double-strand. Although the simplest example of branched DNA involves only three strands of DNA, complexes involving additional strands and multiple branches are also possible. Branched DNA can be used in nanotechnology to construct geometric shapes, see

8541-568: The entire legislature or selected groups to events honoring them, which has become a primary means of lobbying. Members are also forbidden from holding campaign fundraising events for themselves during the time they are actually in session. Each house sets its own rules and elects its own speaker ; the Speaker of the Senate carries the additional title and office of Lieutenant Governor of Tennessee . For over three decades, both speakers were from West Tennessee ; this caused considerable resentment in

8658-442: The fact that the Tennessee state government fiscal year is on a July 1 – June 30 basis puts considerable time pressure on the General Assembly, especially with regard to the adoption of a budget. Membership in the legislature is best regarded as being a full-time job during the session and a part-time job the rest of the year due to committee meetings and hearings (for which legislators are reimbursed their expenses and receive

8775-418: The focus is on the interactions between DNA and other molecules that mediate the function of the genome. Genomic DNA is tightly and orderly packed in the process called DNA condensation , to fit the small available volumes of the cell. In eukaryotes, DNA is located in the cell nucleus , with small amounts in mitochondria and chloroplasts . In prokaryotes, the DNA is held within an irregularly shaped body in

8892-448: The functions of these RNAs are not entirely clear. One proposal is that antisense RNAs are involved in regulating gene expression through RNA-RNA base pairing. A few DNA sequences in prokaryotes and eukaryotes, and more in plasmids and viruses , blur the distinction between sense and antisense strands by having overlapping genes . In these cases, some DNA sequences do double duty, encoding one protein when read along one strand, and

9009-448: The helical axis in a left-handed spiral, the opposite of the more common B form. These unusual structures can be recognized by specific Z-DNA binding proteins and may be involved in the regulation of transcription. For many years, exobiologists have proposed the existence of a shadow biosphere , a postulated microbial biosphere of Earth that uses radically different biochemical and molecular processes than currently known life. One of

9126-448: The hydration level, DNA sequence, the amount and direction of supercoiling, chemical modifications of the bases, the type and concentration of metal ions , and the presence of polyamines in solution. The first published reports of A-DNA X-ray diffraction patterns —and also B-DNA—used analyses based on Patterson functions that provided only a limited amount of structural information for oriented fibers of DNA. An alternative analysis

9243-427: The hydrolytic activities of cellular water, etc., also occur frequently. Although most of these damages are repaired, in any cell some DNA damage may remain despite the action of repair processes. These remaining DNA damages accumulate with age in mammalian postmitotic tissues. This accumulation appears to be an important underlying cause of aging. Many mutagens fit into the space between two adjacent base pairs, this

9360-412: The importance of 5-methylcytosine, it can deaminate to leave a thymine base, so methylated cytosines are particularly prone to mutations . Other base modifications include adenine methylation in bacteria, the presence of 5-hydroxymethylcytosine in the brain , and the glycosylation of uracil to produce the "J-base" in kinetoplastids . DNA can be damaged by many sorts of mutagens , which change

9477-420: The maintenance of an office area devoted to their legislative work in their homes or elsewhere within their district. Traditionally, it has been easier, politically speaking, to raise the per diem and office allowance than the salary. The speaker of each house is entitled to a salary triple that of other members. Under a law enacted in 2004, legislators will receive a raise equal to that given to state employees

9594-441: The minor groove is 12 Å (1.2 nm) in width. Due to the larger width of the major groove, the edges of the bases are more accessible in the major groove than in the minor groove. As a result, proteins such as transcription factors that can bind to specific sequences in double-stranded DNA usually make contact with the sides of the bases exposed in the major groove. This situation varies in unusual conformations of DNA within

9711-516: The mitochondrial genome (constituting up to 90% of the DNA of the cell). A DNA sequence is called a "sense" sequence if it is the same as that of a messenger RNA copy that is translated into protein. The sequence on the opposite strand is called the "antisense" sequence. Both sense and antisense sequences can exist on different parts of the same strand of DNA (i.e. both strands can contain both sense and antisense sequences). In both prokaryotes and eukaryotes, antisense RNA sequences are produced, but

9828-477: The most dangerous are double-strand breaks, as these are difficult to repair and can produce point mutations , insertions , deletions from the DNA sequence, and chromosomal translocations . These mutations can cause cancer . Because of inherent limits in the DNA repair mechanisms, if humans lived long enough, they would all eventually develop cancer. DNA damages that are naturally occurring , due to normal cellular processes that produce reactive oxygen species,

9945-464: The new strand, and the cell ends up with a perfect copy of its DNA. Naked extracellular DNA (eDNA), most of it released by cell death, is nearly ubiquitous in the environment. Its concentration in soil may be as high as 2 μg/L, and its concentration in natural aquatic environments may be as high at 88 μg/L. Various possible functions have been proposed for eDNA: it may be involved in horizontal gene transfer ; it may provide nutrients; and it may act as

10062-548: The northern part of the Tennessee River near West Tennessee and the counties along the Cumberland Plateau . It is subdivided into districts 21 and 22. Region 3 is headquartered in an industrial development north of downtown Crossville, Tennessee . It covers most of the counties in Tennessee along the Cumberland Plateau and in southern East Tennessee . It is subdivided into districts 31 and 32. Region 4

10179-413: The office of lieutenant governor. The current lieutenant governor is Republican Randy McNally, who was elected in January 2017. The 111th General Assembly of Tennessee has 32 new legislators, with 28 of those legislators in the House. The 111th General Assembly also had a new Speaker of the House and majority leader in the Senate, respectively, and new lawmakers in leadership positions. The current speaker of

10296-454: The open reading frame. In many species , only a small fraction of the total sequence of the genome encodes protein. For example, only about 1.5% of the human genome consists of protein-coding exons , with over 50% of human DNA consisting of non-coding repetitive sequences . The reasons for the presence of so much noncoding DNA in eukaryotic genomes and the extraordinary differences in genome size , or C-value , among species, represent

10413-428: The place of thymine in RNA and differs from thymine by lacking a methyl group on its ring. In addition to RNA and DNA, many artificial nucleic acid analogues have been created to study the properties of nucleic acids, or for use in biotechnology. Modified bases occur in DNA. The first of these recognized was 5-methylcytosine , which was found in the genome of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in 1925. The reason for

10530-530: The presence of these noncanonical bases in bacterial viruses ( bacteriophages ) is to avoid the restriction enzymes present in bacteria. This enzyme system acts at least in part as a molecular immune system protecting bacteria from infection by viruses. Modifications of the bases cytosine and adenine, the more common and modified DNA bases, play vital roles in the epigenetic control of gene expression in plants and animals. A number of noncanonical bases are known to occur in DNA. Most of these are modifications of

10647-525: The previous year, if any. The governor may also call "extraordinary sessions", limited to the topic or topics outlined in the call, and limited to another twenty days. Two-thirds of each house may also initiate such a call by petitioning for it. Each chamber sets up its own committee system; however, there are a number of committees which are composed of members of both the House and Senate. Joint Fiscal Review Committee The Joint Fiscal Review Committee continuously reviews items such as revenue collections,

10764-412: The prime symbol being used to distinguish these carbon atoms from those of the base to which the deoxyribose forms a glycosidic bond . Therefore, any DNA strand normally has one end at which there is a phosphate group attached to the 5′ carbon of a ribose (the 5′ phosphoryl) and another end at which there is a free hydroxyl group attached to the 3′ carbon of a ribose (the 3′ hydroxyl). The orientation of

10881-466: The proposals was the existence of lifeforms that use arsenic instead of phosphorus in DNA . A report in 2010 of the possibility in the bacterium GFAJ-1 was announced, though the research was disputed, and evidence suggests the bacterium actively prevents the incorporation of arsenic into the DNA backbone and other biomolecules. At the ends of the linear chromosomes are specialized regions of DNA called telomeres . The main function of these regions

10998-469: The proposed amendment would be on the ballot in 2006. Both that amendment and an amendment authorizing exemption of senior citizens from property tax increases were approved by voters in November 2006. In 2010, voters approved an amendment providing a right to hunt and fish within state regulations. The other method of amending the state constitution, and the one used for all amendments prior to 1998,

11115-532: The proposed budget and other budget requests, appropriations, state debt, and various state funds, among other items. It also prepares estimates of revenues from the Tennessee Education Lottery and oversees the financial operations of state departments and agencies. Further, it prepares the fiscal note attached to each bill presented in the General Assembly, describing the estimated cost of the bill's contents on state and local government. It

11232-469: The reintroduction of wildlife that were driven from an area due to human intervention. Reintroduction programs conducted by the TWRA and its predecessor agencies include for white tailed deer , wild turkey , and elk . The state's first effort to reintroduce the turkey was conducted from 1935 to 1950. During this time period, nearly 6,000 birds were released. This effort was unsuccessful, with none surviving long enough to establish viable flocks. However, after

11349-409: The same biological information . This information is replicated when the two strands separate. A large part of DNA (more than 98% for humans) is non-coding , meaning that these sections do not serve as patterns for protein sequences . The two strands of DNA run in opposite directions to each other and are thus antiparallel . Attached to each sugar is one of four types of nucleobases (or bases ). It

11466-432: The section on uses in technology below. Several artificial nucleobases have been synthesized, and successfully incorporated in the eight-base DNA analogue named Hachimoji DNA . Dubbed S, B, P, and Z, these artificial bases are capable of bonding with each other in a predictable way (S–B and P–Z), maintain the double helix structure of DNA, and be transcribed to RNA. Their existence could be seen as an indication that there

11583-550: The senators are elected to four-year terms which are staggered, with the districts with even numbers being elected in the year of Presidential elections and those in the districts with odd numbers being elected in the years of Tennessee gubernatorial elections. According to the Tennessee Constitution each representative must be twenty-one years old, a citizen of the United States, have been a resident of

11700-476: The shape of a double helix . The nucleotide contains both a segment of the backbone of the molecule (which holds the chain together) and a nucleobase (which interacts with the other DNA strand in the helix). A nucleobase linked to a sugar is called a nucleoside , and a base linked to a sugar and to one or more phosphate groups is called a nucleotide . A biopolymer comprising multiple linked nucleotides (as in DNA)

11817-502: The single-stranded DNA curls around in a long circle stabilized by telomere-binding proteins. At the very end of the T-loop, the single-stranded telomere DNA is held onto a region of double-stranded DNA by the telomere strand disrupting the double-helical DNA and base pairing to one of the two strands. This triple-stranded structure is called a displacement loop or D-loop . In DNA, fraying occurs when non-complementary regions exist at

11934-415: The speaker of the state house , and the speaker of the state senate . The state is divided into four administrative regions, each containing two law enforcement districts. Regions are headed by a Law Enforcement Major , as well as fisheries and wildlife program managers. Districts are headed by Law Enforcement Captains Each county in the state is assigned at least one uniformed TWRA officer. Region 1

12051-452: The start of each term. A legislative day is considered any day that the House or Senate formally meets in the chambers of each house. Legislators are paid a base salary of $ 24,316 along with a per diem expense of $ 284 per legislative day (2020). If the legislature remains in session longer than ninety legislative days, lawmakers cease to draw their expense money. Legislators also receive an "office allowance" of $ 1,000 per month, ostensibly for

12168-475: The state championships. As part of its public outreach and education efforts, the TWRA publishes Tennessee Wildlife magazine. Published quarterly, the magazine focuses on seasonal content with subjects relating to wildlife management and conservation, hunting, fishing, and outdoor recreation. Agency personnel author numerous articles alongside free-lance pieces submitted by the public. Tennessee General Assembly The Tennessee General Assembly (TNGA)

12285-514: The state constitution directly, an amendment must first be passed by an absolute majority of the membership of each house during one term of the Assembly. Then, during the next General Assembly term, each house must pass the amendment again, this time by a two-thirds majority. The amendment must then be put on the statewide ballot, but only at a time when an election for governor is also being held. The amendment to be passed must receive over half of

12402-475: The state for three years and also a resident of the county they represent a year prior to the election. The state constitution also states that each senator must be thirty years of age, a citizen of the United States, resided three years in Tennessee, and resided in the district one year prior to the election. To keep the legislature a part-time body, it is limited to ninety "legislative days" per two-year term, plus up to fifteen days for organizational purposes at

12519-443: The state, while a local bill affects a town or county. A local bill must be passed in the state legislature and ratified by the local area it affects. The Tennessee Constitution states that after a bill has been rejected by the General Assembly, no bill with the same substance can be passed into law during the same session. The Tennessee Constitution states that each bill must be passed on three separate days in both houses. In order for

12636-592: The state. TWRA officers also are included in Department of Homeland Security training as first responders and anti-terrorism enforcement officials. TWRA officers were sent to the Gulf Coast to provide assistance to local law enforcement and rescue teams in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina . In addition to traditional law enforcement, the TWRA maintains Honor Guard and Chaplain programs. The TWRA Honor Guard takes part in ceremonial services such as presenting

12753-518: The strands separate and exist in solution as two entirely independent molecules. These single-stranded DNA molecules have no single common shape, but some conformations are more stable than others. In humans, the total female diploid nuclear genome per cell extends for 6.37 Gigabase pairs (Gbp), is 208.23 cm long and weighs 6.51 picograms (pg). Male values are 6.27 Gbp, 205.00 cm, 6.41 pg. Each DNA polymer can contain hundreds of millions of nucleotides, such as in chromosome 1 . Chromosome 1

12870-469: The sugar-phosphate to form the complete nucleotide, as shown for adenosine monophosphate . Adenine pairs with thymine and guanine pairs with cytosine, forming A-T and G-C base pairs . The nucleobases are classified into two types: the purines , A and G , which are fused five- and six-membered heterocyclic compounds , and the pyrimidines , the six-membered rings C and T . A fifth pyrimidine nucleobase, uracil ( U ), usually takes

12987-530: The supreme legislative authority of the state. It is the General Assembly's responsibility to pass a budget for the functioning of the state government. Each year, the governor outlines their budget priorities in the State of the State address . The Assembly, in a joint session, is present for the speech. Bills may originate in either the House or Senate, and can be either a general or local bill. A general bill affects

13104-401: The total votes cast in the gubernatorial election in order to be ratified and come into effect. The 1870 constitution of Tennessee had never been amended in this manner until 1998, when the "Victims' Rights Amendment" was added. A similar process was used in 2002 to enact the state lottery . Two amendments proposed by the General Assembly were presented to voters on the 2006 ballot. In 2005

13221-430: The two separate polynucleotide strands are bound together, according to base pairing rules (A with T and C with G), with hydrogen bonds to make double-stranded DNA. The complementary nitrogenous bases are divided into two groups, the single-ringed pyrimidines and the double-ringed purines . In DNA, the pyrimidines are thymine and cytosine; the purines are adenine and guanine. Both strands of double-stranded DNA store

13338-636: The years leading up to its establishment, there was only one wildlife officer in the state, and in all but the most egregious circumstances, laws and hunting seasons were generally ignored. In January 1974, the Game and Fish Commission was reorganized, renaming the governing body as the Tennessee Wildlife Resources Commission and recommending that the Tennessee General Assembly authorize the creation of

13455-629: Was established as a formal hunter education program in 1975. According to the TWRA, since its institution hunting and firearm related accidents in Tennessee have declined dramatically. Hunter safety certification via the THEP is recognized by all states, Canada and Mexico. In 2001, the TWRA partnered with the National Shooting Sports Foundation and the Tennessee Wildlife Federation to institute

13572-526: Was proposed by Wilkins et al. in 1953 for the in vivo B-DNA X-ray diffraction-scattering patterns of highly hydrated DNA fibers in terms of squares of Bessel functions . In the same journal, James Watson and Francis Crick presented their molecular modeling analysis of the DNA X-ray diffraction patterns to suggest that the structure was a double helix. Although the B-DNA form is most common under

13689-517: Was set up as a special continuing committee of the General Assembly in 1967 and is composed of six senators and nine representatives, each elected by their respective chambers. Additionally, ex officio members include the Speaker of each house and each house's chairman of the Finance, Ways, and Means committee. The current members are as follows: Joint Government Operations Rule Review Committee The Joint Government Operations Rule Review Committee

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