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104-567: Tunstall Hills is an area of open space in Sunderland , Tyne and Wear , England . It is a Local Nature Reserve and Tunstall Hills And Ryhope Cutting has been designated a Site of Special Scientific Interest both for its geological and biological importance. The area consists of Green Hill and Rocky Hill and surrounding land. Historically these hills have been also named the Maidens Paps because of their shape. Gentle slopes on

208-411: A bond, citizenship extends beyond basic kinship ties to unite people of different genetic backgrounds. It usually signifies membership in a political body. It is often based on or was a result of, some form of military service or expectation of future service. It usually involves some form of political participation, but this can vary from token acts to active service in government. It generally describes

312-524: A citizen that benefits the community. The Constitution of Ghana (1992), Article 41, obligates citizens to promote the prestige and good name of Ghana and respect the symbols of Ghana. Examples of national symbols includes the Ghanaian flag, coat of arms, money, and state sword. These national symbols must be treated with respect and high esteem by citizens since they best represent Ghanaians. Apart from responsibilities, citizens also have rights. Some of

416-728: A citizen thereof." Under early U.S. laws, African Americans were not eligible for citizenship. In 1857, these laws were upheld in the US Supreme Court case Dred Scott v. Sandford , which ruled that "a free negro of the African race, whose ancestors were brought to this country and sold as slaves, is not a 'citizen' within the meaning of the Constitution of the United States," and that "the special rights and immunities guaranteed to citizens do not apply to them." It

520-690: A distinct Canadian Citizenship , automatically conferred upon most individuals born in Canada, with some exceptions, and defined the conditions under which one could become a naturalized citizen. The concept of Commonwealth citizenship was introduced in 1948 in the British Nationality Act 1948 . Other dominions adopted this principle such as New Zealand , by way of the British Nationality and New Zealand Citizenship Act 1948 . Citizenship most usually relates to membership of

624-529: A few decades, a culture of public political gatherings and outdoor cafes emerged. Non-sustainable gardening , including mowing , use of chemical fertilisers , herbicides and pesticides harm green spaces. Contrariwise, one of the conditions for good urban open space is sustainable gardening . At the beginning of the 21st century, studies began to show that living in areas near water (known as " blue spaces ") considerably improved physical and mental health, increasing life longevity. Green space access

728-472: A fixed or static relation but constantly changed within each society, and that according to one view, citizenship might "really have worked" only at select periods during certain times, such as when the Athenian politician Solon made reforms in the early Athenian state. Citizenship was also contingent on a variety of biopolitical assemblages, such as the bioethics of emerging Theo-Philosophical traditions. It

832-755: A four-fold pattern called chahar bagh or chahār bāgh . often appearing as fountains, flowing channels, or reflective pools. Modern interpretations of Islamic gardens can be found in various locations, such as the Islamic Gardens at King's Cross in London, which showcase contemporary landscaped spaces representing the diversity of Muslim culture. The concept of Islamic gardens spread widely from Persia to Spain, North Africa, and India, influencing garden design across various Islamic empires. While maintaining core principles, these gardens often incorporated local elements and adapted to regional climate. London has

936-507: A good social network feel socially included, promoting more confidence and well-being in their everyday lives. Overall, the bonding experiences that result from urban green spaces tie in with a child's cognitive and social development. A 2021 study found that higher exposure to woodland urban green spaces or urban forest but not grassland is associated with improved cognitive development and reduced risks of mental problems for urban adolescents . The term "rus in urbe" meaning "country in

1040-441: A high risk of prevalence rhinitis, allergic sensitization, wheezing, and asthma among children 7 years-old. More studies are needed to explain the effect of urban green spaces on children relating to air quality. These studies should take into consideration the interconnectedness of tree species, geographic areas, temperature, and other pollutant-like traffic. The adolescent years are extremely important for children due to it being

1144-491: A legal member of a specific nation. Modern citizenship has often been looked at as two competing underlying ideas: Responsibilities of citizens Responsibility is an action that individuals of a state or country must take note of in the interest of a common good. These responsibilities can be categorised into personal and civic responsibilities . Scholars suggest that the concept of citizenship contains many unresolved issues, sometimes called tensions, existing within

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1248-548: A less discriminatory system. The 1918 constitution of revolutionary Russia granted citizenship to any foreigners who were living within the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic , so long as they were "engaged in work and [belonged] to the working class." It recognized "the equal rights of all citizens, irrespective of their racial or national connections" and declared oppression of any minority group or race "to be contrary to

1352-580: A limited right to free movement and residence in the Member States other than that of which the European Union citizen is a national. Articles 18-21 and 225 provide certain political rights. Union citizens have also extensive rights to move in order to exercise economic activity in any of the Member States which predate the introduction of Union citizenship. Citizenship of the Mercosur

1456-488: A long history of urban open space, which has significantly influenced development of modern parks, and is still among the greenest capital cities in the world. The basis for many urban open spaces seen today across Europe and the West began its process of development in London in the 17th and 18th centuries. What would eventually become urban open green space began as paved public plazas . Though they were intended to be open to

1560-461: A lower income, explained by the pattern that wealthier individuals reside in areas more concentrated with green space. Urban open spaces in higher socioeconomic neighborhoods were also more likely to have trees that provided shade, a water feature (e.g. pond, lake and creek), walking and cycling paths, lighting, signage regarding dog access and signage restricting other activities as well. This difference in access has been proven, however, further study

1664-505: A modern phenomenon dating back only a few hundred years and, for humanity, that the concept of citizenship arose with the first laws . Polis meant both the political assembly of the city-state as well as the entire society. Citizenship concept has generally been identified as a western phenomenon. There is a general view that citizenship in ancient times was a simpler relation than modern forms of citizenship, although this view has come under scrutiny. The relation of citizenship has not been

1768-467: A naturalized citizen. The Naturalization Act of 1790 , the first law in U.S. history to establish rules for citizenship and naturalization, barred citizenship to all people who were not of European descent, stating that "any alien being a free white person, who shall have resided within the limits and under the jurisdiction of the United States for the term of two years, maybe admitted to becoming

1872-530: A neighborhood. Even when physical activity rates are not shown to increase with greater access to green space, greater access to green space has been shown to decrease stress and improve social cohesion. Adequate urban green space access can be associated with better respiratory health outcomes, as long as green space areas meet certain requirements.  A new study showed that mortality due to pneumonia and chronic lower respiratory diseases could be reduced by minimizing fragmentation of green spaces and increasing

1976-536: A particular locality, as well as membership in a mercantile or trading class; thus, individuals of respectable means and socioeconomic status were interchangeable with citizens. During this era, members of the nobility had a range of privileges above commoners (see aristocracy ), though political upheavals and reforms, beginning most prominently with the French Revolution , abolished privileges and created an egalitarian concept of citizenship. During

2080-428: A person with legal rights within a given political order. It almost always has an element of exclusion, meaning that some people are not citizens and that this distinction can sometimes be very important, or not important, depending on a particular society. Citizenship as a concept is generally hard to isolate intellectually and compare with related political notions since it relates to many other aspects of society such as

2184-420: A political one. For further information, see History of citizenship . Citizenship status, under social contract theory, carries with it both rights and duties . In this sense, citizenship was described as "a bundle of rights -- primarily, political participation in the life of the community, the right to vote, and the right to receive certain protection from the community, as well as obligations." Citizenship

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2288-529: A protective factor against respiratory disease. Exposure to nature improves the immune system . Contact of the human body with soil , turf , or forest floor , exposes it to many microorganisms which boost the immune system. Improved access to green space is associated with reductions in cardiovascular disease symptoms, improved rates of physical activity , lower incidence of obesity , and improved respiratory health. Lower rates of cardiovascular biomarkers are associated with access to green space, showing

2392-539: A reduction in cardiovascular disease risk in populations living within 1 km of green space. Not only does access to urban green space reduce risk of cardiovascular disease, but increased access has been shown to improve recovery from major adverse cardiovascular events and lower all-cause mortality. Relationships have been found between increased access to green space, improved rates of physical activity, and reduced BMI. The percentage of sedentary and moderately active persons making use of an urban park increased when access to

2496-418: A reprieve from the urban environment and a break from over-stimulation . Studies done on physically active adults middle-aged and older show that there are amplified benefits when physical activities are coupled with green space environments. Such coupling leads to decreased levels of stress , lowers the risk for depression , and increases the frequency of participation in exercise. Green spaces may improve

2600-400: A special elite status, and it can also be seen as a democratizing force and something that everybody has; the concept can include both senses. According to sociologist Arthur Stinchcombe , citizenship is based on the extent that a person can control one's own destiny within the group in the sense of being able to influence the government of the group. One last distinction within citizenship

2704-558: A struggle between the upper-class patrician interests against the lower-order working groups known as the plebeian class. A citizen came to be understood as a person "free to act by law, free to ask and expect the law's protection, a citizen of such and such a legal community, of such and such a legal standing in that community". Citizenship meant having rights to have possessions, immunities, expectations, which were "available in many kinds and degrees, available or unavailable to many kinds of person for many kinds of reason". The law itself

2808-399: A submissive relation with a lord or count, but rather indicated the bond between a person and the state in the rather abstract sense of having rights and duties. The modern idea of citizenship still respects the idea of political participation, but it is usually done through "elaborate systems of political representation at a distance" such as representative democracy . Modern citizenship

2912-432: A subordinate social status but demanded a greater role in the form of citizenship. Membership in guilds was an indirect form of citizenship in that it helped their members succeed financially. The rise of citizenship was linked to the rise of republicanism , according to one account, since independent citizens meant that kings had less power. Citizenship became an idealized, almost abstract, concept, and did not signify

3016-528: A time of growth, development, and instillation of habits. When children are given the opportunity to be active, they typically take advantage of it. Children with a greater access to parks and recreational facilities through urban green space have been found to be more active than children who lack access. The access to green spaces has shown an association with recreational walking, increased physical activity, and reduced sedentary time in all ages. In coordination, it has been seen that higher residential green space

3120-607: Is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Urban open space Generally considered open to the public, urban green spaces are sometimes privately owned, such as higher education campuses , neighborhood/community parks/gardens , and institutional or corporate grounds. Areas outside city boundaries, such as state and national parks as well as open space in the countryside, are not considered urban open space. Streets, piazzas , plazas and urban squares are not always defined as urban open space in land use planning. Urban green spaces have wide-reaching positive impacts on

3224-903: Is a small population of perennial flax Linum anglicum, which occurs here towards the northern limit of its distribution range in Great Britain, and locally uncommon plants such as frog orchid Coeloglossum viride, autumn gentian Gentianella amarella, purple milk-vetch Astragalus danicus and thrift Armeria maritima. Steep south-facing slopes above the reclaimed railway line support a more open, herb-rich grassland characterised by common quaking-grass Briza media, blue moorgrass, crested hair-grass and red fescue with yarrow Achillea millefolium, hairy violet Viola hirta, hoary ragwort Senecio erucifolius, and fragrant orchid Gymnadenia conopsea. Other uncommon plants include pale St. John's-wort Hypericum montanum, lesser meadow-rue Thalictrum minus, and black bryony Tamus communis. This Tyne and Wear location article

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3328-509: Is applied to the totality of the citizens of their constituent countries combined. Citizenship at this level is a secondary concept, with rights deriving from national citizenship. The Maastricht Treaty introduced the concept of citizenship of the European Union . Article 17 (1) of the Treaty on European Union stated that: Citizenship of the Union is hereby established. Every person holding

3432-1013: Is associated with lower BMI scores. If children are given the opportunity to be active and maintain a healthy BMI in their adolescent years, they are less likely to be obese as adults. Children exposed to urban green spaces have the opportunity to expend energy by interacting with their environment and other people through exercise. One study has shown that without access to urban green spaces, some children have problems with hyperactivity, peer interactions, and good conduct. The important interactions with nature, animals, and peers have been positively influential in child development and reduction in behavioral issues such as Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Urban green spaces allow children to expel their extra energy and improve their ability to focus when needed both at school and home. In addition to behavioral problems, and likely connected, access to urban green space has been proven to be helpful for cognitive development. With urban green space giving children

3536-563: Is focused on the internal political life of the state and nationality is the dimension of state membership in international law . Article 15 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights states that everyone has the right to nationality. As such nationality in international law can be called and understood as citizenship, or more generally as subject or belonging to a sovereign state , and not as ethnicity. This notwithstanding, around 10 million people are stateless . Today,

3640-584: Is granted to eligible citizens of the Southern Common Market member states . It was approved in 2010 through the Citizenship Statute and should be fully implemented by the member countries in 2021 when the program will be transformed in an international treaty incorporated into the national legal system of the countries, under the concept of "Mercosur Citizen". The concept of "Commonwealth Citizenship" has been in place ever since

3744-528: Is higher in populations with a higher percentage of green space in their environments. Urban open space access has also been directly related to reductions in the prevalence and severity of chronic diseases resulting from sedentary lifestyles, to improvements in mental well-being, and to reductions in population-wide health impacts from climate change . Access to urban open space encourages physical activity and reduces ambient air pollution, heat, traffic noise and emissions . All are factors which contribute to

3848-418: Is much more passive; action is delegated to others; citizenship is often a constraint on acting, not an impetus to act. Nevertheless, citizens are usually aware of their obligations to authorities and are aware that these bonds often limit what they can do. From 1790 until the mid-twentieth century, United States law used racial criteria to establish citizenship rights and regulate who was eligible to become

3952-470: Is needed to evaluate the exact health impacts. A study conducted in Australia provided insight into how there is a correlation between community development/community safety and natural open space within the community. Open areas allow community members to engage in highly social activities and facilitate the expansion of social networks and friendship development. As people become more social they decrease

4056-492: Is not sufficient; the quality of the urban green space is important as well. Urban open space is often appreciated for the recreational opportunities it provides. Examples of recreation in urban open spaces include active recreation (such as organized sports and individual exercise) and passive recreation. Research shows that when open spaces are attractive and accessible, people are more likely to engage in physical activity. Time spent in an urban open space for recreation offers

4160-414: Is related to health inequality for minority populations.  Neighborhoods with higher percentages of minority residents often have lower access to open space and parks as the result of past red-lining policies and current inequities in funding priorities. Urban open space is under strong pressure. Due to increasing urbanization , combined with a spatial planning policy of densification , more people face

4264-633: Is seen by most scholars as culture-specific, in the sense that the meaning of the term varies considerably from culture to culture, and over time. In China , for example, there is a cultural politics of citizenship which could be called "peopleship", argued by an academic article. How citizenship is understood depends on the person making the determination. The relation of citizenship has never been fixed or static, but constantly changes within each society. While citizenship has varied considerably throughout history, and within societies over time, there are some common elements but they vary considerably as well. As

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4368-430: Is the so-called consent descent distinction, and this issue addresses whether citizenship is a fundamental matter determined by a person choosing to belong to a particular nation––by their consent––or is citizenship a matter of where a person was born––that is, by their descent. Some intergovernmental organizations have extended the concept and terminology associated with citizenship to the international level, where it

4472-620: The Naturalization Act of 1870 would extend the right to become a naturalized citizen to include "aliens of African nativity and to persons of African descent". Despite the gains made by African Americans after the Civil War, Native Americans , Asians , and others not considered "free white persons" were still denied the ability to become citizens. The 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act explicitly denied naturalization rights to all people of Chinese origin, while subsequent acts passed by

4576-509: The Renaissance , people transitioned from being subjects of a king or queen to being citizens of a city and later to a nation. Each city had its own law, courts, and independent administration. And being a citizen often meant being subject to the city's law in addition to having power in some instances to help choose officials. City dwellers who had fought alongside nobles in battles to defend their cities were no longer content with having

4680-669: The United Kingdom . Canada departed from the principle of nationality being defined in terms of allegiance in 1921. In 1935 the Irish Free State was the first to introduce its own citizenship. However, Irish citizens were still treated as subjects of the Crown , and they are still not regarded as foreign, even though Ireland is not a member of the Commonwealth. The Canadian Citizenship Act of 1946 provided for

4784-414: The family , military service , the individual, freedom , religion , ideas of right, and wrong , ethnicity , and patterns for how a person should behave in society. When there are many different groups within a nation, citizenship may be the only real bond that unites everybody as equals without discrimination—it is a "broad bond" linking "a person with the state" and gives people a universal identity as

4888-543: The urban heat island effect. Historically, access to urban green space has favored wealthier and more privileged communities; thus, recent urban greening has increasingly focused on environmental justice concerns, and community engagement in the greening process. In particular, in cities with economic decline, such as the Rust Belt in the United States, urban greening has broad community revitalization impacts. Urban areas have greatly expanded, resulting in over half of

4992-535: The Earth's atmosphere and trees play an essential role in removing human-made pollutants from the air, aka particulate matter (PM). Trees produce oxygen and absorb CO 2 . In urban green spaces, trees filter out man-made pollutants. Air quality data collected on cities with and without urban green space has shown that areas with an abundance of trees have considerably less air pollutants, i.e. O 3 , PM 10 , NO 2 , SO 2 , and CO. As air pollutants accumulate in

5096-459: The German government passed a law that entitled victims of Nazi persecution and their descendants to become naturalised German citizens. The primary principles of Israeli citizenship is jus sanguinis (citizenship by descent) for Jews and jus soli (citizenship by place of birth) for others. Many theorists suggest that there are two opposing conceptions of citizenship: an economic one, and

5200-617: The Maiden Paps support species-rich Magnesian Limestone grassland dominated by upright brome Bromus erectus, blue moor-grass Sesleria albicans, crested hair-grass Koeleria macrantha, red fescue Festuca rubra, glaucous sedge Carex flacca and herbs such as common rock-rose Helianthemum nummularia, salad burnet Sanguisorba minor, fairy flax Linum catharticum, wild thyme Thymus praecox, pignut Conopodium majus, small scabious Scabiosa columbaria and sea plantain Plantago maritima. Of particular note

5304-648: The US Congress, such as laws in 1906 , 1917 , and 1924 , would include clauses that denied immigration and naturalization rights to people based on broadly defined racial categories. Supreme Court cases such as Ozawa v. the United States (1922) and U.S. v. Bhagat Singh Thind (1923), would later clarify the meaning of the phrase "free white persons," ruling that ethnically Japanese, Indian, and other non-European people were not "white persons", and were therefore ineligible for naturalization under U.S. law. Native Americans were not granted full US citizenship until

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5408-532: The act still contained restrictions regarding who was eligible for US citizenship and retained a national quota system which limited the number of visas given to immigrants based on their national origin, to be fixed "at a rate of one-sixth of one percent of each nationality's population in the United States in 1920". It was not until the passage of the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 that these immigration quota systems were drastically altered in favor of

5512-422: The air quality of urban areas and provide habitat for wildlife, improving the overall ecological health of urban environments. They may also reduce the risk of flooding by providing rainwater drainage . The aesthetic value of urban open spaces is self-evident. People enjoy viewing nature, especially when it is otherwise extensively deprived, as is the case in urban environments. Therefore, open space offers

5616-468: The atmosphere, vulnerable populations, such as children, may suffer from increased incidences of respiratory disease. Particulate matter or particle pollution with a diameter of 10 microns (PM10) or 2.5 microns (PM2.5) is associated with heart diseases and respiratory diseases including lung cancer. Globally, particulate matter has increased over 28% in indoor air and 35% in outdoor air. Children spend most of their time at school, around 10 hours daily, and

5720-399: The cities designed to try to solve the problem. The distance an individual lives from a green space or park and the proportion of land designated as open space/parks has been shown to be inversely related to anxiety/ mood disorder treatment counts in the community. Improved mental health may therefore be related to both measures - to distance from open space and proportion of open space within

5824-437: The citizens of the community. This was not a problem because they all had a strong affinity with the polis; their own destiny and the destiny of the community were strongly linked. Also, citizens of the polis saw obligations to the community as an opportunity to be virtuous, it was a source of honor and respect. In Athens, citizens were both rulers and ruled, important political and judicial offices were rotated and all citizens had

5928-651: The city" was used in Rome around the first century C.E. Urban planning in Rome valued the natural landscape and took account for environmental factors. It was thought that by building a city with regard to the local countryside, the people living there would be healthier and happier. English landscapes would later take inspiration from Roman urban planning concepts in their own open spaces. Islamic gardens are distinctive green spaces that blend cultural, religious, and practical elements, serving as earthly representations of paradise. Typically featuring symmetrical designs, often in

6032-465: The concept of full citizenship encompasses not only active political rights, but full civil rights and social rights . A person can be recognized as a citizen on a number of bases. Every citizen has obligations that are required by law and some responsibilities that benefit the community. Obeying the laws of a country and paying taxes are some of the obligations required of citizens by law. Voting and community services form part of responsibilities of

6136-422: The counterpart of development, urban open space is a natural and cultural resource, synonymous with neither 'unused land' nor 'park and recreation areas'." Another defines urban open space as "land and/or water area with its surface open to the sky, consciously acquired or publicly regulated to serve conservation and urban shaping function in addition to providing recreational opportunities." In almost all instances,

6240-431: The density of vegetation. Green spaces contribute to the reduction of local heat, decreasing the overall effect of UHIs. The larger the distribution of green spaces, the bigger the area of heat reduction. Green spaces that are clustered together will have an additive heat reduction resulting in a greater decrease in temperature in the local area compared to surrounding areas. Human activity has increased air pollution in

6344-443: The effect of surface urban heat islands. Open spaces that include any type of vegetation help offset the high temperatures through the natural process of evapotranspiration. Evapotranspiration releases water into the air therefore dissipating heat. There are many elements of an urban open space that can contribute to the mitigation of urban heat islands including the type of open space (park or nature reserve), type of plant species, and

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6448-733: The establishment of the Commonwealth of Nations . As with the EU, one holds Commonwealth citizenship only by being a citizen of a Commonwealth member state. This form of citizenship offers certain privileges within some Commonwealth countries: Although Ireland was excluded from the Commonwealth in 1949 because it declared itself a republic, Ireland is generally treated as if it were still a member. Legislation often specifically provides for equal treatment between Commonwealth countries and Ireland and refers to "Commonwealth countries and Ireland". Ireland's citizens are not classified as foreign nationals in

6552-529: The fundamental laws of the Republic." The 1918 constitution also established the right to vote and be elected to soviets for both men and women "irrespective of religion, nationality, domicile, etc. [...] who shall have completed their eighteenth year by the day of the election." The later constitutions of the USSR would grant universal Soviet citizenship to the citizens of all member republics in concord with

6656-538: The health of individuals and communities near the green space. Urban greening policies are important for revitalizing communities , reducing financial burdens of healthcare and increasing quality of life. By promoting the development of parks, green roofs, and community gardens, these policies contribute to cleaner air, mitigate urban heat effects, and create spaces for recreation and social interaction. Most policies focus on community benefits, and reducing negative effects of urban development, such as surface runoff and

6760-683: The importance of freedom . Hosking explained: It can be argued that this growth of slavery was what made Greeks particularly conscious of the value of freedom. After all, any Greek farmer might fall into debt and therefore might become a slave, at almost any time ... When the Greeks fought together, they fought in order to avoid being enslaved by warfare, to avoid being defeated by those who might take them into slavery. And they also arranged their political institutions so as to remain free men. Slavery permitted slave-owners to have substantial free time and enabled participation in public life. Polis citizenship

6864-444: The increased temperatures. The average temperature during the day in cities can be 18-27 degrees Fahrenheit higher than in the surrounding rural regions. This is an example of one type of UHI, surface heat islands. Surface heat islands encompass the area from the ground to the top of the tree-line. It is usually higher during the day when direct sunlight reaches urban structures (often with darker materials than natural areas) including

6968-464: The indoor and outdoor air has a large impact on their health. Schools located in urban areas have higher particulate matter than schools in rural areas. Compared with children in schools located in rural areas, children who attend schools located in industrial areas and urban cities have higher levels of urinary PAHs ( polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons ) metabolites, which is linked to air pollution. There are two different ways that green spaces can reduce

7072-669: The largest patch percentage of green space. Vegetation type (trees, shrubs and herbaceous layers) and lack of management (pruning, irrigation and fertilization) has been shown to affect a higher capacity to provide the ecosystem services of air purification and climate regulation within green urban spaces. The types of plants and shrubs are important because areas with large tree canopies can actually contribute to asthma and allergic sensitization. Urban areas tend to have higher temperatures than their surrounding undeveloped areas because of Urban Heat Islands , UHIs. Urban heat islands are areas with man-made infrastructure that contribute to

7176-461: The main contributor, pavement. The other type of UHI, atmospheric heat islands, are from above the tree-line to the level in the atmosphere where the urban area no longer has an effect. This type of heat island has increased heat at night due to the release of heat from infrastructure that built up throughout the day. Green spaces within urban areas can help reduce these increased temperatures through shading and evapotranspiration. Shading comes from

7280-421: The modern western conception. The obligations of citizenship were deeply connected with everyday life. To be truly human, one had to be an active citizen to the community, which Aristotle famously expressed: "To take no part in the running of the community's affairs is to be either a beast or a god!" This form of citizenship was based on the obligations of citizens towards the community, rather than rights given to

7384-624: The nation's boundaries who did not fit the racial criteria for citizenship. Subjects would have no voting rights, could not hold any position within the state, and possessed none of the other rights and civic responsibilities conferred on citizens. All women were to be conferred "subject" status upon birth, and could only obtain "citizen" status if they worked independently or if they married a German citizen (see women in Nazi Germany ). The final category, aliens, referred to those who were citizens of another state, who also had no rights. In 2021,

7488-421: The nation-state, but the term can also apply at the subnational level. Subnational entities may impose requirements, of residency or otherwise, which permit citizens to participate in the political life of that entity or to enjoy benefits provided by the government of that entity. But in such cases, those eligible are also sometimes seen as "citizens" of the relevant state, province, or region. An example of this

7592-458: The nationality of a Member State shall be a citizen of the Union. Citizenship of the Union shall be additional to and not replace national citizenship. An agreement is known as the amended EC Treaty established certain minimal rights for European Union citizens. Article 12 of the amended EC Treaty guaranteed a general right of non-discrimination within the scope of the Treaty. Article 18 provided

7696-575: The natural environment, too. For example, people who were shown pictures of scenic, natural environments had increased brain activity in the region associated with recalling happy memories, compared to people that were shown pictures of urban landscapes. The World Health Organization considers urban green spaces as important to human health. These areas have a positive impact on mental and physical health. Urban open spaces often include trees or other shrubbery that contribute to moderating temperatures and decreasing air pollution . Perceived general health

7800-433: The opportunity to get outside and expend energy, children are more focused in school and have a better working memory and reduced inattentiveness. Another facet of urban green space improving mental health is giving children access to a community. Recreational activities and playing at the park gives children opportunities to interact with other children and develop a social circle and social skills in general. Children with

7904-559: The park was improved. Mental illness has been a major taboo and concern in the current fast-paced world in which time to relax is undervalued.  Globally, mental illness is linked to eight million deaths each year. In urban areas , limited access to green space and poor quality of green spaces available may contribute to poor mental health outcomes; according to some studies, people living in cities and towns may have weaker mental health in comparison to people living in less crowded areas. Urban green spaces are pieces of nature in

8008-531: The passage of the Indian Citizenship Act in 1924. However, even well into the 1960s, some state laws prevented Native Americans from exercising their full rights as citizens, such as the right to vote. In 1962, New Mexico became the last state to enfranchise Native Americans. It was not until the passage of the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952 that the racial and gender restrictions for naturalization were explicitly abolished. However,

8112-461: The perceptions of fear and mistrust allowing a sense of community bondage. Distant or lack of adequate green space, therefore, may contribute to higher rates of inactivity and greater health effects among minority populations. Citizenship Citizenship is a membership and allegiance to a sovereign state . Though citizenship is often conflated with nationality in today's English-speaking world, international law does not usually use

8216-402: The polis. These small-scale organic communities were generally seen as a new development in world history, in contrast to the established ancient civilizations of Egypt or Persia, or the hunter-gatherer bands elsewhere. From the viewpoint of the ancient Greeks, a person's public life could not be separated from their private life, and Greeks did not distinguish between the two worlds according to

8320-413: The pollution of particulate matter including preventing distribution of particulate from pollutants or by reducing the particulate matter from traveling to other places. There is a disagreement about the association of living near green spaces or having high exposure to greenness and illness such as allergies, rhinitis, and eye and nose symptoms. Higher exposure to tree canopy and pollen was associated with

8424-511: The principles of equality under the law , civic participation in government, and notions that "no one citizen should have too much power for too long", but Rome offered relatively generous terms to its captives, including chances for lesser forms of citizenship. If Greek citizenship was an "emancipation from the world of things", the Roman sense increasingly reflected the fact that citizens could act upon material things as well as other citizens, in

8528-428: The principles of non-discrimination laid out in the original 1918 constitution of Russia. Nazism , the German variant of twentieth-century fascism, classified inhabitants of the country into three main hierarchical categories, each of which would have different rights in relation to the state: citizens, subjects, and aliens. The first category, citizens, were to possess full civic rights and responsibilities. Citizenship

8632-557: The prospect of living in less green residential environments, especially people from low economic strata. This may cause environmental inequality with regard to the distribution of (access) to public green space. The parks that do exist in minority neighborhoods are often small (with lower acreage per person than parks in majority ethnicity neighborhoods), not well maintained, unsafe, or are otherwise ill-suited for community needs. A large epidemiological study. concluded that wealthier individuals were generally healthier than individuals with

8736-407: The public, these spaces began to be re-designated as private parks around the late eighteenth century. It was during this period that the areas became pockets of green in the urban environment, commonly modelled after the natural wild of the countryside. The first parks to reverse the trend of privatization and again be opened to the public were England's royal parks in the nineteenth century. This

8840-583: The relation, that continue to reflect uncertainty about what citizenship is supposed to mean. Some unresolved issues regarding citizenship include questions about what is the proper balance between duties and rights . Another is a question about what is the proper balance between political citizenship versus social citizenship. Some thinkers see benefits with people being absent from public affairs, since too much participation such as revolution can be destructive, yet too little participation such as total apathy can be problematic as well. Citizenship can be seen as

8944-542: The right to speak and vote in the political assembly. In the Roman Empire , citizenship expanded from small-scale communities to the entirety of the empire. Romans realized that granting citizenship to people from all over the empire legitimized Roman rule over conquered areas. Roman citizenship was no longer a status of political agency, as it had been reduced to a judicial safeguard and the expression of rule and law. Rome carried forth Greek ideas of citizenship such as

9048-435: The rights are the right to pursue life, liberty and happiness, the right to worship, right to run for elected office and right to express oneself. Many thinkers such as Giorgio Agamben in his work extending the biopolitical framework of Foucault 's History of Sexuality in the book, Homo Sacer , point to the concept of citizenship beginning in the early city-states of ancient Greece , although others see it as primarily

9152-605: The risks of chronic disease and mental illness. Individuals and families who lived closer to ‘formal’ parks or open space were more likely to achieve the recommended amounts of physical activity. Better respiratory health is associated with cleaner air quality. Cleaner air quality affects rates of chronic disease in populations exposed. “High concentrations of ambient particles can trigger the onset of acute myocardial infarction and increase hospitalization for cardiovascular disease”. Besides an association with lower BMI/obesity rates, this physical activity can increase lung function and be

9256-515: The segmentation of the spaces, displays a situation similar to the privatization of London parks in the eighteenth century, which displayed a desire to make classes more distinct. In the 20th century, places like Scandinavia saw a proliferation of urban open spaces and began adopting a lifestyle supported by the extra urban breathing room. An example of this can be seen in Copenhagen where an area closed to car traffic in 1962 developed, in just

9360-430: The sense of buying or selling property, possessions, titles, goods. One historian explained: The person was defined and represented through his actions upon things; in the course of time, the term property came to mean, first, the defining characteristic of a human or other being; second, the relation which a person had with a thing; and third, the thing defined as the possession of some person. Roman citizenship reflected

9464-775: The space referred to by the term is green space, focused on natural areas. The spaces that are part of "public space" are broadly construed, including meeting or gathering places that exist outside the home and workplace. These foster resident interaction and opportunities for contact and proximity. This definition implies a higher level of community interaction and places a focus on public involvement rather than public ownership or stewardship. The benefits that urban open space provides to citizens can be broken into four basic forms: recreation , ecology, aesthetic value, and positive health impacts. Psychological research shows that benefits gained by visitors to urban green spaces increased with their biodiversity, indicating that "green" alone

9568-410: The taller plants, such as trees, planted in green spaces that can contribute to lowering the surface heat island effect. The shade provides protection from the sun for vulnerable populations, such as children, during periods of increased temperature, during the summer months or during a heat wave. Tree cover prevents some solar radiation from reaching the ground with its leaves and branches. This reduces

9672-531: The term citizenship to refer to nationality ; these two notions are conceptually different dimensions of collective membership. Generally citizenships have no expiration and allow persons to work , reside and vote in the polity, as well as identify with the polity, possibly acquiring a passport . Though through discriminatory laws, like disfranchisement and outright apartheid citizens have been made second-class citizens . Historically, populations of states were mostly subjects , while citizenship

9776-462: The use of urban green rings. Segmentation of urban open spaces was particularly prominent in America during the twentieth century. Since the late 1800s romantic park systems, open space designers have been concerned with guiding, containing or separating urban growth, distributing recreation, and/or producing scenic amenity, mostly within the framework of geometric abstractions." Such segmentation

9880-513: The value of "substituting gray infrastructure." One researcher states how attractive neighborhoods contribute to positive attitudes and social norms that encourage walking and community values. Properties near urban open space tend to have a higher value. One study was able to demonstrate that, "a pleasant view can lead to a considerable increase in house price, particularly if the house overlooks water (8–10%) or open space (6–12%)." Certain benefits may be derived from exposure to virtual versions of

9984-434: The world's population being located in urban locations. As the population continues to grow, this number is predicted to be at two-thirds of people living in urban areas by 2050. The World Health Organization (WHO) defined urban green spaces as "all urban land covered by vegetation of any kind". When doing research, some experts use "urban open space" to describe a broader range of open areas. One definition holds that "As

10088-517: Was a kind of bond uniting people. Roman citizenship was more impersonal, universal, multiform, having different degrees and applications. During the European Middle Ages , citizenship was usually associated with cities and towns (see medieval commune ), and applied mainly to middle-class folk. Titles such as burgher , grand burgher (German Großbürger ) and the bourgeoisie denoted political affiliation and identity in relation to

10192-513: Was a particular status which originated in the rights of urban populations, like the rights of the male public of cities and republics , particularly ancient city-states , giving rise to a civitas and the social class of the burgher or bourgeoisie . Since then states have expanded the status of citizenship to most of their national people , while the extent of citizen rights remain contested. Conceptually citizenship and nationality are different dimensions of state membership. Citizenship

10296-519: Was conferred only on males of German (or so-called " Aryan ") heritage who had completed military service, and could be revoked at any time by the state. The Reich Citizenship Law of 1935 established racial criteria for citizenship in the German Reich , and because of this law Jews and others who could not "prove German racial heritage" were stripped of their citizenship. The second category, subjects, referred to all others who were born within

10400-511: Was done in response to the extensive and unexpected population movement from the country into cities. As a result, "the need for open space was socially and politically pressing… The problems, to which the provision of parks was expected to offer some relief, were easy to describe: overcrowding, poverty, squalor, ill-health, lack of morals and morale, and so on". China's Fourteenth Five-Year Plan's plan 's Climate Change Special Plan emphasizes ecologically-oriented urban planning , including through

10504-455: Was especially prominent in the 1990s, when urban open spaces took a path similar to that of parks, following the modernization trend of segmentation and specialization of areas. As modernity stressed "increased efficiency, quantifiability, predictability, and control… In concert with the additional social divisions", open spaces grew more specific in purpose. Perhaps this increase in division of social classes ' use of open space, demonstrated by

10608-432: Was marked by exclusivity. Inequality of status was widespread; citizens (πολίτης politēs < πόλις 'city') had a higher status than non-citizens, such as women, slaves, and resident foreigners ( metics ). The first form of citizenship was based on the way people lived in the ancient Greek times, in small-scale organic communities of the polis. The obligations of citizenship were deeply connected to one's everyday life in

10712-422: Was necessary to fit Aristotle's definition of the besouled (the animate) to obtain citizenship: neither the sacred olive tree nor spring would have any rights. An essential part of the framework of Greco-Roman ethics is the figure of Homo Sacer or the bare life. Historian Geoffrey Hosking in his 2005 Modern Scholar lecture course suggested that citizenship in ancient Greece arose from an appreciation for

10816-521: Was not until the abolition of slavery following the American Civil War that African Americans were granted citizenship rights. The 14th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution , ratified on July 9, 1868, stated that "all persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside." Two years later,

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