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81-667: A gladiator was an armed combatant entertainer in the Roman Republic and Roman Empire. Gladiator(s) or The Gladiator(s) may also refer to: Gladiator A gladiator ( Latin : gladiator , "swordsman", from gladius , "sword") was an armed combatant who entertained audiences in the Roman Republic and Roman Empire in violent confrontations with other gladiators, wild animals, and condemned criminals. Some gladiators were volunteers who risked their lives and their legal and social standing by appearing in

162-483: A lanista (owner of a gladiator training school). From the principate onwards, private citizens could hold munera and own gladiators only with imperial permission, and the role of editor was increasingly tied to state officialdom. Legislation by Claudius required that quaestors , the lowest rank of Roman magistrate, personally subsidise two-thirds of the costs of games for their small-town communities—in effect, both an advertisement of their personal generosity and

243-455: A "frenzied crescendo" during combats, perhaps to heighten the suspense during a gladiator's appeal; blows may have been accompanied by trumpet-blasts. The Zliten mosaic in Libya (circa 80–100 AD) shows musicians playing an accompaniment to provincial games (with gladiators, bestiarii , or venatores and prisoners attacked by beasts). Their instruments are a long straight trumpet ( tubicen ),

324-403: A Pompeian match between chariot-fighters, Publius Ostorius, with previous 51 wins to his credit, was granted missio after losing to Scylax, with 26 victories. By common custom, the spectators decided whether or not a losing gladiator should be spared, and chose the winner in the rare event of a standing tie. Even more rarely, perhaps uniquely, one stalemate ended in the killing of one gladiator by

405-432: A considerable degree of stagecraft. Among the cognoscenti, bravado and skill in combat were esteemed over mere hacking and bloodshed; some gladiators made their careers and reputation from bloodless victories. Suetonius describes an exceptional munus by Nero, in which no-one was killed, "not even noxii (enemies of the state)." Trained gladiators were expected to observe professional rules of combat. Most matches employed

486-448: A draw. In the same century, an epigraph praises one of Ostia 's local elite as the first to "arm women" in the history of its games. Female gladiators probably submitted to the same regulations and training as their male counterparts. Roman morality required that all gladiators be of the lowest social classes, and emperors who failed to respect this distinction earned the scorn of posterity. Cassius Dio takes pains to point out that when

567-499: A gigantic stipend from the public purse. Gladiator games were advertised well beforehand, on billboards that gave the reason for the game, its editor, venue, date and the number of paired gladiators ( ordinarii ) to be used. Other highlighted features could include details of venationes , executions, music and any luxuries to be provided for the spectators, such as an awning against the sun, water sprinklers, food, drink, sweets and occasionally "door prizes". For enthusiasts and gamblers,

648-492: A gladiator. His gravestone in Sicily includes his record: "Flamma, secutor , lived 30 years, fought 34 times, won 21 times, fought to a draw 9 times, defeated 4 times, a Syrian by nationality. Delicatus made this for his deserving comrade-in-arms." A gladiator could acknowledge defeat by raising a finger ( ad digitum ), in appeal to the referee to stop the combat and refer to the editor , whose decision would usually rest on

729-512: A large curved horn ( Cornu ) and a water organ ( hydraulis ). Similar representations (musicians, gladiators and bestiari ) are found on a tomb relief in Pompeii . A match was won by the gladiator who overcame his opponent, or killed him outright. Victors received the palm branch and an award from the editor . An outstanding fighter might receive a laurel crown and money from an appreciative crowd but for anyone originally condemned ad ludum

810-404: A more detailed program ( libellus ) was distributed on the day of the munus , showing the names, types and match records of gladiator pairs, and their order of appearance. Left-handed gladiators were advertised as a rarity; they were trained to fight right-handers, which gave them an advantage over most opponents and produced an interestingly unorthodox combination. The night before the munus ,

891-464: A part-purchase of their office. Bigger games were put on by senior magistrates, who could better afford them. The largest and most lavish of all were paid for by the emperor himself. The earliest types of gladiator were named after Rome's enemies of that time: the Samnite , Thracian and Gaul . The Samnite, heavily armed, elegantly helmed and probably the most popular type, was renamed secutor and

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972-573: A precedent in the Iberian munus of Scipio Africanus ; but none of those had been paid. For the poor, and for non-citizens, enrollment in a gladiator school offered a trade, regular food, housing of sorts and a fighting chance of fame and fortune. Mark Antony chose a troupe of gladiators to be his personal bodyguard. Gladiators customarily kept their prize money and any gifts they received, and these could be substantial. Tiberius offered several retired gladiators 100,000 sesterces each to return to

1053-518: A propitiatory funeral blood-rite that anticipates early Roman gladiator games. Compared to these images, supporting evidence from Etruscan tomb-paintings is tentative and late. The Paestum frescoes may represent the continuation of a much older tradition, acquired or inherited from Greek colonists of the 8th century BC. Livy places the first Roman gladiator games (264 BC) in the early stage of Rome's First Punic War , against Carthage , when Decimus Junius Brutus Scaeva had three gladiator pairs fight to

1134-401: A public proclamation as a most cruel murder. A gladiator who was refused missio was despatched by his opponent. To die well, a gladiator should never ask for mercy, nor cry out. A "good death" redeemed the gladiator from the dishonourable weakness and passivity of defeat, and provided a noble example to those who watched: For death, when it stands near us, gives even to inexperienced men

1215-474: A senior referee ( summa rudis ) and an assistant, shown in mosaics with long staffs ( rudes ) to caution or separate opponents at some crucial point in the match. Referees were usually retired gladiators whose decisions, judgement and discretion were, for the most part, respected; they could stop bouts entirely, or pause them to allow the combatants rest, refreshment and a rub-down. Ludi and munera were accompanied by music, played as interludes, or building to

1296-467: A similarly dignified display of female athletics was met by the crowd with ribald chants and cat-calls. Probably as a result, he banned the use of female gladiators in 200 AD. Caligula , Titus , Hadrian , Lucius Verus , Caracalla , Geta and Didius Julianus were all said to have performed in the arena, either in public or private, but risks to themselves were minimal. Claudius , characterised by his historians as morbidly cruel and boorish, fought

1377-481: A taller shield. Although individual gladiators of a single class might fight with widely different gear, in general, the Samnite fought in the gear of a warrior from Samnium: a short sword ( gladius ), a rectangular shield ( scutum (shield) ), a greave ( ocrea ), and a helmet. The helmet had a crest, a rim, a visor, and a plume ( galea ); this last element gave "an imposing appearance". The Samnite's greave

1458-699: A training program for the military. It proved immensely popular. Thereafter, the gladiator contests formerly restricted to private munera were often included in the state games ( ludi ) that accompanied the major religious festivals. Where traditional ludi had been dedicated to a deity, such as Jupiter , the munera could be dedicated to an aristocratic sponsor's divine or heroic ancestor. Gladiatorial games offered their sponsors extravagantly expensive but effective opportunities for self-promotion, and gave their clients and potential voters exciting entertainment at little or no cost to themselves. Gladiators became big business for trainers and owners, for politicians on

1539-604: A whale trapped in the harbor in front of a group of spectators. Commentators invariably disapproved of such performances. Commodus was a fanatical participant at the ludi , and compelled Rome's elite to attend his performances as gladiator, bestiarius or venator . Most of his performances as a gladiator were bloodless affairs, fought with wooden swords; he invariably won. He was said to have restyled Nero's colossal statue in his own image as " Hercules Reborn", dedicated to himself as "Champion of secutores ; only left-handed fighter to conquer twelve times one thousand men." He

1620-466: A woman named "Mevia", hunting boars in the arena "with spear in hand and breasts exposed", and Petronius mocks the pretensions of a rich, low-class citizen, whose munus includes a woman fighting from a cart or chariot. A munus of 89 AD, during Domitian 's reign, featured a battle between female gladiators, described as "Amazons". In Halicarnassus, a 2nd-century AD relief depicts two female combatants named "Amazon" and "Achillia"; their match ended in

1701-504: Is different: the extent of religious ritual and meaning in them, which constitutes idolatry. Although Tertullian states that these events are forbidden to believers, the fact that he writes a whole treatise to convince Christians that they should not attend ( De Spectaculis ) shows that apparently not everyone agreed to stay away from them. In the next century, Augustine of Hippo deplored the youthful fascination of his friend (and later fellow-convert and bishop ) Alypius of Thagaste , with

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1782-411: The secutor first appear in texts. It seems that the Samnite became specialized into these classes, although the means by which this happened is unclear. The Samnite and its successors all fought with a footsoldier's sword and shield. The only clear distinguishing characteristics are that the secutor almost exclusively fought the net-and-trident-wielding retiarius , and the hoplomachus used

1863-626: The Campanians in celebration of their victory over the Samnites . Long after the games had ceased, the 7th century AD writer Isidore of Seville derived Latin lanista (manager of gladiators) from the Etruscan word for "executioner", and the title of " Charon " (an official who accompanied the dead from the Roman gladiatorial arena) from Charun , psychopomp of the Etruscan underworld. This

1944-695: The Forum Romanum , using twenty-two pairs of gladiators. Ten years later, Scipio Africanus gave a commemorative munus in Iberia for his father and uncle, casualties in the Punic Wars. High status non-Romans, and possibly Romans too, volunteered as his gladiators. The context of the Punic Wars and Rome's near-disastrous defeat at the Battle of Cannae (216 BC) link these early games to munificence,

2025-579: The Western Roman Empire . According to Theodoret , the ban was in consequence of Saint Telemachus ' martyrdom by spectators at a gladiator munus. Valentinian III (r. 425–455) repeated the ban in 438, perhaps effectively, though venationes continued beyond 536. By this time, interest in gladiator contests had waned throughout the Roman world. In the Byzantine Empire, theatrical shows and chariot races continued to attract

2106-436: The editor himself. In any event, the final decision of death or life belonged to the editor , who signalled his choice with a gesture described by Roman sources as pollice verso meaning "with a turned thumb"; a description too imprecise for reconstruction of the gesture or its symbolism. Whether victorious or defeated, a gladiator was bound by oath to accept or implement his editor's decision, "the victor being nothing but

2187-643: The munera spectacle as inimical to a Christian life and salvation . Amphitheatres continued to host the spectacular administration of Imperial justice: in 315 Constantine the Great condemned child-snatchers ad bestias in the arena. Ten years later, he forbade criminals being forced to fight to the death as gladiators: Bloody spectacles do not please us in civil ease and domestic quiet. For that reason we forbid those people to be gladiators who by reason of some criminal act were accustomed to deserve this condition and sentence. You shall rather sentence them to serve in

2268-583: The munus . Two other sources of gladiators, found increasingly during the Principate and the relatively low military activity of the Pax Romana , were slaves condemned to the arena ( damnati ), to gladiator schools or games ( ad ludum gladiatorium ) as punishment for crimes, and the paid volunteers ( auctorati ) who by the late Republic may have comprised approximately half—and possibly the most capable half—of all gladiators. The use of volunteers had

2349-515: The murmillo and the Thraex . Under the reign of Emperor Augustus , Samnium became an ally and integral part of the Roman Empire (all Italians had by this point gained Roman citizenship ). The Samnite was replaced by similarly armed gladiators, including the hoplomachus and the secutor . The Samnite was named for the people of Samnium , an area in the southern Apennine Mountains of

2430-422: The retiarius , would tire less rapidly than their heavily armed opponents; most bouts would have lasted 10 to 15 minutes, or 20 minutes at most. In late Republican munera , between 10 and 13 matches could have been fought on one day; this assumes one match at a time in the course of an afternoon. Spectators preferred to watch highly skilled, well matched ordinarii with complementary fighting styles; these were

2511-481: The 1st century BC and the 2nd century AD. Christians disapproved of the games because they involved idolatrous pagan rituals, and the popularity of gladiatorial contests declined in the fifth century, leading to their disappearance. Early literary sources seldom agree on the origins of gladiators and the gladiator games. In the late 1st century BC, Nicolaus of Damascus believed they were Etruscan . A generation later, Livy wrote that they were first held in 310 BC by

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2592-652: The Campanians, was the earliest of the gladiator types and the model upon which later classes were based. The Samnite gladiators were also the first of at least three gladiator classes ( list of Roman gladiator types ) to be based on ethnic antecedents; other examples were the Gauls and the Thracians . These gladiators fought with the signature war equipment and in the martial style of ethnic groups who had been conquered by Rome, thus appropriating their source culture for

2673-473: The Gaul renamed murmillo , once these former enemies had been conquered then absorbed into Rome's Empire. In the mid-republican munus , each type seems to have fought against a similar or identical type. In the later Republic and early Empire, various "fantasy" types were introduced, and were set against dissimilar but complementary types. For example, the bareheaded, nimble retiarius ("net-man"), armoured only at

2754-558: The Italian peninsula that Rome subdued in the 4th century BC. Rome fought three wars with Samnium from 343 to 290 BC. Livy (9.40) relates that after Rome defeated Samnium and Molise in 308 BC, Rome's allies, the Campanians , confiscated Samnite arms and armour as spoils of war. They outfitted ceremonial warriors with the equipment and staged mock combats at their celebratory banquets: The war in Samnium, immediately afterwards,

2835-436: The Roman elite from the bankruptcies they would otherwise suffer, and restricting gladiator munera to the festivals of Saturnalia and Quinquatria . Henceforth, an imperial praetor 's official munus was allowed a maximum of 120 gladiators at a ceiling cost of 25,000 denarii; an imperial ludi might cost no less than 180,000 denarii. Throughout the empire, the greatest and most celebrated games would now be identified with

2916-417: The Roman world. The origin of gladiatorial combat is open to debate. There is evidence of it in funeral rites during the Punic Wars of the 3rd century BC, and thereafter it rapidly became an essential feature of politics and social life in the Roman world. Its popularity led to its use in ever more lavish and costly games . The gladiator games lasted for nearly a thousand years, reaching their peak between

2997-484: The arena and in 384 attempted, like most of his predecessors, to limit the expenses of gladiatora munera . In 393, Theodosius I (r. 379–395) adopted Nicene Christianity as the state religion of the Roman Empire and banned pagan festivals. The ludi continued, very gradually shorn of their stubbornly pagan elements. Honorius (r. 395–423) legally ended gladiator games in 399, and again in 404, at least in

3078-556: The arena. Nero gave the gladiator Spiculus property and residence "equal to those of men who had celebrated triumphs." From the 60s AD female gladiators appear as rare and "exotic markers of exceptionally lavish spectacle". In 66 AD, Nero had Ethiopian women, men and children fight at a munus to impress the King Tiridates I of Armenia . Romans seem to have found the idea of a female gladiator novel and entertaining, or downright absurd; Juvenal titillates his readers with

3159-445: The arena. Most were despised as slaves, schooled under harsh conditions, socially marginalized, and segregated even in death. Irrespective of their origin, gladiators offered spectators an example of Rome's martial ethics and, in fighting or dying well, they could inspire admiration and popular acclaim. They were celebrated in high and low art, and their value as entertainers was commemorated in precious and commonplace objects throughout

3240-428: The cast list as Roman territories expanded. Most gladiators were armed and armoured in the manner of the enemies of Rome. The gladiator munus became a morally instructive form of historic enactment in which the only honourable option for the gladiator was to fight well, or else die well. In 216 BC, Marcus Aemilius Lepidus , late consul and augur , was honoured by his sons with three days of munera gladiatoria in

3321-424: The celebration of military victory and the religious expiation of military disaster; these munera appear to serve a morale-raising agenda in an era of military threat and expansion. The next recorded munus , held for the funeral of Publius Licinius in 183 BC, was more extravagant. It involved three days of funeral games, 120 gladiators, and public distribution of meat ( visceratio data ) —a practice that reflected

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3402-569: The cost of three gladiators, rather than four; such contests were prolonged, and in some cases, more bloody. Most were probably of poor quality, but the emperor Caracalla chose to test a notably skilled and successful fighter named Bato against first one supposicitius , whom he beat, and then another, who killed him. At the opposite level of the profession, a gladiator reluctant to confront his opponent might be whipped, or goaded with hot irons, until he engaged through sheer desperation. Combats between experienced, well trained gladiators demonstrated

3483-406: The courage not to seek to avoid the inevitable. So the gladiator, no matter how faint-hearted he has been throughout the fight, offers his throat to his opponent and directs the wavering blade to the vital spot. (Seneca. Epistles , 30.8) Samnite (gladiator type) Samnites were quite popular during the period of the Roman Republic . Eventually, other gladiator types joined the roster, such as

3564-621: The crowd's response. In the earliest munera , death was considered a righteous penalty for defeat; later, those who fought well might be granted remission at the whim of the crowd or the editor . During the Imperial era, matches advertised as sine missione (usually understood to mean "without reprieve" for the defeated) suggest that missio (the sparing of a defeated gladiator's life) had become common practice. The contract between editor and his lanista could include compensation for unexpected deaths; this could be "some fifty times higher than

3645-639: The crowd, and the gladiators themselves, preferred the "dignity" of an even contest. There were also comedy fights; some may have been lethal. A crude Pompeian graffito suggests a burlesque of musicians, dressed as animals named Ursus tibicen (flute-playing bear) and Pullus cornicen (horn-blowing chicken), perhaps as accompaniment to clowning by paegniarii during a "mock" contest of the ludi meridiani . The gladiators may have held informal warm-up matches, using blunted or dummy weapons—some munera , however, may have used blunted weapons throughout. The editor, his representative or an honoured guest would check

3726-452: The crowds, and drew a generous imperial subsidy. The earliest munera took place at or near the tomb of the deceased and these were organised by their munerator (who made the offering). Later games were held by an editor , either identical with the munerator or an official employed by him. As time passed, these titles and meanings may have merged. In the republican era, private citizens could own and train gladiators, or lease them from

3807-463: The death in Rome's "cattle market" forum ( Forum Boarium ) to honor his dead father, Brutus Pera. Livy describes this as a " munus " (plural: munera ), a gift, in this case a commemorative duty owed the manes (spirit, or shade) of a dead ancestor by his descendants. The development of the gladiator munus and its gladiator types was most strongly influenced by Samnium's support for Hannibal and

3888-413: The difficulty of positively identifying Samnites. Roman spectators perceived gladiators as more masculine and honourable if they were more heavily armed and armoured. Thus, the Samnite, one of the heavier types, was an impressive sight with a fierce appearance. The Samnite may have been the first gladiator to be pitted against the retiarius , a gladiator who fought with the gear of a fisherman and who

3969-470: The games as a matter of undiminished public interest. In the early 3rd century AD, the Christian writer Tertullian condemned the attendance of Christians: the combats, he said, were murder, their witnessing spiritually and morally harmful and the gladiator an instrument of pagan human sacrifice. Carolyn Osiek comments: The reason, we would suppose, would be primarily the bloodthirsty violence, but his

4050-580: The gladiatorial fights at Campanian banquets described by Livy and later deplored by Silius Italicus. The enthusiastic adoption of munera gladiatoria by Rome's Iberian allies shows how easily, and how early, the culture of the gladiator munus permeated places far from Rome itself. By 174 BC, "small" Roman munera (private or public), provided by an editor of relatively low importance, may have been so commonplace and unremarkable they were not considered worth recording: Many gladiatorial games were given in that year, some unimportant, one noteworthy beyond

4131-399: The gladiators most often mentioned in Roman writings) until the early Imperial period . A likely possibility is that the Samnite went out of favour during the reign of Augustus when Samnium became an ally of Rome. As the real Samnites became fully integrated into Roman society, the gladiator based upon them was retired. At this time, similar classes, the hoplomachus , murmillo , and

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4212-440: The gladiators were given a banquet and opportunity to order their personal and private affairs; Futrell notes its similarity to a ritualistic or sacramental "last meal". These were probably both family and public events which included even the noxii , sentenced to die in the arena the following day; and the damnati , who would have at least a slender chance of survival. The event may also have been used to drum up more publicity for

4293-408: The greatest reward was manumission (emancipation), symbolised by the gift of a wooden training sword or staff ( rudis ) from the editor . Martial describes a match between Priscus and Verus , who fought so evenly and bravely for so long that when both acknowledged defeat at the same instant, Titus awarded victory and a rudis to each. Flamma was awarded the rudis four times, but chose to remain

4374-405: The imminent game. Official munera of the early Imperial era seem to have followed a standard form ( munus legitimum ). A procession ( pompa ) entered the arena, led by lictors who bore the fasces that signified the magistrate- editor' s power over life and death. They were followed by a small band of trumpeters ( tubicines ) playing a fanfare. Images of the gods were carried in to "witness"

4455-413: The instrument of his [editor's] will." Not all editors chose to go with the crowd, and not all those condemned to death for putting on a poor show chose to submit: Once a band of five retiarii in tunics, matched against the same number of secutores , yielded without a struggle; but when their death was ordered, one of them caught up his trident and slew all the victors. Caligula bewailed this in

4536-477: The later theatrical ethos of the Roman gladiator show: splendidly, exotically armed and armoured barbarians , treacherous and degenerate, are dominated by Roman iron and native courage. His plain Romans virtuously dedicate the magnificent spoils of war to the gods. Their Campanian allies stage a dinner entertainment using gladiators who may not be Samnites, but play the Samnite role. Other groups and tribes would join

4617-432: The lease price" of the gladiator. Under Augustus' rule, the demand for gladiators began to exceed supply, and matches sine missione were officially banned; an economical, pragmatic development that happened to match popular notions of "natural justice". When Caligula and Claudius refused to spare defeated but popular fighters, their own popularity suffered. In general, gladiators who fought well were likely to survive. At

4698-552: The left arm and shoulder, pitted his net, trident and dagger against the more heavily armoured, helmeted Secutor. Most depictions of gladiators show the most common and popular types. Passing literary references to others has allowed their tentative reconstruction. Other novelties introduced around this time included gladiators who fought from chariots or carts , or from horseback. At an unknown date, cestus fighters were introduced to Roman arenas, probably from Greece, armed with potentially lethal boxing gloves. The trade in gladiators

4779-519: The make and those who had reached the top and wished to stay there. A politically ambitious privatus (private citizen) might postpone his deceased father's munus to the election season, when a generous show might drum up votes; those in power and those seeking it needed the support of the plebeians and their tribunes , whose votes might be won with the mere promise of an exceptionally good show. Sulla , during his term as praetor , showed his usual acumen in breaking his own sumptuary laws to give

4860-406: The mines so that they may acknowledge the penalties of their crimes with blood. This has been interpreted as a ban on gladiatorial combat. Yet, in the last year of his life, Constantine wrote a letter to the citizens of Hispellum, granting its people the right to celebrate his rule with gladiatorial games. In 365, Valentinian I (r. 364–375) threatened to fine a judge who sentenced Christians to

4941-521: The mocking milieu of the Roman games . Gladiators who fought as any particular type did not necessarily hail from that ethnic background; the tombstone of a gladiator named Thelyphus is careful to point out that he fought as a Samnite but was really a Thracian. Samnite gladiators appear quite frequently in Roman artwork . Other gladiator classes were added to the roster over the years, and some of these used similar gear, especially plumed helmets, adding to

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5022-452: The most costly to train and to hire. A general melee of several, lower-skilled gladiators was far less costly, but also less popular. Even among the ordinarii , match winners might have to fight a new, well-rested opponent, either a tertiarius ("third choice gladiator") by prearrangement; or a "substitute" gladiator ( suppositicius ) who fought at the whim of the editor as an unadvertised, unexpected "extra". This yielded two combats for

5103-561: The most lavish munus yet seen in Rome, for the funeral of his wife, Metella. In the closing years of the politically and socially unstable Late Republic, any aristocratic owner of gladiators had political muscle at his disposal. In 65 BC, newly elected curule aedile Julius Caesar held games that he justified as munus to his father, who had been dead for 20 years. Despite an already enormous personal debt, he used 320 gladiator pairs in silvered armour. He had more available in Capua but

5184-514: The much admired emperor Titus used female gladiators, they were of acceptably low class. Some regarded female gladiators of any type or class as a symptom of corrupted Roman appetites, morals and womanhood. Before he became emperor, Septimius Severus may have attended the Antiochene Olympic Games, which had been revived by the emperor Commodus and included traditional Greek female athletics. Septimius' attempt to give Rome

5265-633: The proceedings, followed by a scribe to record the outcome, and a man carrying the palm branch used to honour victors. The magistrate editor entered among a retinue who carried the arms and armour to be used; the gladiators presumably came in last. The entertainments often began with venationes (beast hunts) and bestiarii (beast fighters). Next came the ludi meridiani , which were of variable content but usually involved executions of noxii , some of whom were condemned to be subjects of fatal re-enactments, based on Greek or Roman myths. Gladiators may have been involved in these as executioners, though most of

5346-508: The republic and beyond. Anti-corruption laws of 65 and 63 BC attempted but failed to curb the political usefulness of the games to their sponsors. Following Caesar's assassination and the Roman Civil War , Augustus assumed imperial authority over the games, including munera , and formalised their provision as a civic and religious duty. His revision of sumptuary law capped private and public expenditure on munera , claiming to save

5427-461: The rest—that of Titus Flamininus which he gave to commemorate the death of his father, which lasted four days, and was accompanied by a public distribution of meats, a banquet, and scenic performances. The climax of the show which was big for the time was that in three days seventy four gladiators fought. In 105 BC, the ruling consuls offered Rome its first taste of state-sponsored " barbarian combat" demonstrated by gladiators from Capua, as part of

5508-553: The senate, celebrated a triumph, in which by far the finest show was afforded by the captured armor. So the Romans made use of the splendid armor of their enemies to do honor to the gods; while the Campanians, in consequence of their pride and in hatred of the Samnites, equipped after this fashion the gladiators who furnished them entertainment at their feasts, and bestowed on them the name of Samnites. Rome's own gladiatorial contests began some 40 years later. The Samnite, borrowed from

5589-497: The senate, mindful of the recent Spartacus revolt and fearful of Caesar's burgeoning private armies and rising popularity, imposed a limit of 320 pairs as the maximum number of gladiators any citizen could keep in Rome. Caesar's showmanship was unprecedented in scale and expense; he had staged a munus as memorial rather than funeral rite, eroding any practical or meaningful distinction between munus and ludi . Gladiatorial games, usually linked with beast shows, spread throughout

5670-400: The shields of the one were inlaid with gold, of the other with silver ... The Romans had already heard of these splendid accoutrements, but their generals had taught them that a soldier should be rough to look on, not adorned with gold and silver but putting his trust in iron and in courage ... The Dictator, as decreed by the senate, celebrated a triumph, in which by far the finest show

5751-436: The state-sponsored imperial cult , which furthered public recognition, respect and approval for the emperor's divine numen , his laws, and his agents. Between 108 and 109 AD, Trajan celebrated his Dacian victories using a reported 10,000 gladiators and 11,000 animals over 123 days. The cost of gladiators and munera continued to spiral out of control. Legislation of 177 AD by Marcus Aurelius did little to stop it, and

5832-451: The subsequent punitive expeditions against the Samnites by Rome and its Campanian allies; the earliest, most frequently mentioned and probably most popular type was the Samnite . To quote Livy: The war in Samnium, immediately afterwards, was attended with equal danger and an equally glorious conclusion. The enemy, besides their other warlike preparation, had made their battle-line to glitter with new and splendid arms. There were two corps:

5913-438: The weapons ( probatio armorum ) for the scheduled matches. These were the highlight of the day, and were as inventive, varied and novel as the editor could afford. Armatures could be very costly—some were flamboyantly decorated with exotic feathers, jewels and precious metals. Increasingly the munus was the editor' s gift to spectators who had come to expect the best as their due. Lightly armed and armoured fighters, such as

5994-482: Was accepted and repeated in most early modern, standard histories of the games. For some modern scholars, reappraisal of pictorial evidence supports a Campanian origin, or at least a borrowing, for the games and gladiators. Campania hosted the earliest known gladiator schools ( ludi ). Tomb frescoes from the Campanian city of Paestum (4th century BC) show paired fighters, with helmets, spears and shields, in

6075-449: Was afforded by the captured armour. So the Romans made use of the splendid armour of their enemies to do honour to their gods; while the Campanians, in consequence of their pride and in hatred of the Samnites, equipped after this fashion the gladiators who furnished them entertainment at their feasts, and bestowed on them the name Samnites. Livy's account skirts the funereal, sacrificial function of early Roman gladiator combats and reflects

6156-531: Was attended with equal danger and an equally glorious conclusion. The enemy, besides their other warlike preparation, had made their battle-line to glitter with new and splendid arms. There were two corps: the shields of the one were inlaid with gold, of the other with silver ... The Romans had already learned of these splendid accountrements, but their generals had taught them that a soldier should be rough to look on, not adorned with gold and silver but putting his trust in iron and courage ... The dictator, as decreed by

6237-457: Was completely ignored by his son, Commodus . The decline of the gladiatorial munus was a far from straightforward process. The crisis of the 3rd century imposed increasing military demands on the imperial purse, from which the Roman Empire never quite recovered, and lesser magistrates found their provision of various obligatory munera an increasingly unrewarding tax on the doubtful privileges of office. Still, emperors continued to subsidize

6318-817: Was empire-wide, and subjected to official supervision. Rome's military success produced a supply of soldier-prisoners who were redistributed for use in State mines or amphitheatres and for sale on the open market. For example, in the aftermath of the Jewish Revolt , the gladiator schools received an influx of Jews—those rejected for training would have been sent straight to the arenas as noxii (lit. "hurtful ones" ). The best—the most robust—were sent to Rome. In Rome's military ethos, enemy soldiers who had surrendered or allowed their own capture and enslavement had been granted an unmerited gift of life. Their training as gladiators would give them opportunity to redeem their honour in

6399-475: Was said to have killed 100 lions in one day, almost certainly from an elevated platform surrounding the arena perimeter, which allowed him to safely demonstrate his marksmanship. On another occasion, he decapitated a running ostrich with a specially designed dart, carried the bloodied head and his sword over to the Senatorial seats and gesticulated as though they were next. As reward for these services, he drew

6480-406: Was viewed as effeminate due to his light armaments. Accordingly, some retiarii may have trained as Samnites to improve their status. Gladiators who fought with a rectangular shield and sword, such as the provocator , were said to be "armed in the Samnite manner". Such gladiators remained popular until the end of the gladiatorial games. Samnite gladiators appear often in Roman texts (they are

6561-491: Was worn on the left leg and reached to just below the knee. It was made of leather and sometimes had a metal rim. He also wore an ankleband on the right ankle. The Samnite's sword arm was protected by an arm guard ( manica ); this became a common piece of equipment for most gladiators. The sword was the Samnite's most common weapon (the word gladiator comes from the Latin gladius , "sword"), but some seem to have fought with

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