1974 Cypriot coup d'état
137-470: Turkish victory Turkey occupies 36.2% of Cyprus The Turkish invasion of Cyprus began on 20 July 1974 and progressed in two phases over the following month. Taking place upon a background of intercommunal violence between Greek and Turkish Cypriots , and in response to a Greek junta-sponsored Cypriot coup d'état five days earlier, it led to the Turkish capture and occupation of the northern part of
274-628: A revolution , or to provide a desired solution to the growing discord that strengthens the power of the elites. The principle " divide et impera " is cited as a common in politics by Traiano Boccalini in La bilancia politica . In economics, the concept is also mentioned as a strategy for market segmentation to get the most out of the players in a competitive market. While the Mongols imported Central Asian Muslims to serve as administrators in China ,
411-546: A Palestinian state, suggesting that there is no viable partner for peace talks. Bezalel Smotrich , a far-right lawmaker and finance minister under Netanyahu Government, called the Palestinian Authority a "burden" and Hamas an "asset". Some consider that contemporary Russian affairs also have characteristics of a "divide and rule" strategy. Applied domestically to secure Vladimir Putin's power in Russia, it
548-703: A Turkish invasion, began to distance himself from the goal of enosis . This caused tensions with the junta in Greece as well as George Grivas in Cyprus. Grivas's control over the National Guard and Greek contingent was seen as a threat to Makarios's position, who now feared a possible coup. The National Guard and Cyprus Police began patrolling the Turkish Cypriot enclaves of Ayios Theodoros and Kophinou , and on November 15 engaged in heavy fighting with
685-451: A battalion of Greek commandos was transported to Nicosia from Crete in a clandestine airlift operation . On 23 July 1974 the Greek military junta collapsed mainly because of the events in Cyprus. Greek political leaders in exile started returning to the country. On 24 July 1974 Constantine Karamanlis returned from Paris and was sworn in as Prime Minister. He kept Greece from entering
822-542: A counterpart to the Greek Cypriot population due to their 1 to 5 minority. With the economic situation many Turkish-Cypriot decided to leave the island, however their departure is made up by incoming Turkish settlers leaving the population ratio between Turkish Cypriots and Greek Cypriots stable. However all these points where criticised and as seen in the vote rejected mainly by the Greek Cypriots. These name
959-439: A crucial role in creation of havoc in Cyprus' history. Attalides Michael also pointed to the opposing nationalisms as the cause of the Cyprus problem. By the mid-1950s, the "Cyprus is Turkish" party, movement, and slogan gained force in both Cyprus and Turkey. In a 1954 editorial, Turkish Cypriot leader Dr. Fazil Kuchuk expressed the sentiment that the Turkish youth had grown up with the idea that "as soon as Great Britain leaves
1096-485: A deadlock in government. A constitutional court ruled in 1963 Makarios had failed to uphold article 173 of the constitution which called for the establishment of separate municipalities for Turkish Cypriots. Makarios subsequently declared his intention to ignore the judgement, resulting in the West German judge resigning from his position. Makarios proposed thirteen amendments to the constitution , which would have had
1233-488: A declaration that the Turkish occupation zone should not be extended, that the Turkish enclaves should immediately be evacuated by the Greeks, and that a further conference should be held at Geneva with the two Cypriot communities present to restore peace and re-establish constitutional government. In advance of this they made two observations, one upholding the 1960 constitution, the other appearing to abandon it. They called for
1370-561: A distinction based on religion. Being thoroughly secular, Atatürk's programme made their Turkish identity paramount, and may have further reinforced their division from their Greek Cypriot neighbours. In the early 1950s, a Greek nationalist group was formed called the Ethniki Organosis Kyprion Agoniston ( EOKA , or "National Organisation of Cypriot Fighters"). Their objective was to drive the British out of
1507-403: A former U.S. Secretary of State , and UN-appointed mediator Galo Plaza had failed, all the while the division of the two communities becoming more apparent. Greek Cypriot forces were estimated at some 30,000, including the National Guard and the large contingent from Greece. Defending the Turkish Cypriot enclaves was a force of approximately 5,000 irregulars, led by a Turkish colonel, but lacking
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#17327661469661644-550: A national scale, but failed to gain public support. By 1958, signs of dissatisfaction with the British increased on both sides, with a group of Turkish Cypriots forming Volkan (later renamed to the Turkish Resistance Organisation ) paramilitary group to promote partition and the annexation of Cyprus to Turkey as dictated by the Menderes plan. Volkan initially consisted of roughly 100 members, with
1781-570: A number of treaties. The Treaty of Guarantee stated that secession or union with any state was forbidden, and that Greece, Turkey and Britain would be given guarantor status to intervene if that was violated. The Treaty of Alliance allowed for two small Greek and Turkish military contingents to be stationed on the island, and the Treaty of Establishment gave Britain sovereignty over two military bases in Akrotiri and Dhekelia . On 15 August 1960,
1918-524: A power station was bombed, and the injury of three others, provoked three days of intercommunal violence in Nicosia. The two communities targeted each other in reprisals, at least one Greek Cypriot was killed and the British Army was deployed in the streets. Greek Cypriot stores were burned and their neighbourhoods attacked. Following the events, the Greek Cypriot leadership spread the propaganda that
2055-565: A prominent political role among the Greek Cypriot community, a privilege that it acquired during the Ottoman Empire with the employment of the millet system , which gave the archbishop an unofficial ethnarch status. The repeated rejections by the British of Greek Cypriot demands for enosis , union with Greece, led to armed resistance, organised by the National Organization of Cypriot Struggle, or EOKA . EOKA, led by
2192-529: A rise of inter-communal tensions and made it increasingly hard to find mutual understanding. With Cyprus' interest of a possible EU membership and a new UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan in 1997 new hopes arose for a fresh start. International involvement from sides of the US and UK, wanting a solution to the Cyprus dispute prior to the EU accession led to political pressures for new talks. The believe that an accession without
2329-466: A solution would threaten Greek-Turkish relations and acknowledge the partition of the island would direct the coming negotiations. Over the course of two years a concrete plan, the Annan plan was formulated. In 2004 the fifth version agreed upon from both sides and with the endorsement of Turkey, US, UK and EU then was presented to the public and was given a referendum in both Cypriot communities to assure
2466-597: A suggested NATO or NATO-dominated peacekeeping force, meant matters were turned over to the United Nations. After intense debate, UN Security Council Resolution 186 , unanimously adopted on 4 March, recommended the creation of a UN peacekeeping force ( United Nations Force in Cyprus , UNFICYP) and the designation of a UN mediator. Violence by the militias of both sides had continued, and Turkey made several threats to invade. Indeed, Ankara had decided to do so when, in his famous letter of 5 June 1964, President Johnson of
2603-410: A truce. On Christmas day, Turkish fighter jets overflew Nicosia in a show of support. Finally it was agreed to allow a force of 2,700 British soldiers to help enforce a ceasefire. In the next days, a "buffer zone" was created in Nicosia, and a British officer marked a line on a map with green ink, separating the two sides of the city, which was the beginning of the " Green Line ". Fighting continued across
2740-427: A wider Machiavellian intent to 'divide and rule' and to 'stir up Hindu-Muslim animosity' assume some premonition of a later partition. They make little sense in the contemporary context. 'Divide and rule' as a governing precept supposes the pre-existence of an integrated entity. In an India politically united only by British rule – and not yet even by the opposition which it generated – such a thing did not exist. Division
2877-557: Is not legitimised on a worldwide political scale. The United Nations called for the international recognition of independence for the Republic of Cyprus in the Security Council Resolution 367 . Aftermath In the years after the Turkish invasion of northern Cyprus one can observe a history of failed talks between the two parties. The 1983 declaration of the independent Turkish Republic of Cyprus resulted in
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#17327661469663014-472: Is under certain (some) qualifications, the only policy, by which a republic can be administered on just principles." Divide et impera is the third of three political maxims in Immanuel Kant 's Perpetual Peace (1795), Appendix I , the others being Fac et excusa ("Act now, and make excuses later") and Si fecisti, nega ("If you commit a crime, deny it"): Kant refers this tactic when describing
3151-531: The Colony of Cyprus became fully independent as the Republic of Cyprus. The new republic remained within the Commonwealth of Nations . The new constitution brought dissatisfaction to Greek Cypriots, who felt it to be highly unjust for them, since although they made up 77.1% of the island's population, had lived on the island for over 3,000 years, and paid 92.5% of Direct & Indirect and 94% of Income taxes,
3288-466: The Cyprus dispute has continued, with various attempts to solve it diplomatically having been generally unsuccessful. Cyprus , an island lying in the eastern Mediterranean, hosted a population of Greeks and Turks (four-fifths and one-fifth, respectively), who lived under British rule in the late nineteenth-century and the first half of the twentieth-century. Christian Orthodox Church of Cyprus played
3425-947: The French Algeria based on a supposed binary between the Arab and Kabyle peoples, consisting of a set of stereotypes of supposed differences between them. The Ottoman Empire often used a divide-and-rule strategy, pitting Armenians and Kurds against each other. This strategy no longer worked in the Republic of Turkey because the Armenians were eliminated in the Armenian genocide . According to Richard Morrock, four tactics of divide and rule practiced by Western colonialists are: Divide and rule can be used by states to weaken enemy military alliances . This usually happens when propaganda or disinformation are disseminated within
3562-582: The President of the Republic Makarios proposed thirteen constitutional amendments after the government was blocked by Turkish Cypriot legislators. Frustrated by these impasses and believing that the constitution prevented enosis, the Greek Cypriot leadership believed that the rights given to Turkish Cypriots under the 1960 constitution were too extensive and had designed the Akritas plan , which
3699-638: The Sunni–Shia conflict . British journalist Nafeez Ahmed cited a 2008 RAND Corporation study for the U.S Armed Forces which recommended "divide and rule" as a possible strategy against the Muslim world in "the Long War" . Professor Avner Cohen , a former Israeli religious affairs official, publicly acknowledged that Hamas was "Israel's creation." Similar statesments have been made by Yasser Arafat . Assertions of Israeli support for Hamas date back to
3836-702: The Turkish Navy sent a ship to Cyprus fully loaded with arms for the TMT. The ship was stopped and the crew was caught red-handed in the infamous " Deniz incident". British rule lasted until the middle of August 1960, when the island was declared an independent state on the basis of the London and Zürich Agreements of the previous year. The 1960 Constitution of the Cyprus Republic proved unworkable, however, lasting only three years. Greek Cypriots wanted to end
3973-573: The international community (see United Nations Security Council Resolution 367 ). The United Nations recognises the sovereignty of the Republic of Cyprus according to the terms of its independence in 1960. The conflict continues to affect Turkey's relations with Cyprus, Greece, and the European Union . Cypriot intercommunal violence [REDACTED] Pro- enosis militias [REDACTED] Pro- taksim militias Several distinct periods of Cypriot intercommunal violence involving
4110-404: The 12,000 Greek troops were withdrawn. Makarios now attempted to consolidate his position by reducing the number of National Guard troops, and by creating a paramilitary force loyal to Cypriot independence. In 1968, acknowledging that enosis was now all but impossible, Makarios stated, "A solution by necessity must be sought within the limits of what is feasible which does not always coincide with
4247-593: The British Empire and later a Crown colony , known as British Cyprus . Article 20 of the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923 marked the end of the Turkish claim to the island. Article 21 of the treaty gave Turkish nationals ordinarily resident in Cyprus the choice of leaving the island within 2 years or to remain as British subjects. At this time the population of Cyprus was composed of both Greeks and Turks, who identified themselves with their respective homeland. However,
Turkish invasion of Cyprus - Misplaced Pages Continue
4384-430: The British army's attention away from their positions in the mountains. In the riots, at least one Greek Cypriot was killed, which was presented by the Greek Cypriot leadership as an act of Turkish aggression. The Turkish Resistance Organisation (TMT, Türk Mukavemet Teşkilatı ) was formed initially as a local initiative to prevent the union with Greece which was viewed by Turkish Cypriots as an existential threat due to
4521-562: The British authorities. The British collector would secretly call the Hindu Pandit , pay him money, and tell him to speak against Muslims, and similarly he would secretly call the Maulvi , pay him money, and tell him to speak against Hindus. This communal poison was injected into our body politic year after year and decade after decade. Historian John Keay takes a contrary position regarding British policy, writing: Stock accusations of
4658-621: The British foreign minister and request the status quo be prolonged, Cyprus to remain as a British colony". When the Turkish Cypriots visited the British Foreign Secretary and requested for Cyprus to remain a colony, he replied: "You should not be asking for colonialism at this day and age, you should be asking for Cyprus be returned to Turkey, its former owner". As Turkish Cypriots began to look to Turkey for protection, Greek Cypriots soon understood that enosis
4795-598: The Charter of the United Nations. Turkish troops managed to capture 3% of the island which was accompanied by the burning of the Turkish Cypriot quarter, as well as the raping and killing of women and children. A temporary cease-fire followed which was mitigated by the UN Security Council. Subsequently, the Greek military Junta collapsed on July 23, 1974, and peace talks commenced in which a democratic government
4932-558: The Cypriot government invited George Grivas to return from Greece as commander of the Greek troops on the island and launch a major attack on the bridgehead. Turkey retaliated by dispatching its fighter jets to bomb Greek positions, causing Makarios to threaten an attack on every Turkish Cypriot village on the island if the bombings did not cease. The conflict had now drawn in Greece and Turkey, with both countries amassing troops on their Thracian borders. Efforts at mediation by Dean Acheson ,
5069-780: The EU. In multiple instances the EU tried to promote trade with Northern Cyprus but without internationally recognised ports this spiked a grand debate. Both side endure their intention of negotiations, however without the prospect of any new compromises or agreements the UN is unwilling to start the process again. Since 2004 negotiations took place in numbers but without any results, both sides are strongly holding on to their position without an agreeable solution in sight that would suit both parties. Divide and rule Divide and rule ( Latin : divide et impera ), or divide and conquer , in politics refers to an entity gaining and maintaining political power by using divisive measures. This includes
5206-780: The Fourth Part of the Institutes of the Lawes of England , reporting that when it was demanded by the Lords and Commons what might be a principal motive for them to have good success in Parliament , it was answered: " Eritis insuperabiles, si fueritis inseparabiles. Explosum est illud diverbium: Divide, & impera, cum radix & vertex imperii in obedientium consensu rata sunt. " ("You would be invincible if you were inseparable. This proverb, Divide and rule, has been rejected, since
5343-486: The Greek Cypriot community because Turkish Cypriots had been given a larger share of governmental posts than the size of their population warranted. In accordance with the constitution 30% of civil service jobs were allocated to the Turkish community despite being only 18.3% of the population. Additionally, the position of vice president was reserved for the Turkish population, and both the president and vice president were given veto power over crucial issues. In December 1963,
5480-598: The Greek Cypriot police. Both President Makarios and Vice President Küçük issued calls for peace, but these were ignored. Greece, Turkey, and the UK – the guarantors of the Zürich and London Agreements that had led to Cyprus' independence – wanted to send a NATO force to the island under the command of General Peter Young. Within a week of the violence flaring up, the Turkish army contingent had moved out of its barracks and seized
5617-504: The Greek military regime support and direct the activities of the 'EOKA-B' terrorist organisation'. He also ordered that Greece remove some 600 Greek officers in the Cypriot National Guard from Cyprus. The Greek Government's immediate reply was to order the go-ahead of the coup. On 15 July 1974 sections of the Cypriot National Guard , led by its Greek officers, overthrew the government. Makarios narrowly escaped death in
Turkish invasion of Cyprus - Misplaced Pages Continue
5754-513: The Greek-Cypriot commander George Grivas , systematically targeted British colonial authorities. One of the effects of EOKA's campaign was to alter the Turkish position from demanding full reincorporation into Turkey to a demand for taksim (partition). EOKA's mission and activities caused a "Cretan syndrome" (see Turkish Resistance Organisation ) within the Turkish Cypriot community, as its members feared that they would be forced to leave
5891-473: The Green Line. Around 150,000 people (amounting to more than one-quarter of the total population of Cyprus, and to one-third of its Greek Cypriot population ) were displaced from the northern part of the island, where Greek Cypriots had constituted 80% of the population. Over the course of the next year, roughly 60,000 Turkish Cypriots , amounting to half the Turkish Cypriot population, were displaced from
6028-836: The Hindus going to temples and the Muslims going to mosques, but there was no animosity. In fact, the Hindus and Muslims used to help each other; Hindus used to participate in Eid celebrations, and Muslims in Holi and Diwali . The Muslim rulers like the Mughals , Nawab of Awadh and Murshidabad , Tipu Sultan , etc. were totally secular; they organised Ramlilas , participated in Holi, Diwali, etc. Ghalib 's affectionate letters to his Hindu friends like Munshi Shiv Naraln Aram, Har Gopal Tofta, etc. attest to
6165-819: The Mongols also sent Han Chinese and Khitans from China to serve as administrators over the Muslim population in Bukhara in Central Asia, using foreigners to curtail the power of the local peoples of both lands. Some Indian historians, such as politician Shashi Tharoor , assert that the British Raj frequently used this tactic to consolidate their rule and prevent the emergence of the Indian independence movement , citing Lord Elphinstone who said that " Divide et impera
6302-477: The National Guard and were directly supported by Turkey. The republic's structure was changed unilaterally by Makarios and Nicosia was divided by the Green Line , with the deployment of UNFICYP troops. In response to this, their movement and access to basic supplies became more restricted by Greek forces. Fighting broke out again in 1967, as the Turkish Cypriots pushed for more freedom of movement. Once again,
6439-471: The National Guard, whose officer class was dominated by mainland Greeks, had meant the junta had practical control over the Cypriot military establishment, leaving Makarios isolated and a vulnerable target. Turkish invasion and peace talks During the first Turkish invasion, Turkish troops invaded Cyprus territory on 20 July 1974, invoking its rights under the Treaty of Guarantee . This expansion of Turkish-occupied zone violated International Law as well as
6576-448: The Nicosia suburb of Omorphita and engaged in heavy firing on armed, as well as by some accounts unarmed, Turkish Cypriots. The Omorphita clash has been described by Turkish Cypriots as a massacre, while this view has generally not been acknowledged by Greek Cypriots. Further ceasefires were arranged between the two sides, but also failed. By Christmas Eve, the 24th, Britain, Greece, and Turkey had joined talks, with all sides calling for
6713-522: The Prime Minister Bülent Ecevit , "When I say 'Ayşe should go on vacation' ( Turkish : "Ayşe Tatile Çıksın" ), it will mean that our armed forces are ready to go into action. Even if the telephone line is tapped, that would rouse no suspicion." An hour and a half after the conference broke up, Turan Güneş called Ecevit and said the code phrase. On 14 August Turkey launched its "Second Peace Operation", which eventually resulted in
6850-691: The September 1955 Istanbul Pogrom , EOKA started its activity against Turkish Cypriots. A year later EOKA revived its attempts to achieve the union of Cyprus with Greece. Turkish Cypriots were recruited into the police by the British forces to fight against Greek Cypriots, but EOKA initially did not want to open up a second front against Turkish Cypriots. However, in January 1957, EOKA forces began targeting and killing Turkish Cypriot police deliberately to provoke Turkish Cypriot riots in Nicosia , which diverted
6987-680: The Soviet Union to intimately involve itself in negotiations in the form of presidential envoy Dean Acheson. UN-mediated talks – invidiously assisted by Acheson, boycotted by Makarios because he correctly apprehended that the American goal was to terminate Cyprus' independence – began in July in Geneva. Acheson dominated proceedings and, by the end of the month, the "Acheson Plan" had become the basis for all future negotiations. The crisis resulted in
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#17327661469667124-432: The TMT near the Turkish Cypriot populated village of Gönyeli , after being dropped off there by the British authorities. TMT also blew up the offices of the Turkish press office in Nicosia in a false flag operation to attach blame to Greek Cypriots. It also began a string of assassinations of prominent Turkish Cypriot supporters of independence. The following year, after the conclusion of the independence agreements on Cyprus,
7261-520: The TRNC's territory as Turkish-occupied territory of the Republic of Cyprus. The occupation is viewed as illegal under international law, amounting to illegal occupation of European Union territory since Cyprus became a member. In 1571 the mostly Greek-populated island of Cyprus was conquered by the Ottoman Empire , following the Ottoman–Venetian War (1570–1573) . After 300 years of Ottoman rule
7398-626: The Turkish Cypriot leader, Rauf Denktaş , admitted on British channel ITV that the bomb was placed by the Turks themselves in order to create tension. On 9 January 1995, Rauf Denktaş repeated his claim to the famous Turkish newspaper Milliyet in Turkey. The crisis reached a climax on 12 June 1958, when eight Greeks, out of an armed group of thirty five arrested by soldiers of the Royal Horse Guards on suspicion of preparing an attack on
7535-448: The Turkish Cypriots to force them out of their homes. The Daily Express wrote that "25,000 Turks have already been forced to leave their homes". The Guardian reported a massacre of Turks at Limassol on 16 February 1964. Turkey had by now readied its fleet and its fighter jets appeared over Nicosia. Turkey was dissuaded from direct involvement by the creation of a United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus (UNFICYP) in 1964. Despite
7672-466: The Turkish Cypriots. By the time of his withdrawal 26 Turkish Cypriots had been killed. Turkey replied with an ultimatum demanding that Georgios Grivas be removed from the island, that the troops smuggled from Greece in excess of the limits of the Treaty of Alliance be removed, and that the economic blockades on the Turkish Cypriot enclaves be lifted. Grivas was recalled by the Athens Junta and
7809-433: The Turkish Vice-President to resume his functions, but they also noted 'the existence in practice of two autonomous administrations, that of the Greek Cypriot community and that of the Turkish Cypriot community'. By the time that the second Geneva conference met on 14 August 1974, international sympathy (which had been with the Turks in their first attack) was swinging back towards Greece now that it had restored democracy. At
7946-407: The Turkish government of Adnan Menderes to publicly express their support for Turkish-Cypriot cause, which they estimated would ensure the issue would not reach the United Nations Security Council . The Turkish Cypriot leadership visited Menderes to discuss the Cyprus issue. When asked how the Turkish Cypriots should respond to the Greek Cypriot claim of enosis , Menderes replied: "You should go to
8083-411: The Turkish occupation of 37% of Cyprus. Turkish occupation reached as far south as the Louroujina Salient . In the process, many Greek Cypriots became refugees . The number of refugees is estimated to be between 140,000 and 160,000. The ceasefire line from 1974 separates the two communities on the island, and is commonly referred to as the Green Line . After the conflict, Cypriot representatives and
8220-482: The Turkish populations. In the spring of 1974, Greek Cypriot intelligence discovered that EOKA-B was planning a coup against President Makarios which was sponsored by the military junta of Athens . The junta had come to power in 1967, via a military coup in Athens. In the autumn of 1973, after the student uprising on 17 November, there had been another coup in Athens , in which the original Greek junta had been replaced by one still more obscurantist , headed by
8357-440: The Turkish quarter of Skylloura, were killed in a suspected attack by Turkish Cypriot locals, near the village of Geunyeli, having been ordered to walk back to their village of Kondemenos . After the EOKA campaign against British rule began, the Eden ministry began looking for a way to extricate Britain from the situation. To this end, the Eden ministry resolved to temper demands for enosis in Greece and Cyprus by encouraging
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#17327661469668494-402: The United Nations consented to the transfer of the remainder of the 51,000 Turkish Cypriots that had not left their homes in the south to settle in the north, if they wished to do so. The United Nations Security Council has challenged the legality of Turkey's action, because Article Four of the Treaty of Guarantee gives the right to guarantors to take action with the sole aim of re-establishing
8631-427: The United States warned that his country was against an invasion, making a veiled threat that NATO would not aid Turkey if its invasion of Cyprus led to a conflict with the Soviet Union . More generally, although Resolution 186 had asked all countries to avoid interfering in Cypriot affairs, the United States disregarded this and, through persistent machinations, managed to overcome manoeuvring by Makarios and protests by
8768-422: The admission of Turkish troops to protect their population, equal rights for both populations, and access to the sea from the northern coast for Turkish Cypriots. Turkey, led by Prime Minister Bülent Ecevit , then appealed to the UK as a signatory of the Treaty of Guarantee to take action to return Cyprus to its neutral status. The UK declined this offer, and refused to let Turkey use its bases on Cyprus as part of
8905-425: The affection between Hindus and Muslims at that time. In 1857, the ‘ Great Mutiny ’ broke out in which the Hindus and Muslims jointly fought against the British. This shocked the British government so much that after suppressing the Mutiny, they decided to start the policy of divide and rule (see online "History in the Service of Imperialism" by B.N. Pande). All communal riots began after 1857, artificially engineered by
9042-404: The arrival of the British. The classic nationalist position was expressed by the Indian jurist and supporter of Indian reunification Markandey Katju , who wrote in the Pakistani paper The Nation in 2013: Up to 1857 , there were no communal problems in India; all communal riots and animosity began after 1857. No doubt even before 1857, there were differences between Hindus and Muslims,
9179-436: The attack. He fled the presidential palace from its back door and went to Paphos , where the British managed to retrieve him by Westland Whirlwind helicopter in the afternoon of 16 July and flew him from Akrotiri to Malta in a Royal Air Force Armstrong Whitworth Argosy transport aircraft and from there to London by de Havilland Comet the next morning. In the meantime, Nikos Sampson was declared provisional president of
9316-415: The ceasefire demanded in Resolution 353 . On 20 July, the 10,000 inhabitants of the Turkish Cypriot enclave of Limassol surrendered to the Cypriot National Guard. Following this, according to Turkish Cypriot and Greek Cypriot eyewitness accounts, the Turkish Cypriot quarter was burned, women raped and children shot. 1,300 Turkish Cypriots were confined in a prison camp afterwards. The enclave in Famagusta
9453-439: The chief of Military Police , Dimitrios Ioannidis ; though, the actual head was General Phaedon Gizikis . Ioannides believed that Makarios was no longer a true supporter of enosis, and suspected him of being a communist sympathiser. This led Ioannides to support EOKA-B and the National Guard, as they tried to undermine Makarios. On 2 July 1974, Makarios wrote an open letter to President Gizikis complaining bluntly that 'cadres of
9590-423: The coup against Makarios; one of the reasons was that Ioannides did not want to provoke a Turkish reaction. In response to the coup, US Secretary of State Henry Kissinger sent Joseph Sisco to try to mediate the conflict. Turkey issued a list of demands to Greece via a US negotiator. These demands included the immediate removal of Nikos Sampson, the withdrawal of 650 Greek officers from the Cypriot National Guard,
9727-475: The death of 364 Turkish and 174 Greek Cypriots, destruction of 109 Turkish Cypriot or mixed villages and displacement of 25,000–30,000 Turkish Cypriots. The British Daily Telegraph later called it an "anti Turkish pogrom ". A doomed truce was declared on 26 December 1963 and a British peacekeeping despatched to oversee it. In January 1964, negotiations were hosted by the British in London but their failure to make headway, and two vetoes thereafter by Makarios of
9864-419: The dissolution of the „Republic of Cyprus", economic consequences of a reunion and the remaining Turkish settlers as reason. Many claim that the plan was indeed drawing more from Turkish-Cypriot demands then Greek-Cypriot interests. Taking in consideration that the US wanted to keep Turkey as a strategic partner in future Middle Eastern conflicts. A week after the failed referendum the Republic of Cyprus joined
10001-791: The early 1980s, admitted to providing financial assistance to the Muslim Brotherhood , the precursor of Hamas, on the instruction of the Israeli authorities. The aim of the support was to weaken leftist and secular Palestinian organizations. Israel contributed to the construction of parts of Islamist politician Ahmed Yassin 's network of mosques, clubs, and schools in Gaza, as well as the expansion of these institutions. Shlomo Brom , retired general and former deputy to Israel's national security adviser, believes that an empowered Hamas helps Israeli Prime Minister Netanyahu avoid negotiatings over
10138-484: The effect of resolving most of the issues in the Greek Cypriot favour. Under the proposals, the President and Vice-President would lose their veto, the separate municipalities as sought after by the Turkish Cypriots would be abandoned, the need for separate majorities by both communities in passing legislation would be discarded and the civil service contribution would be set at actual population ratios (82:18) instead of
10275-465: The elites of both communities shared the belief that they were socially more progressive and better educated, and therefore distinct from the mainlanders. Greek and Turkish Cypriots lived quietly side by side for many years. Broadly, three main forces can be held responsible for transforming two ethnic communities into two national ones: education, British colonial practices, and insular religious teachings accompanying economic development. Formal education
10412-594: The emergency of the Congress and the Muslim League did not affect them. The Indian Army was totally apolitical till June 3rd 1947... In fact, during the Partition holocaust and till that date, both Muslim and non-Muslim soldiers remained totally impartial in dealing with communal violence. After June 3, 1947 things started changing. The Kabyle myth is a colonial trope that was propagated by French colonists in
10549-463: The end of the Turkish Cypriot involvement in the administration and their claiming that it had lost its legitimacy. The nature of this event is still controversial: in some areas, Greek Cypriots prevented Turkish Cypriots from travelling and entering government buildings, while some Turkish Cypriots willingly refused to withdraw due to the calls of the Turkish Cypriot administration. They started living in enclaves in different areas that were blockaded by
10686-465: The enemy states in an attempt to raise doubts about the alliance. Once the alliance weakens or dissolves, a vacuum will allow the hostile state to achieve military dominance . The divide and conquer strategy is similar to the notion of a wedge strategy . Some analysts assert that the United States is practicing the strategy in the 21st-century Middle East through their supposed escalation of
10823-412: The equipment and organisation of the Greek forces. The Secretary-General of the United Nations in 1964, U Thant , reported the damage during the conflicts: The situation worsened in 1967, when a military junta overthrew the democratically elected government of Greece, and began applying pressure on Makarios to achieve enosis . Makarios, not wishing to become part of a military dictatorship or trigger
10960-539: The ethnic composition of the island. The President would be a Greek Cypriot, and the Vice-President a Turkish Cypriot with an equal veto. The contribution to the public service would be set at a ratio of 70:30, and the Supreme Court would consist of an equal number of judges from both communities as well as an independent judge who was not Greek, Turkish or British. The Zurich Agreements were supplemented by
11097-432: The everyday life of individuals and emphasised Turkish identity as the main source of nationalism. Traditional education with a religious foundation was discarded and replaced with one that followed secular principles and, shorn of Arab and Persian influences, was purely Turkish. Turkish Cypriots quickly adopted the secular programme of Turkish nationalism . Under Ottoman rule Turkish Cypriots had been classified as Muslims,
11234-453: The exodus of Cretan Turks from Crete once the union with Greece was achieved. It was later supported and organised directly by the Turkish government, and the TMT declared war on the Greek Cypriot rebels as well. On 12 June 1958, eight Greek Cypriot men from Kondemenos village, who were arrested by the British police as part of an armed group suspected of preparing an attack against the Turkish Cypriot quarter of Skylloura , were killed by
11371-608: The exploitation of existing divisions within a political group by its political opponents, and also the deliberate creation or strengthening of such divisions. The phrase divide and conquer (from the latin divide et impera ) first appeared in English around 1600. The strategy of division and rule has been attributed to sovereigns, ranging from Louis XI of France to the House of Habsburg . Edward Coke denounces it in Chapter I of
11508-413: The identification documents of his customers, took out his gun upon arrival and shot and killed the taxi driver and his partner. Eric Solsten summarised the events as follows: "a Greek Cypriot police patrol, ostensibly checking identification documents, stopped a Turkish Cypriot couple on the edge of the Turkish quarter. A hostile crowd gathered, shots were fired, and two Turkish Cypriots were killed." In
11645-855: The island and its population was leased to Britain by the Cyprus Convention , an agreement reached during the Congress of Berlin in 1878 between the United Kingdom and the Ottoman Empire. On 5 November 1914, in response to the Ottoman Empire's entry into the First World War on the side of the Central Powers , the United Kingdom formally declared Cyprus (together with Egypt and Sudan ) a protectorate of
11782-538: The island before a ceasefire was declared. The Greek military junta collapsed and was replaced by a civilian government. Following the breakdown of peace talks, Turkish forces enlarged their original beachhead in August 1974 resulting in the capture of approximately 36% of the island. The ceasefire line from August 1974 became the United Nations Buffer Zone in Cyprus and is commonly referred to as
11919-476: The island first, and then to integrate the island with Greece. EOKA wished to remove all obstacles from their path to independence, or union with Greece. The first secret talks for EOKA, as a nationalist organisation established to integrate the island with Greece, were started under the chairmanship of Archbishop Makarios III in Athens on 2 July 1952. In the aftermath of these meetings a "Council of Revolution"
12056-502: The island for the next several weeks. In total 364 Turkish Cypriots and 174 Greek Cypriots were killed during the violence. 25,000 Turkish Cypriots from 103-109 villages fled and were displaced into enclaves and thousands of Turkish Cypriot houses were ransacked or completely destroyed. Contemporary newspapers also reported on the forceful exodus of the Turkish Cypriots from their homes. According to The Times in 1964, threats, shootings and attempts of arson were committed against
12193-486: The island in such a case as had been the case with Cretan Turks . As such, they preferred the continuation of British colonial rule and then taksim , the division of the island. Due to the Turkish Cypriots' support for the British, EOKA's leader, Georgios Grivas, declared them to be enemies. The fact that the Turks were a minority was, according to Nihat Erim , to be addressed by the transfer of thousands of Turks from mainland Turkey so that Greek Cypriots would cease to be
12330-466: The island, it will be taken over by the Turks", and that "Turkey cannot tolerate otherwise". This perspective contributed to the willingness of Turkish Cypriots to align themselves with the British, who started recruiting Turkish Cypriots into the police force that patrolled Cyprus to fight EOKA, a Greek Cypriot nationalist organisation that sought to rid the island of British rule. EOKA targeted colonial authorities, including police, but Georgios Grivas ,
12467-491: The island. The coup was ordered by the military junta in Greece and staged by the Cypriot National Guard in conjunction with EOKA B . It deposed the Cypriot president Archbishop Makarios III and installed Nikos Sampson . The aim of the coup was the union ( enosis ) of Cyprus with Greece , and the Hellenic Republic of Cyprus to be declared. The Turkish forces landed in Cyprus on 20 July and captured 3% of
12604-562: The island. This could be justified to the international community against the will of the majority Greek population of the island. Dr. Fazil Küçük in 1954 had already proposed Cyprus be divided in two at the 35° parallel. Lindley Dan, from Notre Dame University , spotted the roots of intercommunal violence to different visions among the two communities of Cyprus ( enosis for Greek Cypriots, taksim for Turkish Cypriots). Also, Lindlay wrote that "the merging of church, schools/education, and politics in divisive and nationalistic ways" had played
12741-562: The late 1970s and early 1980s, a period marked by significant political upheaval in the Middle East. Former Israeli officials have openly acknowledged Israel's role in providing funding and assistance to Hamas as a means of undermining secular Palestinian factions such as the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO). Brigadier General Yitzhak Segev , who served as the Israeli military governor in Gaza during
12878-458: The leader of EOKA, did not initially wish to open up a new front by fighting Turkish Cypriots and reassured them that EOKA would not harm their people. In 1956, some Turkish Cypriot policemen were killed by EOKA members and this provoked some intercommunal violence in the spring and summer, but these attacks on policemen were not motivated by the fact that they were Turkish Cypriots. However, in January 1957, Grivas changed his policy as his forces in
13015-515: The legitimisation of the resolution. The Turkish Cypriots voted with 65% for the plan, however the Greek Cypriots voted with a 76% majority against. The Annan plan contained multiple important topics. Firstly it established a confederation of two separate states called the United Cyprus Republic. Both communities would have autonomous states combined under one unified government. The members of parliament would be chosen according to
13152-399: The limits of what is desirable." After 1967 tensions between the Greek and Turkish Cypriots subsided. Instead, the main source of tension on the island came from factions within the Greek Cypriot community. Although Makarios had effectively abandoned enosis in favour of an 'attainable solution', many others continued to believe that the only legitimate political aspiration for Greek Cypriots
13289-532: The majority. When Erim visited Cyprus as the Turkish representative, he was advised by Field Marshal Sir John Harding , the then Governor of Cyprus , that Turkey should send educated Turks to settle in Cyprus. Turkey actively promoted the idea that on the island of Cyprus two distinctive communities existed, and sidestepped its former claim that "the people of Cyprus were all Turkish subjects". In doing so, Turkey's aim to have self-determination of two to-be equal communities in effect led to de jure partition of
13426-565: The measures, stating "In the event of a planned or staged Turkish attack, it is imperative to overcome it by force in the shortest possible time, because if we succeed in gaining command of the situation (in one or two days), no outside, intervention would be either justified or possible." Whether Makarios's proposals were part of the Akritas plan is unclear, however it remains that sentiment towards enosis had not completely disappeared with independence. Makarios described independence as "a step on
13563-665: The morning after the shooting, crowds gathered in protest in Northern Nicosia, likely encouraged by the TMT , without incident. On the evening of the 22nd, gunfire broke out, communication lines to the Turkish neighbourhoods were cut, and the Greek Cypriot police occupied the nearby airport. On the 23rd, a ceasefire was negotiated, but did not hold. Fighting, including automatic weapons fire, between Greek and Turkish Cypriots and militias increased in Nicosia and Larnaca . A force of Greek Cypriot irregulars led by Nikos Sampson entered
13700-573: The most strategic position on the island across the Nicosia– Kyrenia road, the historic jugular vein of the island. They retained control of that road until 1974, at which time it acted as a crucial link in Turkey's military invasion. From 1963 up to the point of the Turkish invasion of 20 July 1974, Greek Cypriots who wanted to use the road could only do so if accompanied by a UN convoy. 700 Turkish residents of northern Nicosia, among them women and children, were taken hostage. The violence resulted in
13837-534: The mountains became increasingly pressured by the British Crown forces. In order to divert the attention of the Crown forces, EOKA members started to target Turkish Cypriot policemen intentionally in the towns, so that Turkish Cypriots would riot against the Greek Cypriots and the security forces would have to be diverted to the towns to restore order. The killing of a Turkish Cypriot policeman on 19 January, when
13974-503: The negotiated ceasefire in Nicosia, attacks on the Turkish Cypriot persisted, particularly in Limassol. Concerned about the possibility of a Turkish invasion, Makarios undertook the creation of a Greek Cypriot conscript-based army called the "National Guard". A general from Greece took charge of the army, whilst a further 20,000 well-equipped officers and men were smuggled from Greece into Cyprus. Turkey threatened to intervene once more, but
14111-450: The new constitution allocated 30% of the public sector jobs and 40% of security force jobs to Turkish Cypriots, who made up 18.2% of the island's population, who had lived on the island for just under 400 years, and paid 7.5% of Direct & Indirect and 5% of Income taxes. Within three years tensions between the two communities in administrative affairs began to show. In particular disputes over separate municipalities and taxation created
14248-458: The new government. Sampson was an ultra-nationalist, pro- Enosis combatant who was known to be fanatically anti-Turkish and had taken part in violence against Turkish civilians in earlier conflicts. The Sampson regime took over radio stations and declared that Makarios had been killed; but Makarios, safe in London, was soon able to counteract these reports. The Turkish-Cypriots were not affected by
14385-458: The northern coast meeting resistance from Greek and Greek Cypriot forces. Ankara said that it was invoking its right under the Treaty of Guarantee to protect the Turkish Cypriots and guarantee the independence of Cyprus. By the time the UN Security Council was able to obtain a ceasefire on 22 July the Turkish forces were in command of a narrow path between Kyrenia and Nicosia, 3% of the territory of Cyprus, which they succeeded in widening, violating
14522-535: The notion of divide and rule would predict, the British Indian Army was effectively integrated: The undivided army was a unique institution set up by the British in India... [A]ll combat units, except Gorkhas and Garhwalis , had a mixed combination of Muslims and non-Muslims. They fought wars together and lived as friendly comrades in peace, owing loyalty to their regiments. Political developments with
14659-536: The operation. According to American diplomat James W. Spain , on the eve of the Turkish invasion US president Richard Nixon sent a letter to Bülent Ecevit that was not just reminiscent of Lyndon B. Johnson 's letter to İsmet İnönü in the Cyprus crisis of 1963–64 , but even harsher. However, Nixon's letter never reached the hands of the Turkish prime minister, and no one ever heard anything about it. Turkey invaded Cyprus on Saturday, 20 July 1974. Heavily armed troops landed shortly before dawn at Kyrenia (Girne) on
14796-446: The percentage in population numbers to ensure a just involvement from both communities. The paper proposed a demilitarisation of the island over the next years. Furthermore it agreed upon a number of 45000 Turkish settlers that could remain on the island. These settlers became a very important issue concerning peace talks. Originally the Turkish government encouraged Turks to settle in Cyprus providing transfer and property, to establish
14933-412: The presidential and vice-presidential veto power. These amendments were rejected by the Turkish side and the Turkish representation left the government, although there is some dispute over whether they left in protest or were forced out by the National Guard. The 1960 constitution fell apart and communal violence erupted on 21 December 1963, when two Turkish Cypriots were killed at an incident involving
15070-498: The riots had merely been an act of Turkish Cypriot aggression. Such events created chaos and drove the communities apart both in Cyprus and in Turkey. On 22 October 1957 Sir Hugh Mackintosh Foot replaced Sir John Harding as the British Governor of Cyprus. Foot suggested five to seven years of self-government before any final decision. His plan rejected both enosis and taksim . The Turkish Cypriot response to this plan
15207-427: The road to enosis ". Preparations for conflict were not entirely absent from Turkish Cypriots either, with right wing elements still believing taksim (partition) the best safeguard against enosis . Greek Cypriots however believe the amendments were a necessity stemming from a perceived attempt by Turkish Cypriots to frustrate the working of government. Turkish Cypriots saw it as a means to reduce their status within
15344-416: The root and the summit of authority are confirmed by the consent of the subjects.") In a minor variation, Sir Francis Bacon wrote the phrase as separa et impera in a letter to James I of 15 February 1615. James Madison made this recommendation in a letter to Thomas Jefferson of 24 October 1787, which summarized the thesis of The Federalist#10 : "Divide et impera, the reprobated axiom of tyranny,
15481-548: The second round of peace talks, Turkey demanded that the Cypriot government accept its plan for a federal state , and population transfer . When the Cypriot acting president Clerides asked for 36 to 48 hours in order to consult with Athens and with Greek Cypriot leaders, the Turkish Foreign Minister denied Clerides that opportunity on the grounds that Makarios and others would use it to play for more time. The Turkish Foreign Minister Turan Güneş had said to
15618-410: The separate Turkish Cypriot municipal councils permitted by the British in 1958, made subject to review under the 1960 agreements. For many Greek Cypriots these municipalities were the first stage on the way to the partition they feared. The Greek Cypriots wanted enosis , integration with Greece, while Turkish Cypriots wanted taksim , partition between Greece and Turkey. Resentment also rose within
15755-543: The significance of other differences. Turkish nationalism was at the core of the revolutionary programme promoted by the father of modern Turkey, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (1881–1938) and affected Turkish Cypriots who followed his principles. President of the Republic of Turkey from 1923 to 1938, Atatürk attempted to build a new nation on the ruins of the Ottoman Empire and elaborated the programme of " six principles " (the "Six Arrows") to do so. These principles of secularism ( laicism ) and nationalism reduced Islam's role in
15892-444: The situation was not settled until Turkey threatened to invade on the basis that it would be protecting the Turkish population from ethnic cleansing by Greek Cypriot forces. To avoid that, a compromise was reached for Greece to be forced to remove some of its troops from the island; for Georgios Grivas , EOKA leader, to be forced to leave Cyprus and for the Cypriot government to lift some restrictions of movement and access to supplies of
16029-564: The size of the Auxiliary Police and in September 1955, established the Special Mobile Reserve which was made up exclusively of Turkish Cypriots , to combat EOKA . This and similar practices contributed to inter-communal animosity. Although economic development and increased education reduced the explicitly religious characteristics of the two communities, the growth of nationalism on the two mainlands increased
16166-493: The slightly higher figure for Turkish Cypriots. The intention behind the amendments has long been called into question. The Akritas plan , written in the height of the constitutional dispute by the Greek Cypriot interior minister Polycarpos Georkadjis , called for the removal of undesirable elements of the constitution so as to allow power-sharing to work. The plan envisaged a swift retaliatory attack on Turkish Cypriot strongholds should Turkish Cypriots resort to violence to resist
16303-553: The south to the north. The Turkish invasion ended in the partition of Cyprus along the UN-monitored Green Line, which still divides Cyprus, and the formation of a de facto Autonomous Turkish Cypriot Administration in the north. In 1983, the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC) declared independence , although Turkey is the only country that recognises it. The international community considers
16440-403: The state from one of co-founder to that of minority, seeing it as a first step towards enosis. The security situation deteriorated rapidly. An armed conflict was triggered after December 21, 1963, a period remembered by Turkish Cypriots as Bloody Christmas , when a Greek Cypriot policemen that had been called to help deal with a taxi driver refusing officers already on the scene access to check
16577-423: The state of affairs. The aftermath of Turkey's invasion, however, did not safeguard the Republic's sovereignty and territorial integrity, but had the opposite effect: the de facto partition of the Republic and the creation of a separate political entity in the north. On 13 February 1975, Turkey declared the occupied areas of the Republic of Cyprus to be a "Federated Turkish State", to the universal condemnation of
16714-594: The stated aim of raising awareness in Turkey of the Cyprus issue and courting military training and support for Turkish Cypriot fighters from the Turkish government. In June 1958, the British Prime Minister , Harold Macmillan , was expected to propose a plan to resolve the Cyprus issue. In light of the new development, the Turks rioted in Nicosia to promote the idea that Greek and Turkish Cypriots could not live together and therefore any plan that did not include partition would not be viable. This violence
16851-405: The traits of a "political moralist." In politics, the concept refers to a strategy that breaks up existing power structures, and especially prevents smaller power groups from linking up, causing rivalries and fomenting discord among the people to prevent a rebellion against the elites or the people implementing the strategy. The goal is either to pit the lower classes against themselves to prevent
16988-514: The two main ethnic communities, Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots , marked mid-20th century Cyprus . These included the Cyprus Emergency of 1955–59 during British rule, the post-independence Cyprus crisis of 1963–64, and the Cyprus crisis of 1967. Hostilities culminated in the 1974 de facto division of the island along the Green Line following the Turkish invasion of Cyprus . The region has been relatively peaceful since then, but
17125-546: The war, an act that was highly criticised as an act of treason. Shortly after this Nikos Sampson renounced the presidency and Glafcos Clerides temporarily took the role of president. The first round of peace talks took place in Geneva , Switzerland between 25 and 30 July 1974, James Callaghan , the British Foreign Secretary, having summoned a conference of the three guarantor powers. There they issued
17262-408: Was a fact of life. As Maulana Muhammad Ali would later put it, 'we divide and you rule'. Without recognising, exploring and accommodating such division, British dominion in India would have been impossible to establish, let alone sustain. Provoking sectarian conflict, on the other hand, was rarely in British interest. General S.K. Sinha , former Vice-Chief of Army Staff, writes that contrary to what
17399-493: Was a series of anti-British demonstrations in Nicosia on 27 and 28 January 1958 rejecting the proposed plan because the plan did not include partition. The British then withdrew the plan. In 1957, Black Gang , a Turkish Cypriot pro- taksim paramilitary organisation, was formed to patrol a Turkish Cypriot enclave , the Tahtakale district of Nicosia , against activities of EOKA. The organisation later attempted to grow into
17536-407: Was aimed at reforming the constitution in favour of Greek Cypriots, persuading the international community about the correctness of the changes and violently subjugating Turkish Cypriots in a few days should they not accept the plan. The amendments would have involved the Turkish community giving up many of their protections as a minority, including adjusting ethnic quotas in the government and revoking
17673-432: Was established on 7 March 1953. In early 1954 secret weaponry shipments to Cyprus started with the knowledge of the Greek government . Lt. Georgios Grivas , formerly an officer in the Greek army, covertly disembarked on the island on 9 November 1954 and EOKA's campaign against the British forces began to grow. The first Turk to be killed by EOKA on 21 June 1955 was a policeman. EOKA also killed Greek Cypriot leftists. After
17810-505: Was extremely unlikely. The Greek Cypriot leader, Archbishop Makarios III , now set independence for the island as his primary objective. Britain resolved to solve the dispute by creating an independent Cyprus. In 1959, all involved parties signed the Zurich Agreements: Britain, Turkey, Greece, and the Greek and Turkish Cypriot leaders, Makarios and Dr. Fazil Kucuk , respectively. The new constitution drew heavily on
17947-504: Was installed. The Resolution 353 was broken after Turkey attacked a second time and managed to get a hold of 37% of Cyprus territory. The Island of Cyprus was appointed a Buffer Zone by the United Nations, which divided the island into two zones through the 'Green Line' and put an end to the Turkish invasion. Although Turkey announced that the occupied areas of Cyprus to be called the Federated Turkish State in 1975, it
18084-471: Was perhaps the most important as it affected Cypriots during childhood and youth; education has been a main vehicle of transferring inter-communal hostility. British colonial policies, such as the principle of " divide and rule ", promoted ethnic polarisation as a strategy to reduce the threat to colonial control. For example, when Greek Cypriots rebelled in the 1950s, the Colonial Office expanded
18221-546: Was prevented by a strongly worded letter from the American President Lyndon B. Johnson , anxious to avoid a conflict between NATO allies Greece and Turkey at the height of the Cold War . Turkish Cypriots had by now established an important bridgehead at Kokkina , provided with arms, volunteers and materials from Turkey and abroad. Seeing this incursion of foreign weapons and troops as a major threat,
18358-536: Was soon followed by bombing, Greek Cypriot deaths and looting of Greek Cypriot-owned shops and houses. Greek and Turkish Cypriots started to flee mixed population villages where they were a minority in search of safety. This was effectively the beginning of the segregation of the two communities. On 7 June 1958, a bomb exploded at the entrance of the Turkish Embassy in Cyprus. Following the bombing, Turkish Cypriots looted Greek Cypriot properties. On 26 June 1984,
18495-653: Was subjected to shelling and the Turkish Cypriot town of Lefka was occupied by Greek Cypriot troops. According to the International Committee of the Red Cross , the prisoners of war taken at this stage and before the second invasion included 385 Greek Cypriots in Adana , 63 Greek Cypriots in the Saray Prison and 3,268 Turkish Cypriots in various camps in Cyprus. On the night of 21 to 22 July 1974,
18632-408: Was the old Roman maxim, and it should be ours." A Times Literary Supplement review by British historian Jon Wilson suggests that although this was broadly the case a more nuanced approach might be closer to the facts. On the other hand, Proponents of Hindutva , the ideology of the current and recent Indian governments over the years, stress strongly Hindu-Muslim conflict going back centuries before
18769-517: Was union with Greece. On his arrival, Grivas began by establishing a nationalist paramilitary group known as the National Organization of Cypriot Fighters (Ethniki Organosis Kyprion Agoniston B or EOKA-B ), drawing comparisons with the EOKA struggle for enosis under the British colonial administration of the 1950s. The military junta in Athens saw Makarios as an obstacle. Makarios's failure to disband
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