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98-471: From the beginning of the 9th century to the beginning of the 13th century, the Khori-Tumed lived near the western side of Lake Baikal . They lived in what is now southern Irkutsk Oblast , in some parts of Tuva and in southwestern Buryatia . In 1207, Genghis Khan , after conquering the Khori-Tumed , decided to move some of these groups south and these people eventually settled in the southern parts of

196-648: A Tumed Mongol born near Huhhot , the capital of Inner Mongolia , who dominated the politics of the region until his death in 1989, and was the highest-ranking Mongol in the Chinese Communist Party . After the 1920s, as the Tumed began to interact with other Mongols, they began to feel an acute sense of inadequacy regarding their Mongolian language skills. In the 1950s, they set up many nationality ( mínzú ) primary schools and middle schools that recruited only Mongolian students. In these schools, Mongolian

294-474: A circumference divisible as a whole number into ten long feet. The measures of Iron Age Britain are uncertain and proposed reconstructions such as the Megalithic Yard are controversial. Later Welsh legend credited Dyfnwal Moelmud with the establishment of their units , including a foot of 9 inches. The Belgic or North German foot of 335 mm (13.2 in) was introduced to England either by

392-523: A depth of 200–250 m (660–820 ft). After the surface ice breaks up, the surface water is slowly warmed up by the sun, and in May–June, the upper 300 m (980 ft) or so becomes homothermic (same temperature throughout) at around 4 °C (39 °F) because of water mixing. The sun continues to heat up the surface layer, and at the peak in August can reach up to about 16 °C (61 °F) in

490-429: A length of ⁠ 1 / 600 ⁠ of a stadion , one stadion being about 181.2 m (594 ft); therefore a foot was, at the time, about 302 mm (11.9 in). Its exact size varied from city to city and could range between 270 mm (10.6 in) and 350 mm (13.8 in), but lengths used for temple construction appear to have been about 295 mm (11.6 in) to 325 mm (12.8 in);

588-562: A long history of human habitation. Near the village of Mal'ta, some 160 km northwest of the lake, remains of a young human male known as MA-1 or "Mal'ta Boy" are indications of local habitation by the Mal'ta–Buret' culture ca. 24,000 BP . An early known tribe in the area was the Kurykans . Located in the former northern territory of the Xiongnu confederation, Lake Baikal is one site of

686-637: A measurement of the previous Indian standard of the yard. However, it is now obsolete as the current National Topographic Database of the Survey of India is based on the metric WGS-84 datum , which is also used by the Global Positioning System . An ISO 2848 measure of 3 basic modules (30 cm) is called a " metric foot ", but there were earlier distinct definitions of a metric foot during metrication in France and Germany. In 1799

784-657: A number of years. The lake became the site of the minor engagement between the Czechoslovak legion and the Red Army in 1918. At times during winter freezes, the lake could be crossed on foot, though at risk of frostbite and deadly hypothermia from the cold wind moving unobstructed across flat expanses of ice. In the winter of 1920, the Great Siberian Ice March occurred, when the retreating White Russian Army crossed frozen Lake Baikal. The wind on

882-563: A rich endemic fauna of invertebrates. The copepod Epischura baikalensis is endemic to Lake Baikal and the dominating zooplankton species there, making up 80 to 90% of the total biomass . It is estimated that they filter as much as a thousand cubic kilometers of water a year, or the lake's entire volume every twenty-three years. Among the most diverse invertebrate groups are the amphipod and ostracod crustaceans, freshwater snails , annelid worms and turbellarian worms: More than 350 species and subspecies of amphipods are endemic to

980-519: A small parcel, but becomes significant for mapping, or when the state plane coordinate system (SPCS) is used in the US, because the origin of the system may be hundreds of thousands of feet (hundreds of miles) from the point of interest. Hence the previous definitions continued to be used for surveying in the United States and India for many years, and are denoted survey feet to distinguish them from

1078-670: A summer maximum of 14 °C (57 °F). The region to the east of Lake Baikal is referred to as Transbaikalia or as the Transbaikal, and the loosely defined region around the lake itself is sometimes known as Baikalia . UNESCO declared Baikal a World Heritage Site in 1996. Lake Baikal is in a rift valley, created by the Baikal Rift Zone , where the Earth's crust is slowly pulling apart. At 636 km (395 mi) long and 79 km (49 mi) wide, Lake Baikal has

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1176-449: Is feet . However, the singular form may be used like a plural when it is preceded by a number, as in "he is six foot tall." Historically, the human body has been used to provide the basis for units of length. The foot of an adult European-American male is typically about 15.3% of his height, giving a person of 175 cm (5 ft 9 in) a foot-length of about 268 mm (10.6 in), on average. Archaeologists believe that, in

1274-646: Is Lake Baikal. A smaller number of other freshwater annelids is known: 30 species of leeches (Hirudinea), and 4 polychaetes . Several hundred species of nematodes are known from the lake, but a large percentage of these are undescribed . More than 140 endemic flatworm (Plathelminthes) species are in Lake Baikal, where they occur on a wide range of bottom types. Most of the flatworms are predatory, and some are relatively brightly marked. They are often abundant in shallow waters, where they are typically less than 2 cm (1 in) long, but in deeper parts of

1372-484: Is a center for ostracod diversity. About 90% of the Lake Baikal ostracods are endemic, meaning that there are c. 200 endemic species. This makes it the second-most diverse group of crustacean in the lake, after the amphipods. The vast majority of the Baikal ostracods belong to the families Candonidae (more than 100 described species) and Cytherideidae (about 50 described species), but genetic studies indicate that

1470-412: Is also the world's oldest lake at 25–30 million years, and among the clearest. Lake Baikal is home to thousands of species of plants and animals, many of them endemic to the region. It is also home to Buryat tribes, who raise goats, camels , cattle, sheep , and horses on the eastern side of the lake, where the mean temperature varies from a winter minimum of −19 °C (−2 °F) to

1568-416: Is an independent research organization carrying out environmental, educational and research projects at Lake Baikal. In July 2008, Russia sent two small submersibles , Mir-1 and Mir-2 , to descend 1,592 m (5,223 ft) to the bottom of Lake Baikal to conduct geological and biological tests on its unique ecosystem. Although originally reported as being successful, they did not set a world record for

1666-400: Is around 200 km. Some tourists may spot a Baikal seal along the route. Local entrepreneurs offer overnight in yurt on ice. The ice season ends in mid-April. Owing to increasing temperatures ice starts to melt and becomes shallow and fragile, especially in places with strong under-ice flows. A range of factors contribute to an increased risk of falling through the ice towards the end of

1764-415: Is based upon calculations from surveys of Phase 1 elements at Stonehenge . They found that the underlying diameters of the stone circles had been consistently laid out using multiples of a base unit amounting to 30 long feet , which they calculated to be 1.056 of a modern international foot (thus 12.672 inches or 0.3219 m). Furthermore, this unit is identifiable in the dimensions of some stone lintels at

1862-416: Is caught, smoked , and then sold widely in markets around the lake. Also, a second endemic whitefish inhabits the lake, C. baicalensis . The Baikal black grayling ( Thymallus baicalensis ), Baikal white grayling ( T. brevipinnis ), and Baikal sturgeon ( Acipenser baerii baicalensis ) are other important species with commercial value. They are also endemic to the Lake Baikal basin. The lake hosts

1960-560: Is commonly used to represent the foot. In both customary and imperial units, one foot comprises 12  inches , and one yard comprises three feet. Since an international agreement in 1959 , the foot is defined as equal to exactly 0.3048 meters. Historically, the "foot" was a part of many local systems of units, including the Greek , Roman , Chinese , French , and English systems. It varied in length from country to country, from city to city, and sometimes from trade to trade. Its length

2058-500: Is lower with more than 30 species; about half of these, all in the families Euglesidae , Pisidiidae , and Sphaeriidae , are endemic (the only other family in the lake is the Unionidae with a single nonendemic species). The endemic bivalves are mainly found in shallows, with few species from deep water. With almost 200 described species, including more than 160 endemics, the center of diversity for aquatic freshwater oligochaetes

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2156-467: Is of no practical significance given the precision of normal surveying measurements over short distances (usually much less than a mile). Out of 50 states and six other jurisdictions, 40 have legislated that surveying measures should be based on the US survey foot, six have legislated that they be made on the basis of the international foot, and ten have not specified. The Indian survey foot is defined as exactly 0.304 7996  m , presumably derived from

2254-678: Is one of the investors, who planned to build three hotels, creating 570 jobs. In 2007, the Russian government declared the Baikal region a special economic zone . A popular resort in Listvyanka is home to the seven-story Hotel Mayak. At the northern part of the lake, Baikalplan (a German NGO) built together with Russians in 2009 the Frolikha Adventure Coastline Track , a 100 km (62 mi)-long long-distance trail as an example for sustainable development of

2352-425: Is prepared by specialists every year and it opens when the ice conditions allow it. In 2015, the ice road to Olkhon was open from 17 February to 23 March. The thickness of the ice on the road is about 60 cm (24 in), maximum capacity allowed – 10 t (9.8 long tons; 11 short tons); it is open to the public from 9 am to 6 pm. The road through the lake is 12 km (7.5 mi) long and it goes from

2450-456: Is rich in oxygen, even in deep sections, which separates it from distinctly stratified bodies of water such as Lake Tanganyika and the Black Sea . In Lake Baikal, the water temperature varies significantly depending on location, depth, and time of the year. During the winter and spring, the surface freezes for about 4–5 months; from early January to early May–June (latest in the north),

2548-673: Is surrounded by mountains; the Baikal Mountains on the north shore, the Barguzin Range on the northeastern shore and the Primorsky Range stretching along the western shore. The mountains and the taiga are protected as a national park. It contains 27 islands; the largest, Olkhon , is 72 km (45 mi) long and is the third-largest lake-bound island in the world. The lake is fed by as many as 330 inflowing rivers. The main ones draining directly into Baikal are

2646-497: Is unique among large, high-latitude lakes, as its sediments have not been scoured by overriding continental ice sheets. Russian, U.S., and Japanese cooperative studies of deep-drilling core sediments in the 1990s provide a detailed record of climatic variation over the past 6.7 million years. Longer and deeper sediment cores are expected in the near future. Lake Baikal is the only confined freshwater lake in which direct and indirect evidence of gas hydrates exists. The lake

2744-644: Is widespread among the British public as a measurement of height. The foot is recognized as an alternative expression of length in Canada. Both the UK and Canada have partially metricated their units of measurement. The measurement of altitude in international aviation (the flight level unit) is one of the few areas where the foot is used outside the English-speaking world. The most common plural of foot

2842-485: The toise and in particular the toise de l'Écritoire , the distance between the fingertips of the outstretched arms of a man. The toise has 6 pieds (feet) each of 326.6 mm (12.9 in). He was unsuccessful in introducing a standard unit of length throughout his realm: an analysis of the measurements of Charlieu Abbey shows that during the 9th century the Roman foot of 296.1 mm (11.66 in)

2940-624: The Baikal Deep Underwater Neutrino Telescope (BDUNT). The Baikal Neutrino Telescope NT-200 is being deployed in Lake Baikal, 3.6 km (2.2 mi) from shore at a depth of 1.1 km (0.68 mi). It consists of 192 optical modules. The lake, nicknamed "the Pearl of Siberia", drew investors from the tourist industry as energy revenues sparked an economic boom. Viktor Grigorov's Grand Baikal in Irkutsk

3038-815: The Belgic Celts during their invasions prior to the Romans or by the Anglo-Saxons in the 5th and 6th century. Roman units were introduced following their invasion in AD ;43. Following the Roman withdrawal and Saxon invasions , the Roman foot continued to be used in the construction crafts while the Belgic foot was used for land measurement. Both the Welsh and Belgic feet seem to have been based on multiples of

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3136-527: The British Standards Institution 's adoption of a scientific standard inch of 25.4 millimeters in 1930. The IEEE standard symbol for a foot is "ft". In some cases, the foot is denoted by a prime , often approximated by an apostrophe , and the inch by a double prime; for example, 2   feet 4 inches is sometimes denoted 2′   4″. In Imperial units , the foot was defined as ⁠ 1 / 3 ⁠  yard, with

3234-682: The Confederation of the Rhine was founded and three different reformed feet were defined, all of which were based on the metric system: Prior to the introduction of the metric system, many European cities and countries used the foot, but it varied considerably in length: the voet in Ypres , Belgium, was 273.8 millimeters (10.78   in) while the piede in Venice was 347.73 millimeters (13.690   in). Lists of conversion factors between

3332-582: The Early Middle Ages , populations of the European bison ( Bison bonasus ) were found near the lake; this represented the easternmost range of the species. There are 236 species of birds that inhabit Lake Baikal, 29 of which are waterfowl . Although named after the lake, both the Baikal teal and Baikal bush warbler are widespread in eastern Asia. Fewer than 65 native fish species occur in

3430-639: The Han–Xiongnu War , where the armies of the Han dynasty pursued and defeated the Xiongnu forces from the second century BC to the first century AD. They recorded that the lake was a "huge sea" ( hanhai ) and designated it the North Sea ( Běihǎi ) of the semimythical Four Seas . The Kurykans, a Siberian tribe who inhabited the area in the sixth century, gave it a name that translates to "much water". Later on, it

3528-703: The National Institute of Standards and Technology , the National Geodetic Survey , and the United States Department of Commerce deprecated use of the US survey foot and recommended conversion to either the meter or the international foot (0.3048 m). However, the historic relevance of the US survey foot persists, as the Federal Register notes: The date of December 31, 2022, was selected to accompany

3626-813: The Selenga , the Barguzin , the Upper Angara , the Turka , the Sarma , and the Snezhnaya . It is drained through a single outlet, the Angara . Regular winds exist in Baikal's rift valley. Baikal is one of the clearest lakes in the world. During the winter, the water transparency in open sections can be as much as 30–40 m (100–130 ft), but during the summer it is typically 5–8 m (15–25 ft). Baikal

3724-517: The barleycorn , but by as early as 950 the English kings seem to have (ineffectually) ordered measures to be based upon an iron yardstick at Winchester and then London . Henry I was said to have ordered a new standard to be based upon the length of his own arm and, by the c.  1300 Act concerning the Composition of Yards and Perches traditionally credited to Edward I or II ,

3822-587: The Amur country by following the Selenga, Uda, and Khilok Rivers to the future sites of Chita and Nerchinsk . The Trans-Siberian Railway was built between 1896 and 1902. Construction of the scenic railway around the southwestern end of Lake Baikal required 200 bridges and 33 tunnels. Until its completion, a train ferry , the SS Baikal , transported railcars across the lake from Port Baikal to Mysovaya for

3920-590: The Amur country. In 1641, Verkholensk was founded on the upper Lena. In 1643, Kurbat Ivanov went further up the Lena and became the first Russian to see Lake Baikal and Olkhon Island . Half his party under Skorokhodov remained on the lake, reached the Upper Angara at its northern tip, and wintered on the Barguzin River on the northeast side. In 1644, Ivan Pokhabov went up the Angara to Baikal, becoming perhaps

4018-403: The Angara and arrived at Yeniseysk. Vikhor Savin (1624) and Maksim Perfilyev (1626 and 1627–28) explored Tungus country on the lower Angara. To the west, Krasnoyarsk on the upper Yenisei was founded in 1627. A number of ill-documented expeditions explored eastward from Krasnoyarsk. In 1628, Pyotr Beketov first encountered a group of Buryats and collected yasak ( tribute ) from them at

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4116-454: The City of London and Westminster , which codified the statute mile as comprising 5,280 feet. The differences among the various physical standard yards around the world, revealed by increasingly powerful microscopes , eventually led to the 1959 adoption of the international foot defined in terms of the meter. The international yard and pound agreement of July 1959 defined the length of

4214-717: The Great Gobi Desert . But it seems that the Tumed people had no strong connection with those forest people in Siberia. The Tumeds first appeared as the tribe of the Mongolian warlord Dogolon, who was taishi in the mid-15th century. In Mongolian chronicles, they were called seven Tumeds or twelve Tumeds. Because the Kharchin and other Mongol clans joined their league, they were probably called 12 Tumeds later on. Under Dayan Khan (1464-1517/1543) and his successors,

4312-542: The Greeks and the Romans subdivided the foot into 16 digits , but in later years, the Romans also subdivided the foot into 12 unciae (from which both the English words "inch" and " ounce " are derived). After the fall of the Roman Empire, some Roman traditions were continued but others fell into disuse. In AD 790 Charlemagne attempted to reform the units of measure in his domains. His units of length were based on

4410-827: The Mongol tribes converted to Buddhism . They submitted to the Qing dynasty and allied against the Chahar Mongols in the early 17th century. They were included in Josotu league of the Qing . The Tumed were Sinicized linguistically in the late 19th century, and by the early 20th century. Many of their leaders rose to the very top government, party, and military positions in the newly founded IMAR , and some attained leading national posts in Beijing and elsewhere. Ulanhu (1906–1988),

4508-468: The NSRS where it is used now and in the past [emphasis added]. In other words, to minimize disruption in the use of U.S. survey foot for existing NSRS coordinate systems, the change will apply only to the modernized NSRS. State legislation is also important for determining the conversion factor to be used for everyday land surveying and real estate transactions, although the difference (two parts per million )

4606-622: The Tumeds formed the right wing of the eastern Mongols. The Tumeds reached their peak under the rule of Altan Khan (1507–1582) in the mid-16th century. They raided the Ming dynasty and attacked the Four Oirats . The Tumeds under Altan Khan recaptured Karakorum from the hands of the Oirats but the outcome of the war was not decisive in the 16th century. They are also famous for being the first of

4704-404: The U.S. Impacts related to the change to international feet will be minimized if a transition occurs concurrently with others [ sic ] changes in the NSRS. ... The difference in timelines will have no effect on users of the existing NSRS (National Spatial Reference System), because NGS ( NOAA 's National Geodetic Survey) will continue to support the U.S. survey foot for components of

4802-535: The animals are endemic . The watershed of Lake Baikal has numerous floral species represented. The marsh thistle ( Cirsium palustre ) is found here at the eastern limit of its geographic range. Submerged macrophytic vascular plants are mostly absent, except in some shallow bays along the shores of Lake Baikal. More than 85 species of submerged macrophytes have been recorded, including genera such as Ceratophyllum , Myriophyllum , Potamogeton , and Sparganium . The invasive species Elodea canadensis

4900-669: The basins. The North and Central basins are separated by Academician Ridge , while the area around the Selenga Delta and the Buguldeika Saddle separates the Central and South basins. The lake drains into the Angara , a tributary of the Yenisey . Landforms include Cape Ryty on Baikal's northwest coast. Baikal's age is estimated at 25–30 million years, making it the most ancient lake in geological history. It

4998-500: The deepest freshwater dive, reaching a depth of only 1,580 m (5,180 ft). That record is currently held by Anatoly Sagalevich , at 1,637 m (5,371 ft) (also in Lake Baikal aboard a Pisces submersible in 1990). Russian scientist and federal politician Artur Chilingarov , the leader of the mission, took part in the Mir dives as did Russian president Vladimir Putin . Since 1993, neutrino research has been conducted at

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5096-405: The deepest living freshwater fish in the world, occurring near the bottom of Lake Baikal. The golomyankas are the primary prey of the Baikal seal and represent the largest fish biomass in the lake. Beyond members of Cottoidea, there are few endemic fish species in the lake basin. The most important local species for fisheries is the omul ( Coregonus migratorius ), an endemic whitefish . It

5194-562: The deepest parts of the lake, from about 300 m (980 ft), the temperature is stable at 3.1–3.4 °C (37.6–38.1 °F) with only minor annual variations. The average surface temperature has risen by almost 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) in the last 50 years, resulting in a shorter period where the lake is covered by ice. At some locations, hydrothermal vents with water that is about 50 °C (122 °F) have been found. These are mostly in deep water but locally have also been found in relatively shallow water. They have little effect on

5292-465: The door of a church on a Sunday and bid 16 men to stop, tall ones and small ones, as they happen to pass out when the service is finished; then make them put their left feet one behind the other, and the length thus obtained shall be a right and lawful rood to measure and survey the land with, and the 16th part of it shall be the right and lawful foot. The Neolithic long foot , first proposed by archeologists Mike Parker Pearson and Andrew Chamberlain,

5390-559: The exposed lake was so cold, many people died, freezing in place until spring thaw. Beginning in 1956, the impounding of the Irkutsk Dam on the Angara River raised the level of the lake by 1.4 m (4.6 ft). As the railway was built, a large hydrogeographical expedition headed by F.K. Drizhenko produced the first detailed contour map of the lake bed. Several organizations are carrying out natural research projects on Lake Baikal. Most of them are governmental or associated with governmental organizations. The Baikalian Research Centre

5488-470: The family Asellidae . There are four species of the genus Baicalasellus , and the two species Mesoasellus dybowskii and Limnoasellus poberezhnii. These six endemic species are found on rocky substrata in depths varying from 3–10 meters (Baicalasellus angarensis) to more than hundred meters (Mesoasellus dybowskii). There are about 60 known species of cladocerans (water fleas), several of them endemic. Similar to another ancient lake, Tanganyika , Baikal

5586-404: The figures of ice that are formed at rocky banks of Olkhon Island , including Cape Hoboy, the Three Brothers rock, and caves to the north of Khuzhir . It also provides access to small islands like Ogoy Island and Zamogoy. The ice itself has a transparency of one meter depth. That is why this season is popular for hiking, ice-walking, ice-skating, and bicycle riding. An ice route around Olkhon

5684-415: The first Russian to use this route, which is difficult because of the rapids. He crossed the lake and explored the lower Selenge River . About 1647, he repeated the trip, obtained guides, and visited a 'Tsetsen Khan' near Ulan Bator . In 1648, Ivan Galkin built an ostrog on the Barguzin River which became a center for eastward expansion. In 1652, Vasily Kolesnikov reported from Barguzin that one could reach

5782-425: The former was close to the size of the Roman foot. The standard Roman foot ( pes ) was normally about 295.7 mm (11.6 in) (97% of today's measurement), but in some provinces, particularly Germania Inferior , the so-called pes Drusianus (foot of Nero Claudius Drusus ) was sometimes used, with a length of about 334 mm (13.1 in). (In reality, this foot predated Drusus.) Originally both

5880-414: The future site of Bratsk . In 1629, Yakov Khripunov set off from Tomsk to find a rumored silver mine. His men soon began plundering both Russians and natives. They were joined by another band of rioters from Krasnoyarsk, but left the Buryat country when they ran short of food. This made it difficult for other Russians to enter the area. In 1631, Maksim Perfilyev built an ostrog at Bratsk. The pacification

5978-400: The high level of dissolved oxygen in the lake. Among the "giants" are several species of spiny Acanthogammarus and Brachyuropus ( Acanthogammaridae ) found at both shallow and deep depths. These conspicuous and common amphipods are essentially carnivores (will also take detritus ), and can reach a body length up to 7 cm (2.8 in). The number of isopods is low; they belong to

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6076-457: The international foot. The United Kingdom was unaffected by this problem, as the retriangulation of Great Britain (1936–62) had been done in meters. In the United States, the foot was defined as 12 inches, with the inch being defined by the Mendenhall Order of 1893 via 39.37 inches = 1 m (making a US foot exactly ⁠ 1200 / 3937 ⁠   meters, approximately 0.304 800 61  m ). On December 31, 2022,

6174-405: The international yard for all purposes through the Weights and Measures Act 1963 , effective January 1, 1964. When the international foot was defined in 1959, a great deal of survey data was already available based on the former definitions, especially in the United States and in India . The small difference between the survey foot and the international foot would not be detectable on a survey of

6272-455: The international yard in the United States and countries of the Commonwealth of Nations as exactly 0.9144 meters . Consequently, since a foot is one third of a yard, the international foot is defined to be equal to exactly 0.3048 meters. This was 2  ppm shorter than the previous US definition and 1.7 ppm longer than the previous British definition. The 1959 agreement concluded a series of step-by-step events, set off in particular by

6370-434: The lake are Listvyanka village, Olkhon Island, Kotelnikovsky cape, Baykalskiy Priboi, resort Khakusy and Turka village. The popularity of Lake Baikal is growing from year to year, but there is no developed infrastructure in the area. For the quality of service and comfort from the visitor's point of view, Lake Baikal still has a long way to go. The ice road to Olkhon Island is the only legal ice road on Lake Baikal. The route

6468-654: The lake basin, but more than half of these are endemic. The families Abyssocottidae (deep-water sculpins), Comephoridae (golomyankas or Baikal oilfish), and Cottocomephoridae (Baikal sculpins) are entirely restricted to the lake basin. All these are part of the Cottoidea and are typically less than 20 cm (8 in) long. Of particular note are the two species of golomyanka ( Comephorus baicalensis and C. dybowskii ). These long-finned, translucent fish typically live in open water at depths of 100–500 m (330–1,640 ft), but occur both shallower and much deeper. Together with certain abyssocottid sculpins, they are

6566-401: The lake surface is covered in ice. On average, the ice reaches a thickness of 0.5 to 1.4 m (1.6–4.6 ft), but in some places with hummocks , it can be more than 2 m (6.6 ft). During this period, the temperature slowly increases with depth in the lake, being coldest near the ice-covered surface at around freezing, and reaching about 3.5–3.8 °C (38.3–38.8 °F) at

6664-433: The lake's temperature because of its huge volume. Stormy weather on the lake is common, especially during the summer and autumn, and can result in waves as high as 4.5 m (15 ft). Lake Baikal is rich in biodiversity . It hosts more than 1,000 species of plants and 2,500 species of animals based on current knowledge, but the actual figures for both groups are believed to be significantly higher. More than 80% of

6762-908: The lake, and about half of these are endemic to Baikal; however, significant taxonomic uncertainties remain for this group. The Baikal seal or nerpa ( Pusa sibirica ) is endemic to Lake Baikal. A wide range of land mammals can be found in the habitats around the lake, such as the brown bear ( Ursus arctos ), Eurasian wolf ( Canis lupus lupus ), red fox ( Vulpes vulpes ), sable ( Martes zibellina ), stoat ( Mustela erminea ), Eurasian otter ( Lutra lutra ), snow leopard ( Panthera uncia ), moose ( Alces alces ), elk ( Cervus canadensis ), reindeer ( Rangifer tarandus ), Siberian roe deer ( Capreolus pygargus ), Siberian musk deer ( (Moschus moschiferus ), wild boar ( Sus scrofa ), red squirrel ( Sciurus vulgaris ), Siberian chipmunk ( Eutamias sibiricus ), marmots ( Marmota sp.), lemmings ( Lemmus sp.), and mountain hare ( Lepus timidus ). Until

6860-615: The lake, the largest, Baikaloplana valida , can reach up to 30 cm (1 ft) when outstretched. At least 18 species of sponges occur in the lake, including about 15 species from the endemic family Lubomirskiidae (the remaining are from the nonendemic family Spongillidae ), which colonized the lake about 3.4 million years ago. The lake's sponges makes up around 44% of the benthic animal biomass. Lubomirskia baicalensis , Baikalospongia bacillifera , and B. intermedia are unusually large for freshwater sponges and can reach 1 m (3.3 ft) or more. These three are also

6958-416: The lake. They are exceptionally diverse in ecology and appearance, ranging from the pelagic Macrohectopus to the relatively large deep-water Abyssogammarus and Garjajewia , the tiny herbivorous Micruropus , and the parasitic Pachyschesis (parasitic on other amphipods ). The "gigantism" of some Baikal amphipods, which has been compared to that seen in Antarctic amphipods, has been linked to

7056-472: The largest surface area of any freshwater lake in Asia, at 31,722 km (12,248 sq mi), and is the deepest lake in the world at 1,642 metres (5,387 feet; 898 fathoms). The surface of the lake is 455.5 m (1,494 ft) above sea level, while the bottom of the lake is 1,186.5 m (3,893 ft; 648.8 fathoms) below sea level, and below this lies some 7 km (4.3 mi) of sediment , placing

7154-494: The main sections and 20–24 °C (68–75 °F) in shallow bays in the southern half of the lake. During this time, the pattern is inverted compared to the winter and spring, as the water temperature falls with increasing depth. As the autumn begins, the surface temperature falls again and a second homothermic period at around 4 °C (39 °F) of the upper circa 300 m (980 ft) occurs in October–November. In

7252-407: The majority mainly live at shallower depths. About 30 freshwater snail species can be seen deeper than 100 m (330 ft), which represents the approximate limit of the sunlight zone , but only 10 are truly deepwater species. In general, Baikal snails are thin-shelled and small. Two of the most common species are Benedictia baicalensis and Megalovalvata baicalensis . Bivalve diversity

7350-466: The meter became the official unit of length in France . This was not fully enforced, and in 1812 Napoleon introduced the system of mesures usuelles which restored the traditional French measurements in the retail trade, but redefined them in terms of metric units. The foot, or pied métrique , was defined as one third of a meter. This unit continued in use until 1837. In southwestern Germany in 1806,

7448-497: The modernization of the National Spatial Reference System (NSRS) by NOAA 's National Geodetic Survey (NGS). The reason for associating the deprecation of the U.S. survey foot with the modernization of the NSRS is that the biggest impact of the uniform adoption of the international foot will be for users of the NSRS, due to very large coordinate values currently given in U.S. survey feet in many areas of

7546-500: The most common sponges in the lake. While the Baikalospongia species typically have encrusting or carpet-like structures, L. baikalensis often has branching structures and in areas where common may form underwater "forests". Most sponges in the lake are typically green when alive because of symbiotic chlorophytes ( zoochlorella ), but can also be brownish or yellowish. The Baikal area, sometimes known as Baikalia , has

7644-631: The past, the people of Egypt , India , and Mesopotamia preferred the cubit , while the people of Rome , Greece , and China preferred the foot. Under the Harappan linear measures, Indus cities during the Bronze Age used a foot of 13.2 inches (335 mm) and a cubit of 20.8 inches (528 mm). The Egyptian equivalent of the foot—a measure of four palms or 16 digits—was known as the djeser and has been reconstructed as about 30 cm (11.8 in). The Greek foot ( πούς , pous ) had

7742-640: The region. Baikal was also declared a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1996. Rosatom plans to build a laboratory near Baikal, in conjunction with an international uranium plant and to invest $ 2.5 billion in the region and create 2,000 jobs in the city of Angarsk . Lake Baikal is a popular destination among tourists from all over the world. According to the Russian Federal State Statistics Service, in 2013, 79,179 foreign tourists visited Irkutsk and Lake Baikal; in 2014, 146,937 visitors. The most popular places to stay by

7840-624: The rift floor some 8–11 km (5.0–6.8 mi) below the surface, the deepest continental rift on Earth. In geological terms, the rift is young and active – it widens about 4 mm (0.16 in) per year. The fault zone is also seismically active; hot springs occur in the area and notable earthquakes happen every few years. The lake is divided into three basins: North, Central, and South, with depths about 900 m (3,000 ft), 1,600 m (5,200 ft), and 1,400 m (4,600 ft), respectively. Fault-controlled accommodation zones rising to depths about 300 m (980 ft) separate

7938-581: The season, resulting in multiple deaths in Russia each year, although exact data for Baikal are unknown. Viktor Viktorovych Yanukovych , son of former Ukrainian President Viktor Yanukovych , reportedly died after his car fell through the ice while driving on Baikal in 2015. Foot (unit) The foot (standard symbol: ft ) is a unit of length in the British imperial and United States customary systems of measurement . The prime symbol , ′ ,

8036-617: The second largest lake in Eurasia after the Caspian Sea . However, because it is also the deepest lake , with a maximum depth of 1,642 metres (5,387 feet ; 898 fathoms ), Lake Baikal is the world's largest freshwater lake by volume, containing 23,615.39 km (5,670 cu mi) of water or 22–23% of the world's fresh surface water , more than all of the North American Great Lakes combined. It

8134-522: The site and in the diameter of the "southern circle" at nearby Durrington Walls . Evidence that this unit was in widespread use across southern Britain is available from the Folkton Drums from Yorkshire ( neolithic artifacts, made from chalk, with circumferences that exactly divide as integers into ten long feet) and a similar object, the Lavant drum , excavated at Lavant , Sussex, again with

8232-413: The statute foot was a different measure, exactly ⁠ 10 / 11 ⁠ of the old (Belgic) foot. The barleycorn , inch , ell , and yard were likewise shrunk, while rods and furlongs remained the same. The ambiguity over the state of the mile was resolved by the 1593 Act against Converting of Great Houses into Several Tenements and for Restraint of Inmates and Inclosures in and near about

8330-612: The true diversity in at least the latter family has been heavily underestimated. The morphology of the Baikal ostracods is highly diverse. As of 2006 , almost 150 freshwater snails are known from Lake Baikal, including 117 endemic species from the subfamilies Baicaliinae (part of the Amnicolidae ) and Benedictiinae (part of the Lithoglyphidae ), and the families Planorbidae and Valvatidae . All endemics have been recorded between 20 and 30 m (66 and 98 ft), but

8428-408: The various feet in this list ceased to be used when the countries adopted the metric system. The Netherlands and modern Belgium adopted the metric system in 1817, having used the mesures usuelles under Napoleon and the newly formed German Empire adopted the metric system in 1871. The palm (typically 200–280 mm, ie. 7 ⁠ 7 / 8 ⁠ to 11 ⁠ 1 / 32 ⁠ inches)

8526-603: The various units of measure were given in many European reference works including: Many of these standards were peculiar to a particular city, especially in Germany (which, before German unification in 1871, consisted of many kingdoms, principalities, free cities and so on). In many cases the length of the unit was not uniquely fixed: for example, the English foot was stated as 11 pouces 2.6 lignes ( French inches and lines ) by Picard , 11 pouces 3.11 lignes by Maskelyne , and 11 pouces 3 lignes by D'Alembert . Most of

8624-504: The village Kurkut on the mainland to Irkutskaya Guba on Olkhon Island. Baikal has a number of different tourist activities, depending on the season. Generally, Baikal has two top tourist seasons. The first season is ice season, which starts usually in mid-January and lasts till mid-April. During this season ice depth increases up to 140 centimeters, that allows safe vehicle driving on the ice cover (except heavy vehicles, such as tourist buses, that do not take this risk). This allows access to

8722-578: The yard being realized as a physical standard (separate from the standard meter). The yard standards of the different Commonwealth countries were periodically compared with one another. The value of the United Kingdom primary standard of the yard was determined in terms of the meter by the National Physical Laboratory in 1964 to be 0.914 3969  m , implying a pre-1959 UK foot of 0.304 7990  m . The UK adopted

8820-723: Was called "natural lake" ( Baygal nuur ) by the Buryats and "rich lake" ( Bay göl ) by the Yakuts. Little was known to Europeans about the lake until Russia expanded into the area in the 1600s. The first Russian explorer to reach Lake Baikal was Kurbat Ivanov in 1643. Lake Baikal was under the Anbei Protectorate of the Tang dynasty from 647 CE to 682 CE. Russian expansion into the Buryat area around Lake Baikal in 1628–1658

8918-529: Was introduced to the lake in the 1950s. Instead of vascular plants, aquatic flora is often dominated by several green algae species, notably Draparnaldioides , Tetraspora , and Ulothrix in water shallower than 20 m (65 ft); although Aegagrophila , Cladophora , and Draparnaldioides may occur deeper than 30 m (100 ft). Except for Ulothrix , there are endemic Baikal species in all these green algae genera. More than 400 diatom species, both benthic and planktonic , are found in

9016-608: Was moderately successful, but in 1634, Bratsk was destroyed and its garrison killed. In 1635, Bratsk was restored by a punitive expedition under Radukovskii. In 1638, it was besieged unsuccessfully. In 1638, Perfilyev crossed from the Angara over the Ilim portage to the Lena River and went downstream as far as Olyokminsk . Returning, he sailed up the Vitim River into the area east of Lake Baikal (1640) where he heard reports of

9114-578: Was part of the Russian conquest of Siberia . It was done first by following the Angara River upstream from Yeniseysk (founded 1619) and later by moving south from the Lena River. Russians first heard of the Buryats in 1609 at Tomsk. According to folktales related a century after the fact, in 1623, Demid Pyanda , who may have been the first Russian to reach the Lena, crossed from the upper Lena to

9212-748: Was taught as a subject, one considered of equal importance to Chinese, though all other subjects were taught in Chinese. During the Cultural Revolution years, 1966–1976, Mongolian instruction was largely abolished. A new attempt to provide a Mongol education began in September 1979. The Tumed banner built a "Mongolian Nationality Primary School" in October 1982 in the banner center. The school had eight classes divided into three grades, with 201 boarding pupils, all taught in Mongolian, while Chinese

9310-498: Was taught only starting from grade 5. Lake Baikal Lake Baikal is the deepest rift lake in the world. It is situated in southern Siberia , Russia between the federal subjects of Irkutsk Oblast to the northwest and the Republic of Buryatia to the southeast. At 31,722 km (12,248 sq mi)—slightly larger than Belgium —Lake Baikal is the world's seventh-largest lake by surface area, as well as

9408-1398: Was used in many Mediterranean cities instead of the foot. Horace Doursther, whose reference was published in Belgium which had the smallest foot measurements, grouped both units together, while J. F. G. Palaiseau devoted three chapters to units of length: one for linear measures (palms and feet); one for cloth measures (ells); and one for distances traveled (miles and leagues). In Belgium, the words pied (French) and voet (Dutch) would have been used interchangeably. International Standards Organisation (ISO)-defined intermodal containers for efficient global freight/cargo shipping, were defined using feet rather than meters for their leading outside (corner) dimensions. All ISO-standard containers to this day are eight feet wide, and their outer heights and lengths are also primarily defined in, or derived from feet. Quantities of global shipping containers are still primarily counted in Twenty-foot Equivalent Units , or TEUs. Everyday global (civilian) air traffic / aviation continues to be controlled in flight levels (flying altitudes) separated by thousands of feet (although typically read out in hundreds – e.g. flight level 330 actually means 33,000 feet, or about 10 kilometres in altitude). The length of

9506-467: Was used; when it was rebuilt in the 10th century, a foot of about 320 mm (12.6 in) was used. At the same time, monastic buildings used the Carolingian foot of 340 mm (13.4 in). The procedure for verification of the foot as described in the 16th century posthumously published work by Jacob Köbel in his book Geometrei. Von künstlichem Feldmessen und absehen is: Stand at

9604-576: Was usually between 250 mm and 335 mm and was generally, but not always, subdivided into 12 inches or 16  digits . The United States is the only industrialized country that uses the (international) foot in preference to the meter in its commercial, engineering, and standards activities. The foot is legally recognized in the United Kingdom; road distance signs must use imperial units (however, distances on road signs are always marked in miles or yards, not feet; bridge clearances are given in meters as well as feet and inches), while its usage

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