The Analects , also known as the Sayings of Confucius , is an ancient Chinese philosophical text composed of sayings and ideas attributed to Confucius and his contemporaries, traditionally believed to have been compiled by his followers.
145-612: The consensus among scholars is that large portions of the text were composed during the Warring States period (475–221 BC), and that the work achieved its final form during the mid- Han dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD). During the early Han, the Analects was merely considered to be a commentary on the Five Classics . However, by the dynasty's end the status of the Analects had grown to being among
290-438: A 'horizontal' or east–west alliance called lianheng ( 連橫{ ), in which a state would ally with Qin to participate in its ascendancy. There were some initial successes in hezong , though mutual suspicions between allied states led to the breakdown of such alliances. Qin repeatedly exploited the horizontal alliance strategy to defeat the states one by one. During this period, many philosophers and tacticians travelled around
435-467: A calming effect on Qi's own population, which experienced great domestic tranquility during Wei's reign. By the end of King Wei's reign, Qi had become the strongest of the states and proclaimed itself "king"; establishing independence from the Zhou dynasty (see below). King Hui of Wei (370–319 BC) set about restoring the state. In 362–359 BC he exchanged territories with Han and Zhao in order to make
580-453: A corpus of excavated Warring States period bamboo slips that contained fragments of the Analects that corresponded to the received text. The manuscript featuring the Analects content was officially published by the university in 2022. During most of the Han period the Analects was not considered one of the principal texts of Confucianism. During the reign of Han Wudi (141–87 BC), when
725-485: A covenant and started planning an attack on Zhao. Wang Chong Wang Chong ( Chinese : 王充 ; pinyin : Wáng Chōng ; Wade–Giles : Wang Ch'ung ; 27 – c. 97 AD), courtesy name Zhongren (仲任), was a Chinese astronomer, meteorologist, naturalist, philosopher , and writer active during the Eastern Han dynasty . He developed a rational , secular , naturalistic and mechanistic account of
870-568: A deliberate imitation of the archaic language of the Western Zhou) and bears some similarity with the language of the speeches in the Shujing . In terms of the content, the passage appears to be an admonition by Yao to Shun on the eve of Yao's abdication, which seems to be only tangentially related to Confucius and his philosophy. Moreover, there appear to be some problems with the text's continuity, and scholars have speculated that parts of
1015-552: A few states gaining power at the expense of many others, the latter no longer able to depend on central authority for legitimacy or protection. During the Warring States period, many rulers claimed the Mandate of Heaven to justify their conquest of other states and spread their influence. The struggle for hegemony eventually created a state system dominated by several large states, such as Jin , Chu, Qin, Yan, and Qi, while
1160-456: A good relationship with his Qi counterpart, with both promising to recognize the other as "king". Early in the Warring States period, Chu was one of the strongest states in China. The state rose to a new level of power around 389 BC when King Dao of Chu ( 楚悼王 ) named the famous reformer Wu Qi as his chancellor. Chu rose to its peak in 334 BC, when it conquered Yue to its east on
1305-413: A great defeat at the hands of Qin. King Kao of Zhou had enfeoffed his younger brother as Duke Huan of Henan. Three generations later, this cadet branch of the royal house began calling themselves "dukes of East Zhou". Upon the ascension of King Nan in 314, East Zhou became an independent state. The king came to reside in what became known as West Zhou. Towards the end of the Warring States period,
1450-475: A great effort to interpret the Analects by using theories elaborated in the other Four Books, something that He Yan had not done. Zhu attempted to give an added coherence and unity to the message of the Analects , demonstrating that the individual books of the Confucian canon gave meaning to the whole, just as the whole of the canon gave meaning to its parts. In his preface, Zhu Xi stated, "[T]he Analects and
1595-516: A large number of passages in the Analects begin with the formulaic ziyue , "The Master said," but without punctuation marks in classical Chinese, this does not confirm whether what follows ziyue is direct quotation of actual sayings of Confucius, or simply to be understood as "the Master said that.." and the paraphrase of Confucius by the compilers of the Analects. Chapters 3–9 may be the oldest in
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#17327657898101740-458: A local teacher. He was elevated as an Officer of Merit, but due to his critical and quarrelsome nature he decided to resign from this position. Following this was a period of isolated retirement when Wang composed essays on philosophy, his Jisu ("On Common Morality"), Jeiyi ("Censures"), Zheng wu ("On Government"), and Yangxing shu ("On Macrobiotics"). About eighty of these essays were later compiled into his Lunheng ("Discourses Weighed in
1885-522: A more comprehensive definition of ren , but assured them that he was sharing all that he could (§7.24). To Confucius, the cultivation of ren involved depreciating oneself through modesty while avoiding artful speech and ingratiating manners that would create a false impression of one's own character (§1.3). Confucius said that those who had cultivated ren could be distinguished by their being "simple in manner and slow of speech." He believed that people could cultivate their sense of ren through exercising
2030-410: A part of a much larger work. This is supported by the fact that a larger collection of Confucius's teachings did exist in the Warring States period than has been preserved directly in the Analects : 75% of Confucius's sayings cited by his second-generation student, Mencius , do not exist in the received text of the Analects . According to the Han dynasty scholar Liu Xiang , there were two versions of
2175-459: A period of shifting alliances and wars on several fronts. In 376 BC, the states of Han, Wei and Zhao deposed Duke Jing of Jin and divided the last remaining Jin territory between themselves, which marked the final end of the Jin state. In 370 BC, Marquess Wu of Wei died without naming a successor, which led to a war of succession. After three years of civil war, Zhao from the north and Han from
2320-428: A person with a well-cultivated sense of ren would speak carefully and modestly (§12.3); be resolute and firm (§12.20), courageous (§14.4), free from worry, unhappiness, and insecurity (§9.28; §6.21); moderate their desires and return to propriety (§12.1); be respectful, tolerant, diligent, trustworthy and kind (§17.6); and love others (§12.22). Confucius recognized his followers' disappointment that he would not give them
2465-503: A ruler's sense of de , or 'virtue', was his primary prerequisite for leadership. Confucius' primary goal in educating his students was to produce ethically well-cultivated men who would carry themselves with gravity, speak correctly, and demonstrate consummate integrity in all things. According to Ban Gu , writing in the Book of Han , the Analects originated as individual records kept by Confucius's disciples of conversations between
2610-523: A son of King Hui by a concubine (i.e. a younger half-brother of King Wu) could be established as King Zhao , who in stark contrast to his predecessor went on to rule for an unprecedented 53 years. After the failure of the first vertical alliance, Su Qin eventually came to live in Qi, where he was favored by King Xuan and drew the envy of the ministers. An assassination attempt in 300 BC left Su mortally wounded but not dead. Sensing death approaching, he advised
2755-424: A special relationship in the Analects : li manages one's relationship with one's family and close community, while ren is practiced broadly and informs one's interactions with all people. Confucius did not believe that ethical self-cultivation meant unquestioned loyalty to an evil ruler. He argued that the demands of ren and li meant that rulers could oppress their subjects only at their own peril: "You may rob
2900-519: A succession struggle in 307, yielded to the new coalition and appointed Lord Mengchang its chief minister. The alliance between Qin and Qi was sealed by a Qin princess marrying King Min. This horizontal or east–west alliance might have secured peace except that it excluded the State of Zhao . Around 299 BC, the ruler of Zhao became the last of the seven major states to proclaim himself "king". In 298 BC, Zhao offered Qin an alliance and Lord Mengchang
3045-462: A title may indicate a central theme of a chapter, but it is inappropriate to regard a title as a description or generalization of the content of a chapter. Chapters in the Analects are grouped by individual themes, but the chapters are not arranged in a way as to carry a continuous stream of thoughts or ideas. The themes of adjacent chapters are completely unrelated to each other. Central themes recur repeatedly in different chapters, sometimes in exactly
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#17327657898103190-399: A young age and passed tax laws to encourage raising multiple children. He also enacted policies to free convicts who worked in opening wastelands for agriculture. Shang abolished primogeniture and created a double tax on households that had more than one son living in the household, to break up large clans into nuclear families. Shang also moved the capital to reduce the influence of nobles on
3335-447: Is a lunar eclipse. The reason why the eclipses have definite times is not (as the scholars say) that there are (recurring) abnormal events due to the periods (of the moon's cycle), but because it is the nature of the qi (of the sun) to change (at those times). Why should it be said that the moon has anything to do with the times of (changing of) the sun('s qi) at the first and last days of the months? The sun should normally be full; if there
3480-401: Is a shrinkage it is an abnormal event (and the scholars say that) there must be something consuming (the sun). But in such cases as landslides and earthquakes, what does the consuming then? Other scholars say that when the sun is eclipsed, the moon covers it. The sun is further away (lit. above) but the moon being nearer (lit. below), then the moon could not cover the sun. But since the opposite
3625-406: Is extinguished, yet when (the light) comes back the western edge is bright (but the eastern edge is bright also). The moon goes on and covers the eastern (inner) part as well as the western (inner) part. This is called 'exact intrustion' and 'mutual covering and obscuring'. How can these facts be explained (by astronomers who believe that the moon covers the light of the sun in solar eclipse). Again,
3770-412: Is in the west. The moon falls back (lit. moves) quickly eastwards and meets the sun, 'covering' its edge. Soon the moon going on eastwards passes the sun. When the western edge (of the sun), which has been 'covered' first, shines again with its light, the eastern edge, which was not 'covered' before, should (now) be 'covered'. But in fact we see that during an eclipse of the sun the light of the western edge
3915-496: Is never cited in the Analects as lecturing at length about any subject, but instead challenges his students to discover the truth through asking direct questions , citing passages from the classics, and using analogies (§7.8). He sometimes required his students to demonstrate their understanding of subjects by making intuitive conceptual leaps before accepting their understanding and discussing those subjects at greater levels of depth. (§3.8) His primary goal in educating his students
4060-402: Is peculiar to the Analects .) Throughout the Analects , Confucius's students frequently request that Confucius define ren and give examples of people who embody it, but Confucius generally responds indirectly to his students' questions, instead offering illustrations and examples of behaviours that are associated with ren and explaining how a person could achieve it. According to Confucius,
4205-406: Is praised for being clear and well ordered. But, because there was no functioning scientific method or larger scientific discourse in his time, his formulations can seem alien to the modern eye—to some readers, even as peculiar as the superstitions that he was rejecting. But despite this barrier to his work, he gained some fame, though mostly after his death. He had an effect on what Karlgren called,
4350-509: Is remembered in the second of the Thirty-Six Stratagems , "besiege Wei, save Zhao"—meaning to attack a vulnerable spot to relieve pressure at another point. Domestically, King Hui patronized philosophy and the arts, and is perhaps best remembered for hosting the Confucian philosopher Mencius at his court; their conversations form the first two chapters of the book which bears Meng Zi's name . The title of king ( wang , 王 )
4495-455: Is that from Mount Tai rain clouds can spread all over the empire, but from small mountains only over a single province—the distance depends on the height. As to this coming of rain from the mountains, some hold that the clouds carry the rain with them, dispersing as it is precipitated (and they are right). Clouds and rain are really the same thing. Water evaporating upwards becomes clouds, which condense into rain, or still further into dew . When
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4640-495: Is the essence of fire, the moon the essence of water. On earth, fire and water never assume spherical forms, so why should they become spherical only in the heavens? The sun and moon are like the five planets, and these in turn like the other stars. Now the other stars are not really round, but only appear to be so in their shining, because they are so far away. How do we know this? In the Spring and Autumn period , stars fell down (upon
4785-408: Is true, the sun is obstructed, its light is covered by that of the moon, and therefore a solar eclipse is caused. Just as, in gloomy weather, neither sun nor moon can be seen. When the edges contact, the two consume each other; when the two are concentric they face each other exactly covered and the sun is nearly extinguished. That the sun and moon are in conjunction at times of new moon is simply one of
4930-691: The Book of Han . He also befriended Ban Gu (32–92), the son of Ban Biao who made further contributions to the Book of Han . Since he was poor and lacked enough money to purchase proper texts of study, Wang had to resort to frequent visits to bookshops to acquire knowledge. Rafe de Crespigny writes that during his studies Wang was most likely influenced by contemporary Old Text realists such as Huan Tan (d. 28). Due to his humble origins, Wang became resentful of officials who were admired simply because of their wealth and power and not for any scholarly abilities. Wang returned to his home commandery where he became
5075-660: The Mencius are the most important works for students pursuing the Way [...] The words of the Analects are all inclusive; what they teach is nothing but the essentials of preserving the mind and cultivating [one's] nature." From the first publication of the Commentaries , Zhu continued to refine his interpretation for the last thirty years of his life. In the fourteenth century, the Ming state endorsed Zhu's commentary. Until 1905 it
5220-523: The Analects and the Classic of Filial Piety , and its status as one of the central texts of Confucianism continued to grow until the late Song dynasty (960–1279), when it was identified and promoted as one of the Four Books by Zhu Xi and generally accepted as being more insightful than the older Five Classics. The writing style of the Analects also inspired future Confucian writers. For example,
5365-459: The Analects exist today, though fragments of the old text version were discovered at Dunhuang . The Qi version was lost for about 1,800 years, but was rediscovered during the excavation of the tomb of Marquis of Haihun in 2011. Before the late twentieth century the oldest existing copy of the Analects known to scholars was found in the "Stone Classics of the Xinping Era", a copy of
5510-415: The Analects existed, most Analects scholars believe that by the early Han dynasty (206 BC–220 AD) the book was widely known and transmitted throughout China in a mostly complete form, and that the book acquired its final, complete form during the Han dynasty. However, Han dynasty writer Wang Chong claimed that all copies of the Analects that existed during the Han dynasty were incomplete and formed only
5655-456: The Analects that existed at the beginning of the Han dynasty: the " Lu version" and the " Qi version". The Lu version contained twenty chapters, and the Qi version contained twenty-two chapters, including two chapters not found in the Lu version. Of the twenty chapters that both versions had in common, the Lu version had more passages. Each version had its own masters, schools, and transmitters. In
5800-470: The Analects was not referred to by name in any existing source before the early Han dynasty, some scholars have proposed dates as late as 140 BC for the text's final compilation. In 2015, the Anhui University acquired a corpus of excavated Warring States period bamboo strips , and they contained fragments of the Analects corresponding to the received text. Regardless of how early the text of
5945-483: The Analects which had been produced by earlier Han and Wei dynasty (220–265 AD) scholars. He Yan's personal interpretation of the Lunyu was guided by his belief that Daoism and Confucianism complemented each other, so that by studying both in a correct manner a scholar could arrive at a single, unified truth. Arguing for the ultimate compatibility of Daoist and Confucian teachings, he argued that "Laozi [in fact]
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6090-417: The Analects . The Analects and its commentaries are applied in a multitude of cultural expressions throughout East and South-East Asia, in countries like China, Japan, Korea (both North and South), Thailand and Vietnam. It stands out especially in fields pertaining to education. The Analects also has a long history of having influenced traditional East Asian martial arts. The text is still influential in
6235-584: The Battle of Maling . After the battle all three of the Jin successor states appeared before King Xuan of Qi , pledging their loyalty. In the following year Qin attacked the weakened Wei. Wei was devastatingly defeated and ceded a large part of its territory in return for truce. With Wei severely weakened, Qi and Qin became the dominant states in China. Wei came to rely on Qi for protection, with King Hui of Wei meeting King Xuan of Qi on two occasions. After Hui's death, his successor King Xiang also established
6380-509: The Legalistic political orientations of China's rulers, and he failed to popularize his ideals among China's leaders within his own lifetime. Confucius believed that the social chaos of his time was largely due to China's ruling elite aspiring to, and claiming, titles of which they were unworthy. When the ruler of the large state of Qi asked Confucius about the principles of good government, Confucius responded: "Good government consists in
6525-555: The Spring and Autumn period and concluded with the wars of conquest that saw the state of Qin annex each of the other contender states by 221 BC and found the Qin dynasty , the first imperial dynastic state in East Asian history. While scholars have identified several different dates as marking the beginning of the Warring States period, Sima Qian 's choice of 475 BC is the most often cited. The era largely corresponds to
6670-551: The Sui dynasty writer Wang Tong 's Explanation of the Mean ( 中说 ) was purposely written to emulate the style of the Analects , a practice praised by the Ming dynasty philosopher Wang Yangming . Since the Han dynasty, Chinese readers have interpreted the Analects by reading scholars' commentaries on the book. There have been many commentaries on the Analects since the Han dynasty, but
6815-454: The state of Qin became disproportionately powerful compared with the other six states. As a result, the policies of the six states became overwhelmingly oriented towards dealing with the Qin threat, with two opposing schools of thought. One school advocated a 'vertical' or north–south alliance called hezong ( 合縱 ) in which the states would ally with each other to repel Qin. The other advocated
6960-423: The water cycle , Wang Chong wrote the following passage about clouds and rain : The Confucians also maintain that the expression that the rain comes down from heaven means that it actually does fall from the heavens (where the stars are). However, consideration of the subject shows us that rain comes from above the earth, but not down from heaven. Seeing the rain gather from above, people say that it comes from
7105-442: The 'neo-Daoism'—a reformed Daoist philosophy with a more rational, naturalistic metaphysics, without much of the superstition and mysticism into which Daoism had fallen. With his acute rationale and objective approach, Wang Chong wrote many things that would be praised by later modern sinologists and scientists alike as being modern-minded. For example, much like Greek polymath Aristotle 's 4th century BC Meteorology portrayed
7250-416: The 2nd century BC, explored the topic of the hydrological cycle long before Wang wrote about the process. The British biochemist, historian, and sinologist Joseph Needham asserts that: "As to the seasonal lunar and stellar connections, the thought of Wang Chong (about 83 AD) is that in some way or other the cyclical behavior of the qi on earth, where water is distilled into mountain clouds, is correlated with
7395-661: The Balance"). Despite his self-imposed retirement, he eventually accepted an invitation of Inspector Dong Qin (fl. AD 80–90) of Yang province to work as a Headquarters Officer. However, Wang soon resigned from this post as well. Xie Yiwu, a friend of Wang Chong's and a long-standing inspector and official, made an official recommendation to the court requesting that Wang serve as a senior scholar under Emperor Zhang of Han (r. 75–88). Emperor Zhang accepted this and summoned Wang Chong to appear at his court, yet Wang claimed ill health and refused to travel. Wang later died at home around
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#17327657898107540-618: The Chinese government began promoting Confucian studies, only the Five Classics were considered by the government to be canonical ( jing ). They were considered Confucian because Confucius was assumed to have partially written, edited, and/or transmitted them. The Analects was considered secondary as it was thought to be merely a collection of Confucius's oral "commentary" ( zhuan ) on the Five Classics. The political importance and popularity of Confucius and Confucianism grew throughout
7685-484: The Confucian classics written in stone in the old Eastern capital of Luoyang c. 175 AD . Archaeologists have since discovered two handwritten copies of the Analects that were written c. 50 BC , during the Western Han dynasty. They are known as the " Dingzhou Analects ", and the " Pyongyang Analects ", after the location of the tombs in which they were found. The Dingzhou Analects
7830-781: The Dingzhou Analects or the Pyongyang Analects represent the Lu version, the Qi version, the old text version, or a different version that was independent of these three traditions. Prior to 2015, the oldest extant manuscript of the Analects were the discovered texts found in the Haihunhou Tomb in 2011; the Haihunhou Analects "circulated at least seventeen years" before the Dingzhou and Pyongyang ones. The Anhui University in 2015 acquired
7975-480: The Han dynasty, and by the Eastern Han the Analects was widely read by schoolchildren and anyone aspiring to literacy, and often read before the Five Classics themselves. During the Eastern Han, the heir apparent was provided a tutor specifically to teach him the Analects . The growing importance of the Analects was recognized when the Five Classics was expanded to the "Seven Classics": the Five Classics plus
8120-459: The Heavens) of 274 AD that supported Wang's theory by arguing the inferior Yin (Moon) could never obstruct the superior Yang (Sun), Liu was still outside of the mainstream accepted Confucian tradition. The Song dynasty (960–1279) polymathic scientist Shen Kuo (1031–1095) supported the old theory of a spherical Sun and Moon by using his own reasoning about eclipses, which he explained were due to
8265-404: The Lu and Qi versions in two, so it had twenty-one chapters, and the order of the chapters was different. The old text version got its name because it was written in characters not used since the earlier Warring States period (before 221 BC), when it was assumed to have been hidden. According to the Han dynasty scholar Huan Tan , the old text version had four hundred characters different from
8410-420: The Lu version as authoritative and selectively adding sections from the Qi version, and produced a composite text of the Analects known as the "Zhang Hou Lun". This text was recognized by Zhang Yu's contemporaries and by subsequent Han scholars as superior to either individual version, and is the text that is recognized as the Analects today. No complete copies of either the Lu version or the old text version of
8555-410: The Lu version—from which the received text is mostly based—and it seriously differed from the Lu version in 27 places. Of these twenty-seven differences, the received text only agrees with the old text version in two places. Over a century later, Zhang Yu [ zh ] , the tutor of the Analects to Emperor Cheng of Han , ( d. 5 BC ), synthesized the Lu and Qi versions by taking
8700-424: The Master and them, which were then collected and jointly edited by the disciples after Confucius' death in 479 BC. The work was titled Lunyu during the Han dynasty: in this context the character for lun means 'discuss' or 'dispute', while yu means 'speech' or 'sayings'. Lunyu therefore may mean 'edited conversations', or 'selected speeches' (thus " analects "). This broadly forms the traditional account of
8845-518: The Pacific coast. The series of events leading up to this began when Yue prepared to attack Qi to its north. The King of Qi sent an emissary who persuaded the King of Yue to attack Chu instead. Yue initiated a large-scale attack at Chu but was defeated by Chu's counter-attack. Chu then proceeded to conquer Yue. King Xian of Zhou had attempted to use what little royal prerogative he had left by appointing
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#17327657898108990-508: The Spring and Autumn period. As a result, there is some controversy as to the beginning of the era. Proposed starting points include: The Eastern Zhou dynasty began its fall around 5th century BC. As their influence waned, they had to rely on armies in allied states rather than their own military force. Hundreds of smaller polities coalesced into seven major states which included: Chu, Han, Qin, Wei, Yan, Qi and Zhao. However, there eventually
9135-597: The Three Armies of their commander, but you cannot deprive the humblest peasant of his opinion" (§9.26). Confucius said that a morally well-cultivated individual would regard his devotion to loving others as a mission for which he would be willing to die (§15.8). Confucius' political beliefs were rooted in his belief that a good ruler would be self-disciplined, would govern his subjects through education and by his own example, and would seek to correct his subjects with love and concern rather than punishment and coercion. "If
9280-429: The Zhou court. This marked a major turning point: unlike those in the Spring and Autumn period , the new generation of rulers ascending the thrones in the Warring States period would not entertain even the pretence of being vassals of the Zhou dynasty, instead proclaiming themselves fully independent kingdoms. During the early Warring States period Qin generally avoided conflicts with the other states. This changed during
9425-552: The administration. The rise of Qin was recognized by the royal court, and in 343 BC the king conferred the title of Count (伯 Bó) on Duke Xiao. As was customary, a conference was hosted which the feudal lords attended, and during which the Son of Heaven bestowed the title. After the reforms Qin became much more aggressive. In 340 Qin took land from Wèi after it had been defeated by Qi. In 316 Qin conquered Shu and Ba in Sichuan to
9570-452: The alliance. In 383 BC it moved its capital to Handan and attacked the small state of Wey . Wey appealed to Wei which attacked Zhao on the western side. Being in danger, Zhao called in Chu. As usual, Chu used this as a pretext to annex territory to its north, but the diversion allowed Zhao to occupy a part of Wei. This conflict marked the end of the power of the united Jins and the beginning
9715-516: The behavior of the qi in the heavens, which brings the moon near to the Hyades at certain times." Thus, Wang Chong was uniting classical Chinese thought with radically modern ways of scientific thinking in his day. Similar to Han dynasty polymath contemporary Zhang Heng (78–139) and Chinese scholars before him, Wang discussed theories about the causation of eclipses , with solar eclipse and lunar eclipse . However, Wang Chong's theory went against
9860-470: The biographical material on Confucius found in the Analects makes the Analects arguably the most reliable source of biographical information about Confucius. Confucius viewed himself as a "transmitter" of social and political traditions originating in the early Zhou dynasty ( c. 1000–800 BC ), and claimed not to have originated anything (§7.1), but Confucius's social and political ideals were not popular in his time. Confucius' discussions on
10005-522: The boundaries of the three states more rational. In 364 BC, Wei was defeated by Qin at the Battle of Shimen and was only saved by the intervention of Zhao. Qin won another victory in 362 BC. In 361 BC the Wei capital was moved east to Daliang to be out of the reach of Qin. In 354 BC, King Hui of Wei started a large-scale attack on Zhao. By 353 BC, Zhao was losing badly and its capital, Handan ,
10150-473: The central texts of Confucianism . During the late Song dynasty (960–1279 AD) the importance of the Analects as a Chinese philosophy work was raised above that of the older Five Classics, and it was recognized as one of the " Four Books ". The Analects has been one of the most widely read and studied books in China for more than two millennia; its ideas continue to have a substantial influence on East Asian thought and values. Confucius believed that
10295-420: The chapters' creation and produced a "four stratum theory" of the text's creation. Many modern scholars now believe that the work was compiled over a period of around two hundred years, some time during the Warring States period (476–221 BC), with some questioning the authenticity of some of the sayings. Prior to 2015, no manuscript dated earlier than c. 70 BC has been discovered, and because
10440-407: The classics, heaven itself causes the rain. What are we to say to this? When the rain comes from the mountains, the moon passes the (other) stars and approaches Pi hsiu . When it approaches Pi hsiu there must be rain. As long as it does not rain, the moon has not approached, and the mountains have no clouds. Heaven and earth, above and below, act in mutual resonance. When the moon approaches above,
10585-530: The commentaries of earlier scholars (mostly from the Song dynasty), along with his own interpretations. Zhu's work took part in the context of a period of renewed interest in Confucian studies, in which Chinese scholars were interested in producing a single "correct" intellectual orthodoxy that would "save" Chinese traditions and protect them from foreign influences, and in which scholars were increasingly interested in metaphysical speculation. In his commentary Zhu made
10730-420: The correct 'radiating influence' theory supported by Zhang Heng (that the light of the rounded Moon was simply a reflection of the light emanating from the rounded Sun ). Writing little more than a century before Zhang Heng, the mathematician and music theorist Jing Fang (78–37 BC) wrote in the 1st century BC: The moon and the planets are Yin ; they have shape but no light. This they receive only when
10875-484: The diplomat Su Qin spent years visiting the courts of Yan, Zhao, Han, Wei, Qi and Chu and persuaded them to form a united front against Qin. In 318 BC all states except Qi launched a joint attack on Qin, which was not successful. King Hui of Qin died in 311 BC, followed by prime minister Zhang Yi one year later. The new monarch, King Wu , reigned only four years before dying without legitimate heirs. Some damaging turbulence ensued throughout 307 BC before
11020-401: The dukes Xian (384–362 BC), Xiao (361–338 BC) and Hui (338–311 BC) of Qin as hegemons, thereby in theory making Qin the chief ally of the court. However, in 325 the confidence of Duke Hui grew so great that he proclaimed himself "king" of Qin; adopting the same title as the king of Zhou and thereby effectively proclaiming independence from the Zhou dynasty. King Hui of Qin
11165-561: The earth) at the capital of the State of Song . When people went near to examine them, it turned out that they were stones, but not round. Since these (shooting) stars were not round, we may be sure that the sun, the moon, and the planets are not spherical either. Although Wang Chong was certain of his ideas about eclipses (without the knowledge of how gravity forms naturally large spherical bodies in space), his ideas on this would not be later accepted in China. Although there were some figures like Liu Chi , writing in his Lun Tian (Discourse on
11310-465: The end of Jiang rule, and now openly assumed power. The new ruler set about reclaiming territories that had been lost to other states. He launched a successful campaign against Zhao, Wey and Wei, once again extending Qi territory to the Great Wall. Sima Qian writes that the other states were so awestruck that nobody dared attack Qi for more than 20 years. The demonstrated military prowess also had
11455-599: The era was dominated by the Seven Warring States , namely: Besides these seven major states other smaller states survived into the period. They include: The eastward flight of the Zhou court in 771 BC marks the start of the Spring and Autumn period . No one single incident or starting point inaugurated the Warring States era. The political situation of the period represented a culmination of historical trends of conquest and annexation which also characterised
11600-481: The establishment of four major families, the Han, Zhao, Wei and Zhi. The Battle of Jinyang saw the allied Han, Zhao and Wei destroy the Zhi family (453 BC) and their lands were distributed among them. With this, they became the de facto rulers of most of Jin's territory, though this situation would not be officially recognised until half a century later. The Jin division created a political vacuum that enabled during
11745-692: The exercise of devotion to one's parents and older siblings as the simplest, most basic way to cultivate ren . (§1.2). Confucius believed that ren could best be cultivated by those who had already learned self-discipline, and that self-discipline was best learned by practicing and cultivating one's understanding of li : rituals and forms of propriety through which people demonstrate their respect for others and their responsible roles in society (§3.3). Confucius said that one's understanding of li should inform everything that one says and does (§12.1). He believed that subjecting oneself to li did not mean suppressing one's desires but learning to reconcile them with
11890-411: The first 50 years expansion of Chu and Yue northward and Qi southward. Qin increased its control of the local tribes and began its expansion southwest to Sichuan . In 403 BC, the court of King Weilie of Zhou officially recognized Zhao, Wei and Han as immediate vassals, thereby raising them to the same rank as the other warring states. From before 405 until 383 BC the three Jins were united under
12035-559: The garments (of those travelling on high mountain passes) are moistened, it is not the effect of the clouds and mists they pass through, but of the suspended rain water. Some persons cite the Shujing , which says, "When the moon follows the stars, there will be wind and rain," or the Shijing , which says, "The approach of the moon to Pi hsiu [the Hyades ] will bring heavy rain showers." They believe that according to these two passages of
12180-478: The genesis of the work accepted by later generations of scholars, for example the Song dynasty neo-Confucian scholar Zhu Xi stated that Analects is the records of Confucius's first- and second-generation pupils. This traditional view has been challenged by Chinese, Japanese, and Western scholars. The Qing dynasty philologist Cui Shu argued on linguistic ground that the last five books were produced much later than
12325-483: The heavens—admittedly it comes from above the earth. How can we demonstrate that the rain originates in the earth and rises from the mountains? Gongyang Gao's [i.e. Gongyang Zhuan ] commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals says; "It evaporates upwards through stones one or two inches thick, and gathers. In one day's time it can spread over the whole empire, but this is only so if it comes from Thai Shan." What he means
12470-475: The inverted Golden Rule : "Do not do to others what you would not like done to yourself"; "a man with ren , desiring to establish himself, helps others establish themselves; desiring to succeed himself, helps others to succeed" (§12.2; §6.28). Confucius taught that the ability of people to imagine and project themselves into the places of others was a crucial quality for the pursuit of moral self-cultivation (§4.15; see also §5.12; §6.30; §15.24). Confucius regarded
12615-592: The leadership of Wei and expanded in all directions. The most important figure was Marquess Wen of Wei (445–396 BC). In 408–406 BC he conquered the State of Zhongshan to the northeast on the other side of Zhao. At the same time he pushed west across the Yellow River to the Luo River taking the area of Xihe (literally 'west of the [Yellow] river'). The growing power of Wei caused Zhao to back away from
12760-428: The life of an individual, historic personage. Elias Canetti wrote: "Confucius's Analects is the oldest complete intellectual and spiritual portrait of a man. It strikes one as a modern book; everything it contains and indeed everything it lacks is important." Chapter 20, " Yao Yue ", particularly the first verse, is bizarre in terms of both language and content. In terms of language, the text appears to be archaic (or
12905-424: The moon is very weak, and at the beginnings almost extinct; how then could it conquer the sun? If you say that eclipses of the sun are due to the moon consuming it, then what is it that consumes (in a lunar eclipse) the moon? Nothing, the moon fades of itself. Applying the same principle to the sun, the sun also fades of itself. Roughly speaking, every 41 or 42 months there is a solar eclipse, and every 180 days there
13050-529: The most important ways that a ruler cultivates his sense of de is through a devotion to the correct practices of li . Examples of rituals identified by Confucius as important to cultivate a ruler's de include: sacrificial rites held at ancestral temples to express thankfulness and humility; ceremonies of enfeoffment , toasting, and gift exchanges that bound nobility in complex hierarchical relationships of obligation and indebtedness; and, acts of formal politeness and decorum (i.e. bowing and yielding) that identify
13195-450: The mountains steam below, and the embodied qi meet and unite. This is (part of the) spontaneous Tao of Nature. Clouds and fog show that rain is coming. In summer it turns to dew, in winter to frost. Warm, it is rain, cold, it is snow. Rain, dew, and frost, all proceed from the earth, and do not descend from the heavens. Wang's reference to Gongyan Gao's (i.e. Gongyan Zhuan's) commentary perhaps demonstrates that Gongyan's work, compiled in
13340-451: The nature of the supernatural (§3.12; §6.20; §11.11) indicate his belief that while "ghosts" and "spirits" should be respected, they are best kept at a distance. Instead human beings should base their values and social ideals on moral philosophy, tradition, and a natural love for others. Confucius' social philosophy largely depended on the cultivation of ren by every individual in a community. Later Confucian philosophers explained ren as
13485-599: The needs of one's family and broader community. By leading individuals to express their desires within the context of social responsibility, Confucius and his followers taught that the public cultivation of li was the basis of a well-ordered society (§2.3). Confucius taught his students that an important aspect of li was observing the practical social differences that exist between people in daily life. In Confucian philosophy these "five relationships" include: ruler to ruled; father to son; husband to wife; elder brother to younger brother; and friend to friend. Ren and li have
13630-442: The newly crowned King Min have him publicly executed to draw out the assassins. King Min complied with Su's request and killed him, putting an end to the first generation of Vertical alliance thinkers. King Min of Qi came to be highly influenced by Lord Mengchang , a grandson of the former King Wei of Qi . Lord Mengchang made a westward alliance with the states of Wei and Han . In the far west, Qin, which had been weakened by
13775-657: The notion that they are the souls of the dead. He seems to believe that the phenomena exist, but whatever they may be, they have no relation to the deceased. People say that spirits are the souls of dead men. That being the case, spirits should always appear naked, for surely it is not contended that clothes have souls as well as men. ( Lunheng ) Wang was just as rational and uncompromising about knowledge. Beliefs require evidence, just as actions require results. Anyone can prattle nonsense, and they'll always be able to find people to believe it, especially if they can dress it up in superstitious flummery. Careful reasoning and experience of
13920-415: The obstruction of the earth itself—this is called 'anxu', a lunar eclipse. When (a similar effect) happens with a planet (we call it) an occultation (xingwei); when the moon passes across (the sun's path) then there is a solar eclipse (shi). Going against the grain of the accepted theory, and thinking more along the lines of the 1st century BC Roman philosopher Lucretius , Wang Chong wrote: According to
14065-400: The people be led by laws, and uniformity among them be sought by punishments, they will try to escape punishment and have no sense of shame. If they are led by virtue, and uniformity sought among them through the practice of ritual propriety, they will possess a sense of shame and come to you of their own accord" (§2.3; see also §13.6). Confucius' political theories were directly contradictory to
14210-456: The performers as morally well-cultivated. The importance of education and study is a fundamental theme of the Analects . For Confucius, a good student respects and learns from the words and deeds of his teacher, and a good teacher is someone older who is familiar with the ways of the past and the practices of antiquity (§7.22). Confucius emphasized the need to find balance between formal study and intuitive self-reflection (§2.15). When teaching he
14355-533: The practice and teaching of such martial arts in contemporary time, including in relation to their social and political dynamics. Warring States period The Warring States period in Chinese history ( c. 475 – 221 BC) comprises the final centuries of the Zhou dynasty ( c. 1046 – 256 BC), which were characterized by warfare, bureaucratic and military reform, and political consolidation. It followed
14500-442: The process of the water cycle . Unlike most of the Chinese philosophers of his period, Wang spent much of his life in non-self-inflicted poverty. He was said to have studied by standing at bookstalls, and had a superb memory, which allowed him to become very well-versed in the Chinese classics . He eventually reached the rank of District Secretary, a post he soon lost as a result of his combative and anti-authoritarian nature. Wang
14645-467: The quality of having a kind manner, similar to the English words "humane", "altruistic", or "benevolent", but, of the sixty instances in which Confucius discusses ren in the Analects , very few have these later meanings. Confucius instead used the term ren to describe an extremely general and all-encompassing state of virtue, one which no living person had attained completely. (This use of the term ren
14790-510: The questionable tenets of the philosophy of New Text Confucianism fell out of use and repute, Rafe de Crespigny states that the rationalist philosophy of Wang Chong became much more influential in Chinese thought. Wang Chong reacted to the state that philosophy had reached in China. Daoism had long ago changed into a religious and magic way, and Confucianism had been the state religion for some 150 years. Confucius and Laozi were worshipped as gods, omens were seen everywhere, belief in ghosts
14935-400: The regulatories of the heavens. But that the moon covers the light of the sun in solar eclipses—no, that is not true. How can this be verified? When the sun and the moon are in conjunction and the light of the former is 'covered' by the latter, the edges of the two must meet at the beginning, and when the light reappears they must have changed places. Suppose the sun is in the east and the moon
15080-415: The reign of Duke Xiao , when prime minister Shang Yang made centralizing and authoritarian reforms in accordance with his Legalist philosophy between the years 356 and 338 BC. Shang introduced land reforms, privatized land, rewarded farmers who exceeded harvest quotas, enslaved farmers who failed to meet quotas, and used enslaved subjects as rewards for those who met government policies. As manpower
15225-442: The reign of Emperor Jing of Han ( r. 157–141 BC ), a third " Old Text " version was discovered hidden in a wall of the home believed at the time to have been Confucius's, when the home was in the process of being destroyed by King Gong of Lu ( r. 153–128 BC ) in order to expand the king's palace. The new version did not contain the two extra chapters found in the Qi version, but it split one chapter found in
15370-407: The rest of the work. Itō Jinsai claimed that, because of differences he saw in patterns of language and content in the Analects , a distinction in authorship should be made between the "upper Analects " (Books 1–10) and "lower Analects " (Books 11–20). Arthur Waley speculated that Books 3–9 represent the earliest parts of the book. E. Bruce Brooks and A. Taeko Brooks reviewed previous theories of
15515-430: The ruler being a ruler, the minister being a minister, the father being a father, and the son being a son" (§12.11). The analysis of the need to raise officials' behavior to reflect the way that they identify and describe themselves is known as the rectification of names , and he stated that the rectification of names should be the first responsibility of a ruler upon taking office (§13.3). Confucius believed that, because
15660-417: The ruler was the model for all who were under him in society, the rectification of names had to begin with the ruler, and that afterwards others would change to imitate him (§12.19). Confucius judged a good ruler by his possession of de ('virtue'): a sort of moral force that allows those in power to rule and gain the loyalty of others without the need for physical coercion (§2.1). Confucius said that one of
15805-401: The same wording and sometimes with small variations. Chapter 10 contains detailed descriptions of Confucius's behaviors in various daily activities. Voltaire and Ezra Pound believed that this chapter demonstrated how Confucius was a mere human. Simon Leys , who recently translated the Analects into English and French, said that the book may have been the first in human history to describe
15950-415: The scholars assert that the bodies of the sun and moon are quite spherical. When one looks up at them, their shape seems like that of a ladle or a round basket, perfectly circular. They are not the qi of a light seen from far off, for qi could not be round. But (my opinion is) that in fact the sun and moon are not spherical; they only appear to be so on account of the distance. How can this be verified? The sun
16095-457: The scholars, solar eclipses are brought about by the moon. It has been observed that they occur at times of new moon (lit. on the last days and first days of months), when the moon is in conjunction with the sun, and therefore the moon can eclipse it. In the Spring and Autumn period there were many eclipses, and the Chun Qiu says that at such and such a month at new moon there was an eclipse of
16240-597: The second half of the Eastern Zhou period, where the king of Zhou formally ruled as Chinese sovereign , but had lost political power and functioned in practice as a figurehead. This dynamic served as the backdrop for the machinations of the eponymous Warring States. The label "Warring States period" derives from the Record of the Warring States , a work of history compiled during the early Han dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD). The political geography of
16385-471: The smaller states of the Central Plain tended to be their satellites and tributaries. Other major states also existed, such as Wu and Yue in the southeast. The last decades of the Spring and Autumn era were marked by increased stability, as the result of peace negotiations between Jin and Chu which established their respective spheres of influence. This situation ended with the partition of Jin, whereby
16530-456: The south invaded Wei. On the verge of conquering Wei, the leaders of Zhao and Han fell into disagreement about what to do with Wei, and both armies abruptly retreated. As a result, King Hui of Wei (still a Marquess at the time) was able to ascend the throne of Wei. Zhao extended from the Shanxi plateau across the plain to the borders of Qi. Wei reached east to Qi, Lu , and Song . To the south,
16675-447: The southwest. Development of this area took a long time but slowly added greatly to Qin's wealth and power. In 341 BC, Wei attacked Han. Qi allowed Han to be nearly defeated and then intervened. The generals from the Battle of Guiling met again ( Sun Bin and Tian Ji versus Pang Juan ), using the same tactic, attacking Wei's capital. Sun Bin feigned a retreat and then turned on the overconfident Wei troops and decisively defeated them at
16820-489: The state was divided between the houses of Han, Zhao and Wei, leading to the seven major warring states. The rulers of Jin had steadily lost political powers since the middle of the 6th century BC to their nominally subordinate nobles and military commanders, a situation arising from the traditions of the Jin which forbade the enfeoffment of relatives of the ducal house. This allowed other clans to gain fiefs and military authority, and decades of internecine struggle led to
16965-487: The states, recommending that the rulers put their respective ideas into use. These "lobbyists", such as Su Qin , who advocated vertical alliances, and Zhang Yi , who advocated horizontal alliances, were famous for their tact and intellect, and were collectively known as the School of Diplomacy , whose Chinese name ( 縱橫家 'the school of the vertical and horizontal') was derived from the two opposing ideas. Beginning in 334 BC
17110-435: The sun illuminates them. The former masters regarded the sun as round like a crossbow bullet, and they thought the moon had the nature of a mirror. Some of them recognized the moon as a ball too. Those parts of the moon the sun illuminates look bright, those parts it does not, remain dark. Zhang Heng wrote in his Ling Xian (Mystical Laws) of 120 AD: The sun is like fire and the moon like water. The fire gives out light and
17255-509: The sun, but these statements do not imply that the moon did it. Why should (the chroniclers) have made no mention of the moon if they knew that it was really responsible? Now in such an abnormal event the Yang would have to be weak and the Yin strong, but (this is not in accord with) what happens on earth, where the stronger subdue the weaker. The situation is that at the ends of the months the light of
17400-415: The text were lost in the process of transmission and possibly transmitted with errors in the order. The fragmentary nature of the final chapter of the received Lu text has been explained by the "accretion theory", in which the text of the Analects was gradually accreted over a 230-year period, beginning with the death of Confucius and ending suddenly with the conquest of Lu in 249 BC. Within these incipits,
17545-399: The truth could be discovered, and would become obvious, by making the words clear, and by clear commentary on the text. One example of Wang's rationality is his argument that thunder must be caused by fire or heat, and is not a sign of the heavens being displeased. He argued that repeatable experience and experiment should be tried before adopting the belief that divine will was involved. He
17690-556: The two which have been most influential have been the Collected Explanations of the Analects ( Lunyu Jijie ) by He Yan ( c. 195–249 ) and several colleagues, and the Collected Commentaries of the Analects ( Lunyu Jizhu ) by Zhu Xi (1130–1200). In his work, He Yan collected, selected, summarized, and rationalized what he believed to be the most insightful of all preceding commentaries on
17835-419: The universe and cannot hope to effect changes in it, and it is ludicrous arrogance to think that the universe would change itself for us. Wang insisted that the words of previous sages should be treated critically, and that they were often contradictory or inconsistent. He criticized scholars of his time for not accepting this, as well as what he called the popular acceptance of written works. He believed that
17980-406: The water reflects it. Thus the moon's brightness is produced from the radiance of the sun, and the moon's darkness is due to (the light of) the sun being obstructed. The side that faces the sun is fully lit, and the side that is away from it is dark. The planets (as well as the moon) have the nature of water and reflect light. The light pouring forth from the sun does not always reach the moon owing to
18125-423: The weaker state of Han held the east–west part of the Yellow River valley, surrounded the Zhou royal domain at Luoyang and held an area north of Luoyang called Shangdang . Duke Kang of Qi died in 379 BC with no heir from the house of Jiang, which had ruled Qi since the state's founding. The throne instead passed to the future King Wei , from the house of Tian. The Tian had been very influential at court towards
18270-659: The welfare of a country depended on the moral cultivation of its people, beginning from the nation's leadership. He believed that individuals could begin to cultivate an all-encompassing sense of virtue through ren , and that the most basic step to cultivating ren was filial piety —primarily the devotion to one's parents and older siblings. He taught that one's individual desires do not need to be suppressed, but that people should be educated to reconcile their desires via li , rituals and forms of propriety, through which people could demonstrate their respect for others and their responsible roles in society. Confucius also believed that
18415-520: The world and of human beings and gave a materialistic explanation of the origin of the universe. His main work was the Lunheng (論衡, "Critical Essays"). This book contained many theories involving early sciences of astronomy and meteorology , and Wang Chong was even the first in Chinese history to mention the use of the square-pallet chain pump , which became common in irrigation and public works in China thereafter. Wang also accurately described
18560-484: The world are needed. The Swedish linguist and sinologist Bernhard Karlgren called his style straightforward and without literary pretensions; in general, modern Western writers have noted that Wang was one of the most original thinkers of his time, even iconoclastic in his opinions. They note that he gained popularity in the early 20th century because his ideas correspond to those that later evolved in Europe . His writing
18705-547: The writer may have become aware of at least one other version of the Analects and included "extra" material for the sake of completeness. The content of the Pyongyang Analects is similar to the Dingzhou Analects . Because of the secrecy and isolationism of the North Korean government, only a very cursory study of it has been made available to international scholars, and its contents are not completely known outside of North Korea. Scholars do not agree about whether either
18850-471: The year 100. Although Wang's rationalistic philosophy and criticism of so-called New Text Confucianism were largely ignored during his lifetime, the prominent official and later scholar Cai Yong (132–192) wrote of his admiration for Wang's written works. The politician Wang Lang (d. 228) acquired a copy of Wang's Lunheng and brought it with him on his trip in 198 to the Han court established at Xuchang by Prime Minister Cao Cao (155–220). As some of
18995-512: Was a shift in alliances because each state's ruler wanted independence. This caused hundreds of wars between 535 and 286 BC. The victorious state would have overall rule and control in China. The system of feudal states created by the Western Zhou dynasty underwent enormous changes after 771 BC with the flight of the Zhou court to modern-day Luoyang and the diminution of its relevance and power. The Spring and Autumn period led to
19140-458: Was almost universal, and fengshui had begun to rule people's lives. Wang derided all this and made a vocation of giving a rational, naturalistic account of the world and the human place in it. At the centre of his thought was the denial that Heaven has any purpose for us, whether benevolent or hostile. To say that Heaven provides us food and clothing is to say it acts as our farmer or tailor—an obvious absurdity. Humans are insignificant specks in
19285-485: Was born into a poor family in modern Shangyu, Zhejiang . Born a son of Wang Song, he was admired in his local community for his filial piety and devotion to his father. With the urging of his parents, Wang travelled to the Eastern Han capital at Luoyang to study at the Imperial University . It was there that Wang became acquainted with the prestigious historian Ban Biao (3–54), the latter who initiated
19430-418: Was discovered in 1973, but no transcription of its contents was published until 1997. The Pyongyang Analects was discovered in 1992. Academic access to the Pyongyang Analects has been highly restricted, and no academic study on it was published until 2009. The Dingzhou Analects was damaged in a fire shortly after it was entombed in the Han dynasty. It was further damaged in an earthquake shortly after it
19575-519: Was driven out of Qin. The remaining three allies, Qi, Wei and Han, attacked Qin, driving up the Yellow River below Shanxi to the Hangu Pass . After 3 years of fighting they took the pass and forced Qin to return territory to Han and Wei. They next inflicted major defeats on Yan and Chu. During the 5-year administration of Lord Mengchang, Qi was the major power in China. In 294, Lord Mengchang
19720-446: Was equally scathing about the popular belief in ghosts. Why should only human beings have ghosts, he asked, not other animals? We are all living creatures, animated by the same vital principle. Besides, so many people have died that their ghosts would vastly outnumber living people; the world would be swamped by them. He never, however, explicitly denies the existence of ghosts ( gui 鬼) or spirits ( shen 神), he simply separates them from
19865-477: Was guided by his prime minister Zhang Yi , a prominent representative of the School of Diplomacy . He was followed in 323 BC by King Xuanhui of Han and King Yi of Yan , as well as King Cuo of the minor state Zhongshan. In 318 BC even the ruler of Song , a relatively minor state, declared himself king. Uniquely, while King Wuling of Zhao had joined the other kings in declaring himself king, he retracted this order in 318 BC, after Zhao suffered
20010-437: Was held by figurehead rulers of the Zhou dynasty, while the rulers of most states held the title of duke ( gong , 公 ) or marquess ( hou , 侯 ). A major exception was Chu, whose rulers were called kings since King Wu of Chu started using the title c. 703 BC . In 344 BC the rulers of Qi and Wei mutually recognized each other as kings: King Wei of Qi and King Hui of Wei , in effect declaring their independence from
20155-507: Was implicated in a coup d'état and fled to Wei. His alliance system collapsed. Qi and Qin made a truce and pursued their own interests. Qi moved south against the state of Song whilst the Qin General Bai Qi pushed back eastward against a Han/Wei alliance, gaining victory at the Battle of Yique . In 288, King Zhao of Qin and King Min of Qi took the title di ( 帝 'emperor'), of the west and east respectively. They swore
20300-533: Was in agreement with the Sage" (sic). The Explanations that was written in 248 AD, was quickly recognized as authoritative, and remained the standard guide to interpreting the Analects for nearly 1,000 years, until the early Yuan dynasty (1271–1368). It is the oldest complete commentary on the Analects that still exists. He Yan's commentary was eventually displaced as the definitive, standard commentary by Zhu Xi's commentary. Zhu Xi's work also brought together
20445-558: Was read and memorized along with the Analects by all Chinese aspiring to literacy and employment as government officials. Very few reliable sources about Confucius exist besides that of the Analects. The principal biography available to historians is included in Sima Qian 's Records of the Grand Historian , but because the history contains a significant amount of material unverifiable in other sources and possibly legendary,
20590-440: Was recovered, and the surviving text is just under half the size of the received text of the Analects . Of the sections that survive, the Dingzhou Analects is shorter than the received Analects , implying that the text of the Analects was still in the process of expansion when the Dingzhou Analects was entombed. There was evidence that "additions" may have been made to the manuscript after it had been completed, indicating that
20735-404: Was short in Qin relative to the other states at the time, Shang enacted policies to increase its manpower. As Qin peasants were recruited into the military, he encouraged active immigration of peasants from other states into Qin as a replacement workforce; this policy simultaneously increased the manpower of Qin and weakened the manpower of Qin's rivals. Shang made laws forcing citizens to marry at
20880-648: Was to produce ethically well-cultivated men who would carry themselves with gravity, speak correctly, and demonstrate consummate integrity in all things (§12.11; see also §13.3). He was willing to teach anyone regardless of social class, as long as they were sincere, eager, and tireless to learn (§7.7; §15.38). He is traditionally credited with teaching three thousand students, though only seventy are said to have mastered what he taught. He taught practical skills , but regarded moral self-cultivation as his most important subject. The traditional titles given to each chapter are mostly an initial two or three incipits . In some cases
21025-461: Was under siege. The state of Qi intervened. The famous Qi strategist, Sun Bin the great-great-great-grandson of Sun Tzu , the author of the Art of War , proposed to attack the Wei capital while the Wei army was tied up besieging Zhao. The strategy was a success; the Wei army hastily moved south to protect its capital, was caught on the road and decisively defeated at the Battle of Guiling . The battle
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