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71-480: In the end of the 19th century, there were six Ter Sámi villages in the eastern part of the Kola Peninsula, with a total population of approximately 450. In 2004, there were approximately 100 ethnic Ter Sámi of whom two elderly persons speak the language; the rest have shifted their language to Russian . The rapid decline in the number of speakers was caused by Soviet collectivisation , during which its use

142-598: A diglossic spectrum with little conflict. For instance, the local Venetian dialects in Northeast Italy are widely used and locally promoted in the region; after all, Italian had been an integral part of the Republic of Venice since the 14th century, whose elites used to revere the most prominent Tuscan authors and tuscanize their own speech as well. On a survey made by Il Gazzettino in 2015, 70% of respondents told they spoke Venetian "very or quite often" in

213-715: A French-only approach (mid-19th century), marginalizing Basque, and by the 1960s family transmission was grinding to a halt in many areas at the feet of the Pyrenees. By the 2010s, the receding trend has been somewhat mitigated by the establishment of Basque schooling (the ikastolak ) spearheaded by the network Seaska , as well as the influence of the Basque territories from Spain . According to Fañch Broudic , Breton has lost 80% of its speakers in 60 years. Other sources mention that 70% of Breton speakers are over 60. Furthermore, 60% of children received Breton from their parents in

284-493: A daily basis and at home during the 19th century (especially after the 1831 November Uprising and the 1863 January Uprising ) gradually returned back to the Lithuanian language. Before the 1930s, Italian was the only official language of Malta, although it was spoken only by the upper class, with Maltese being spoken by the lower class. Even though English has replaced Italian as a co-official language alongside Maltese,

355-511: A first language/dialect. Most Hong Kong residents prefer to communicate in Cantonese in daily life. Speakers of Mandarin Chinese and of Cantonese cannot mutually understand each other without learning the languages, due to vast differences in pronunciation, intonation, sentence structure and terminology. Furthermore, cultural differences between Hong Kong and China result in variations between

426-691: A language shift in the population, with emigration and genocide (by the Nazis during World War II) playing only a minor role. Despite the withdrawal of Belarus from the USSR proclaimed in 1991, use of the Belarusian language is declining. According to the 2009 Belarusian population census, 72% of Belarusians speak Russian at home, and Belarusian is used by only 11.9% of Belarusians. 52.5% of Belarusians can speak and read Belarusian. Only 29.4% can speak, read and write it. One in ten Belarusians do not understand

497-439: A nearly universal cultural and identity marker of mestizos (people of mixed Spanish and Amerindian ancestry), and also of culturally assimilated , upwardly mobile Amerindian people. Paraguayan Guarani has been used throughout Paraguayan history as a symbol of nationalistic pride. Populist dictators such as José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia and Alfredo Stroessner used the language to appeal to common Paraguayans, and upon

568-530: A non-state or pre-state context if the elite employs a specific combination of encouragements and punishments. Ethnohistorical cases ... demonstrate that small elite groups have successfully imposed their languages in non-state situations. Anthony gives the example of the Luo-speaking Acholi in northern Uganda in the 17th and 18th century, whose language spread rapidly in the 19th century. Anthony notes that "Indo-European languages probably spread in

639-469: A rise of monolingual French-speakers after 1910. Halfway through the 20th century, the number of monolingual French-speakers began to predominate over the (mostly) bilingual Flemish inhabitants. Only since the 1960s, after the establishment of the Belgian language border and the socio-economic development of Flanders took full effect, could Dutch use stem the tide of increasing French use. French remains

710-507: A similar way among the tribal societies of prehistoric Europe", carried forward by "Indo-European chiefs" and their "ideology of political clientage". Anthony notes that "elite recruitment" may be a suitable term for this system. In urban settings, language change occurs due to the combination of three factors: the diversity of languages spoken, the high population density, and the need for communication. Urban vernaculars, urban contact varieties, and multiethnolects emerge in many cities around

781-554: A wholesale language shift, with islanders changing their language practices to the extent that there were no monolingual Corsican speakers left by the 1960s. By 1995, an estimated 65 percent of islanders had some degree of proficiency in Corsican, and a small minority, perhaps 10 percent, used Corsican as a first language. In Southern Schleswig , an area that belonged to Denmark until the Second Schleswig War , there

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852-495: Is a correlation of language shift with intrusive male Y chromosomes but not necessarily with intrusive female mtDNA . They conclude that technological innovation (the transition from hunting-gathering to farming , or from stone to metal tools) or military prowess (as in the abduction of British women by Vikings to Iceland ) causes immigration of at least some men, who are perceived to be of higher status than local men. Then, in mixed-language marriages, children would speak

923-632: Is a proponent of the Kurgan hypothesis . Anthony is well known for his award-winning book The Horse, the Wheel, and Language (2007). Anthony received a Ph.D. in anthropology from the University of Pennsylvania . Anthony has been a Professor of Anthropology at Hartwick College since 1987. While at Hartwick, he was also the curator of Anthropology for the Yager Museum of Art & Culture on

994-518: Is a shift towards Urdu in almost all domains. Pashtuns and other minorities in northern Pakistan use Urdu as a replacement for former native languages. Guarani, an indigenous language of South America belonging to the Tupi–Guarani family of the Tupian languages , and specifically the primary variety known as Paraguayan Guarani ( endonym avañe'ẽ [aʋãɲẽˈʔẽ] ; 'the people's language'),

1065-461: Is mainly occurring among Javanese people and in districts where Javanese is the dominant language, which is not what was expected. Another study suggests Javanese youths do not value Javanese language and culture as much as the national Indonesian language and culture because they perceive them as outdated and incompatible with modern society. An example is the shift from Canaanite and Phoenician and Hebrew to Aramaic in and around Jerusalem during

1136-528: Is one of the official languages of Paraguay (along with Spanish ), where it is spoken by the majority of the population, and where half of the rural population is monolingual. Guarani is one of the most-widely spoken indigenous languages of the Americas and the only one whose speakers include a large proportion of non-indigenous people. This represents a unique anomaly in the Americas, where language shift towards European colonial languages has otherwise been

1207-545: Is the process whereby a speech community shifts to a different language, usually over an extended period of time. Often, languages that are perceived to be of higher-status stabilize or spread at the expense of other languages that are perceived by their own speakers to be of lower-status. An example is the shift from Gaulish to Latin during the time of the Roman Empire . For prehistory , Forster et al . (2004) and Forster and Renfrew (2011) observe that there

1278-591: Is used in art and in everyday life. Instances of language shift appear to have occurred twice in the history of the Parthian Empire : once before its foundation, when the Parni invaded Parthia , eventually losing their Eastern Middle Iranian language and adopting Parthian instead; secondly, after the fall of the Parthian Empire, Parthian speakers shifted to Middle Persian or Armenian . In

1349-478: The African Great Lakes region and the other group settling in southern Ethiopia. There, the early Daasanach Nilotes would have come into contact with a Cushitic-speaking population, and eventually adopted this group's Afro-Asiatic language. Finland still has coastal Swedish-speaking enclaves , unlike Estonia where the last coastal Swedes were decimated or escaped to Sweden in 1944. As Finland

1420-530: The Bhumij language is one of the endangered languages of India. Indonesia is one of the most multilingual and multiethnic nations in the world. There is language shift of first language into Indonesian from other language in Indonesia caused by ethnic diversity than urbanicity. Regardless of urbanicity, Indonesian speakers are more prevalent in urban areas than rural ones. The study found that language shift

1491-558: The Philippines , Spanish -speaking families have gradually switched over to Tagalog or English since the end of World War II , so Spanish has ceased to be a practical everyday language in the country and is on the verge of extinction . David W. Anthony David W. Anthony is an American anthropologist who is Professor Emeritus of Anthropology at Hartwick College . He specializes in Indo-European migrations , and

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1562-530: The Sardinian population since then, the majority of the locals switched over to such politically dominant language and no longer speak their native ones, which have seen steady decline in use. The language has been in fact severely compromised to the point that only 13% of the children are able to speak it, and today is mostly kept as a heritage language . With the exception of a few sparsely populated areas where Sardinian can still be heard for everyday purposes,

1633-686: The Siwa Oasis , a local variety of Berber is also used alongside Arabic. In Ethiopia , various populations of Nilotic origin have shifted languages over the centuries, adopting the idioms of their Afro-Asiatic-speaking neighbors in the northern areas. Among these groups are the Daasanach or Marille, who today speak the Daasanach language . It belongs to the Cushitic branch of the Afro-Asiatic family. However, modern genetic analysis of

1704-509: The UPA ) abre' paл = raining cloud pɛci̮ pal'čemi̮š = slaughter of deer taja oлmi̮j = German inhabitant tara parnɛ = Russian boys In the Nominative case the base word changes when a plural is made. The word "ku", meaning: who, which in the cases. Language shift Language shift , also known as language transfer , language replacement or language assimilation ,

1775-612: The catechism in Flemish in many parishes. Nonetheless, since French enjoyed a much higher status than Dutch, from about the interbellum onward, everybody became bilingual, the generation born after World War II being raised exclusively in French. In the countryside, the passing on of Flemish stopped during the 1930s or 1940s. Consequently, the vast majority of those still having an active command of Flemish are older than 60. Therefore, complete extinction of French Flemish can be expected in

1846-400: The "higher-status" language, yielding the language/Y-chromosome correlation seen today. Assimilation is the process whereby a speech-community becomes bilingual and gradually shifts allegiance to the second language. The rate of assimilation is the percentage of the speech-community that speaks the second language more often at home. The data are used to measure the use of a given language in

1917-481: The 1820s, around 97% of the inhabitants south of the line Villach - Klagenfurt - Diex spoke Slovene as their native language. In the course of the 19th century, this number fell significantly. By 1920, a third of the population of the area had already shifted to German as their main language of communication. After the Carinthian Plebiscite in the 1920s, and especially after World War II , most of

1988-537: The 1920s and only 6% in the 1980s. Since the 1980s, monolingual speakers are no longer attested. On the 27 October 2015, the Senate rejected the draft law on ratification of the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages driving away the assumption of Congress for the adoption of the constitutional reform which would have given value and legitimacy to regional languages such as Breton. Corsican

2059-450: The 1940s and 50s, these dialects rapidly vanished. Most of Hong Kong's younger generation does not understand, let alone speak, their ancestral dialects. Beginning in the late 1990s, since Hong Kong's return to Chinese sovereignty, Mandarin Chinese has been more widely implemented in education and many other areas of official society. Though Mandarin Chinese has been quickly adopted into society, most Hong Kong residents would not regard it as

2130-536: The 19th century, especially in the second half of it, Dutch was banned from all levels of education and lost most of its functions as a cultural language. The larger cities had become predominantly French-speaking by the end of the 19th century. However, in the countryside, many elementary schools continued to teach in Dutch until World War I , and the Roman Catholic Church continued to preach and teach

2201-506: The Beijing dialect of Mandarin by the 19th century and the only Manchu speakers were garrisons left in their homeland of Heilongjiang . Today there are fewer than 100 native speakers of Manchu. At the current time, language shift is occurring all across China. Many languages of minority ethnic groups are declining, as well as the many regional varieties of Chinese . Generally the shift is in favour of Standard Chinese ( Mandarin ), but in

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2272-501: The Belarusian language. In the last two centuries, Brussels has transformed from an exclusively Dutch-speaking city to a bilingual city with French as the majority language and lingua franca . The language shift began in the 18th century and accelerated as Belgium became independent and Brussels expanded out past its original city boundaries. From 1880 on, more and more Dutch-speaking people became bilingual, resulting in

2343-772: The Cantonese used in Hong Kong and that in Canton Province. In Egypt , the Coptic language , a descendant of the Afro-Asiatic Egyptian language , has been in decline in usage since the time of the Arab conquest in the 7th century. By the 17th century, it was eventually supplanted as a spoken language by Egyptian Arabic . Coptic is today mainly used by the Coptic Church as a liturgical language. In

2414-715: The Daasanach indicates that they are more closely related to Nilo-Saharan and Niger-Congo -speaking populations inhabiting Tanzania than they are to the Cushitic and Semitic Afro-Asiatic-speaking populations of Ethiopia. This suggests that the Daasanach were originally Nilo-Saharan speakers, sharing common origins with the Pokot . In the 19th century, the Nilotic ancestors of these two populations are believed to have begun separate migrations, with one group heading southwards into

2485-471: The Dutch origin of several town names in the region, such as that of 'Dunkerque' ( Dunkirk ) which is a French phonetic rendition of the original Dutch name 'Duinkerke' (meaning 'church in the dunes'). The linguistic situation did not change dramatically until the French Revolution in 1789, and Dutch continued to fulfill the main functions of a cultural language throughout the 18th century. During

2556-560: The Italian-speaking population has since grown, but the growth of English in the country now threatens the status of Maltese. A trend among the younger generations is to mix English and Italian vocabulary patterns, in making new Maltese words. For example, the Maltese word bibljoteka has been overtaken by librerija , formed from library with an Italian ending. In addition to mixing English with Italian, Maltenglish involves

2627-627: The Latin alphabet and based on Skolt Sámi was developed in the 1930s. After the Second World War, this was replaced by a system using the Cyrillic alphabet, and based on Kildin Sámi. This system was used by the Sámi poet Oktyabrina Voronova . < Ter Sámi has 8 cases, Nominative , Genitive , Accusative , Essive , Inessive - Lative , Dative - Illative , Abessive , and Comitative . (in

2698-531: The Middle Ages, the territory of Lithuanian language was reaching vicinities of Łomża , Tykocin and Białystok , but shrank to the north – to the rural outskirts of Sejny , Punsk and Wiżajny before the 1900s as a consequence of acculturation . The Polish-speaking island to the north of Kaunas and south of Panevėžys almost fully disappeared between the 1920s and the 1940s, as the local Lithuanian population, who increasingly began to speak Polish on

2769-401: The advent of Paraguayan democracy in 1992, Guarani was enshrined in the new constitution as a co-equal language along with Spanish. Jopara , the mixture of Spanish and Guarani, is spoken by an estimated 90% of the population of Paraguay. Code-switching between the two languages takes place on a spectrum where more Spanish is used for official and business-related matters, whereas more Guarani

2840-584: The campus of Hartwick College in Oneonta, New York . According to Princeton University Press , "he has conducted extensive archaeological fieldwork in Ukraine , Russia , and Kazakhstan ." Anthony has been Archaeology Editor of the Journal of Indo-European Studies . One of his areas of research has been the domestication of the horse . In 2019, his work was featured in an episode of Nova that discussed

2911-888: The city's predominant language, while Dutch is spoken by a minority. Historically, one of the most important language shifts in China has been the near disappearance of the Manchu language . When China was ruled by the Qing dynasty , whose Emperors were Manchu, Chinese and Manchu had co-official status, and the Emperor heavily subsidized and promoted education in Manchu, but because most of the Manchu Eight Banners lived in garrisons with Mandarin-speaking Han Bannermen located across Han Chinese civilian populated cities, most Manchus spoke

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2982-686: The coming decades. The French Basque Country has been subject to intense French-language pressure exerted over the Basque-speaking communities. In the late 1800s, the Basque language was both persecuted and excluded from administration and official public use during the takeover of the National Convention , during the War of the Pyrenees , and during the Napoleonic period . The compulsory national education system imposed early on

3053-544: The cultural, economic and military choices made by the local population in question. The group bringing new traits may initially be small, contributing features that can be fewer in number than those of the already local culture. The emerging combined group may then initiate a recurrent, expansionist process of ethnic and language shift. David Anthony notes that the spread of the Indo-European languages probably did not happen through "chain-type folk migrations", but by

3124-431: The family, while 68% with friends. A much lower percentage reported to use it at work (35%); the local language is less used in formal situations. However, the frequency of use within the family networks and friendship stopped respectively at -4 and -11 percentage points, suggesting a slow morphing to Italian, while the use in the workplace dropped to -22 percentage points. A visible generational gap has also been noted, since

3195-687: The federal state of Schleswig-Holstein . Cumans , seeking refuge from the Mongols , settled in Hungary and were later Magyarized . The Jassic people of Hungary originally spoke the Jassic dialect of Ossetic , but they fully adopted Magyar , forgetting their former language. The territory of today's Hungary was formerly settled by Slavonic tribes, which gradually assimilated to Magyar. Also, language shift may have happened in Hungarian pre-history, as

3266-583: The introduction of these languages by ritual and political elites, which are emulated by large groups of people. Anthony explains: Language shift can be understood best as a social strategy through which individuals and groups compete for positions of prestige, power, and domestic security ... What is important, then, is not just dominance, but vertical social mobility and a linkage between language and access to positions of prestige and power ... A relatively small immigrant elite population can encourage widespread language shift among numerically dominant indigenes in

3337-503: The island's indigenous languages have by now been therefore largely replaced by Italian; the language contact ultimately resulted in the emergence of a specific variety of Italian , slightly divergent from the standard one. Due to language shift, ethnographic borders of Lithuanian language from the Middle Ages to the late 1930s shrank sharply to the north and west from the territory what is now Grodno oblast in Belarus , giving way to

3408-493: The late 19th century. Since the times of the Renaissance , a trans-Italian language was developed in central Italy , based on Florentine Tuscan ; in light of its cultural prestige, it was used for formal, literary and written purposes among the literate classes from the various states of mainland Italy, Sicily and Corsica (France), sidelining the other dialects in education and formal settings. Thus, literary Florentine

3479-539: The lifetime of a person, or most often across generations. When a speech-community ceases to use their original language, language death is said to occur. In the context of the Indo-European migrations, it has been noted that small groups can change a larger cultural area. Michael Witzel refers to Ehret's model "which stresses the osmosis , or a "billiard ball," or Mallory 's Kulturkugel , effect of cultural transmission." According to Ehret, ethnicity and language can shift with relative ease in small societies, due to

3550-426: The local dialects ( Basilicata , 69.4%; Calabria 68.6%; Campania, 75.2%; Sicily, 68.8%). Trentino 's Cimbrian , a Germanic language related to Bavarian , was spoken by at least 20,000 people in the 19th century, with 3,762 people in 1921 and fewer than 300 in 2007. The same scenario goes for Mòcheno and Walser . Unlike the neighbouring island of Corsica (France) and elsewhere in today's Italy, where Italian

3621-690: The mixed language Petuh combining Danish and German elements. As late as in 1851 (in the period of nationalization) the Danish government tried to stop the language shift, but without success in the long run. After the Second Schleswig War the Prussians introduced a number of language policy measures in the opposite direction to expand the use of (High) German as the language of administration, schooling and church services. Today, Danish and North Frisian are recognized as minority languages in

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3692-597: The native Germanic dialect has been declining after a period of being banned at school by the French government after the First World War and the Second World War . It is being replaced by French. French Flanders , which gradually became part of France between 1659 and 1678, was historically part of the Dutch sprachraum , the native dialect being West Flemish ( French Flemish ). This is corroborated by

3763-538: The perception of population as Lithuanian language was seen as of lower status by its peripheral speakers as well as deliberate policy by German and Russian imperial administrations, notably – a 40-year ban on Lithuanian language and press by the Tsarist government . In Lithuania Minor , where Lithuanian culture began to decline after The Great Plague between 1708 and 1711, Kristijonas Donelaitis ' poem – The Seasons addressed this issue. In Northern Poland during

3834-399: The population shifted from Slovene to German. In the same region, today only some 13% of the people speak Slovene, while more than 85% of the population speak German. The figures for the whole region are equally telling: in 1818, around 35% of the population of Carinthia spoke Slovene; by 1910, this number had fallen to 15.6% and by 2001 to 2.3%. These changes were almost entirely the result of

3905-468: The prehistoric culture of Magyars shows very little similarity to that of speakers of other Uralic languages . In India, many languages are assimilated into standard language like Hindi , Bengali and other administrative languages. For example, the Austroasiatic -speaking Bhumij tribe for over two centuries nearly abandoned their native language and adopted Bengali and Odia instead. Today,

3976-467: The prewar era and especially the postwar era and the "escape from the countryside" of the 1960s changed the demography of the major cities and led to Finnish dominating. While Helsinki was a predominantly Swedish-speaking city prior to the turn of the 20th century, the Swedish-speaking minority is now about 6% of the population. In Alsace , France , a longtime Alsatian -speaking region,

4047-431: The province of Guangdong the cultural influence of Cantonese has meant local dialects and languages are being abandoned for Cantonese instead. Languages like Tujia and Evenki are also disappearing due to language shift. In Hong Kong , Cantonese has become the dominant language spoken in society since widespread immigration to Hong Kong began in the 1940s. With immigrants of differing mother tongues, communication

4118-645: The region's linguistic heritage. Like the aforementioned case of Northeast Italy, even in Southern Italy and Sicily the local dialects from the Italo-Dalmatian family are widely used in combination with standard Italian, depending upon the social context. More specifically, Italian as the prevalent language spoken among family members is spoken the least in Campania (20.7%), Calabria (25.3%) and Sicily (26.6%), contrary to frequency of use of

4189-600: The southern parts of Schleswig. Added to this was the influence of German-speaking Holsatian nobility and traders. German was (occasionally) also spoken at the royal court in Copenhagen. This political and economic development led gradually to a German language dominating in the southern parts of Schleswig. Native dialects such as the Angel Danish and Eiderstedt Frisian vanished. In the Flensburg area, there arose

4260-427: The spreading Polish and Belarusian languages , while in Prussian Lithuania out of 10 administrative units with prevailing Lithuanian language in the early 1800s, only the extreme northern part – Klaipėda region had still relative Lithuanian language majority in the 1910s with all the eastern and southern territories in some hundred or so years almost fully Germanized . These processes were happening both because of

4331-474: The students and young people under the age of 25 are the social group where the use of dialect fell below the threshold of absolute majority (respectively 43 and 41%). Nonetheless, despite some tendencies signalling the slow advancement of standard Italian, the local dialects of Veneto and the Province of Trieste are still widely spoken alongside Italian; like in much of Italy, the presence of Italian in Northeast Italy does not seem to take anything away from

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4402-520: The time of Classical Antiquity. Another example is during the Middle Ages, when shifting from Aramaic to Arabic through the advent of Islam. A third shift took place in Modern times, under the influence of Zionism , from Jewish languages such as Yiddish , Ladino and various dialects of Judeo-Arabic to Modern Hebrew . The Italian peninsula , the Po river basin and the nearby islands are home to various languages , most of which are Latin-derived. Italy would be politically organized into states until

4473-436: The use of English words in Maltese sentences. Trends show that English is becoming the language of choice for more and more people, and is transforming the Maltese language. Urdu, the lingua franca of South Asian Muslims and the official and national language of Pakistan since its independence, is spoken by most educated Pakistanis . Despite positive attitudes towards Punjabi in the urban areas of Pakistani Punjab , there

4544-400: The world as a result of language change in urban settings. These factors lead to phenomena such as dialect levelling, koineization , and/or language shift toward a dominant language. Historical examples for status shift are the early Welsh and Lutheran Bible translations . Until the mid-19th century, southern Carinthia in Austria had an overwhelming Slovene -speaking majority: in

4615-417: Was a language shift from the 17th to the 20th centuries from Danish and North Frisian dialects to Low German and later High German. Historically, most of the region was part of the Danish and North Frisian language area, adjacent in the south to the German-speaking Holstein. But with the Reformation in the 16th century German became the language of the Church, and in the 19th century also that of schools in

4686-571: Was established as the most representative dialect of Italy long before its political unification in 1861, Tuscan having been officially adopted by the preunitarian states. Italian further expanded as a common language for everyday use throughout the country after World War II. Most other languages, with the exception of those spoken by specific ethno-linguistic groups , long served as local vernaculars alongside Italian; therefore they have been mislabelled "dialects" by their own speakers, but they are still usually spoken just as much as standard Italian in

4757-420: Was hard without a dominant language. Cantonese originated from the capital of neighboring Canton province, and it became the dominant language by extension, and other similar dialects started to vanish from use in Hong Kong. Original residents, or aboriginals, of Hong Kong used their own languages including the Tanka , Hakka and Waitau dialect , but with a majority of Hong Kong's population being immigrants by

4828-419: Was long employed as a conglomerate of local vernaculars in combination with Italian , the official language in Corsica until 1859; afterwards Italian was replaced by French, owing to the acquisition of the island by France from Genoa in 1768. Over the next two centuries, the use of French grew to the extent that, by the Liberation in 1945, all islanders had a working knowledge of French. The 20th century saw

4899-507: Was prohibited in schools and homes in the 1930s, and the largest Ter Sámi village, Yokanga, was declared " perspectiveless " and its inhabitants were forced to move to the Gremikha military base . There are no educational materials or facilities in Ter Sámi, and the language has no standardized orthography . The language is incompletely studied and documented, though text specimens and audio recordings as well as dictionaries for linguistic purposes exist. A spelling system for Ter Sámi using

4970-422: Was the standard language shared by the various local elites since the late Middle Ages, Italian was first officially introduced to Sardinia, to the detriment of both Spanish and Sardinian (the only surviving Neo-Latin language from the Southern branch ), only in 1760 and 1764 by the then-ruling House of Savoy , from Piedmont . Because of the promotion and enforcement of the Italian language and culture upon

5041-410: Was under Swedish rule from the Middle Ages until 1809, the language of education was Swedish , with Finnish being allowed as a medium of education at the university only in the 19th century, and the first thesis in Finnish being published in 1858. Several of the coastal cities were multilingual; Viipuri had newspapers in Swedish , Finnish , Russian and German . However, the industrialization in

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