Misplaced Pages

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87-518: Japan was in a strong position, as the Western powers were in a stalemate world war with Germany. Britain and Japan had a military alliance since 1902 , and in 1914 London had asked Tokyo to enter the war. Beijing published the secret demands and appealed to Washington and London. They were sympathetic and forced Tokyo to drop section 5 in the final 1916 settlement. Japan gained a little in China, but lost

174-512: A "paternalistic vision" of "defending and reforming China." This vision defined China in terms of two struggles, first, a Chinese domestic struggle between progressive reform and feudal inertia, and the second an international struggle which pitted the "selfish imperialism" of Britain, Russia, and Japan against the supposedly benevolent policies of the United States. Over the next decades, American diplomats, missionaries, and businessmen took

261-666: A compromise over the issue of Korea. Extremists saw it as an open invitation for imperial expansion, many in Japan having long desired a showdown with Russia. The provision on the involvement of more than one power (article 3) recalled the Triple Intervention by the Russian-French-German coalition in 1895, and strengthened Japan's hand both diplomatically and militarily against a potential European coalition. In May 1902, Major General Fukushima Yasumasa , who

348-462: A conflict arose where Japan only had one adversary. Japan was likewise not obligated to defend British interests unless there were two adversaries. Although written using careful and clear language, the two sides understood the Treaty slightly differently. Britain saw it as a gentle warning to Russia, while Japan was emboldened by it. From that point on, even those of a moderate stance refused to accept

435-544: A cultural-historical parallel between Britain and Japan as symmetrical "Island Empires" in East and West. Organized by the Japanese government, it was one of the largest such expositions at its time. Despite the ostensibly friendly relations between Britain and Japan during the early 20th century, the relationship started to strain over various issues. One such strain was the issue of the " racial equality clause " as proposed by

522-588: A great deal of prestige and trust in Britain and the U.S. The Chinese public responded with a spontaneous nationwide boycott of Japanese goods; Japan's exports to China fell drastically. Britain was affronted and no longer trusted Japan as an ally. With the First World War underway, Japan's position was strong and Britain's was weak; nevertheless, Britain (and the United States) forced Japan to drop

609-752: A loose alliance without any commitment to armed alliances. The Four-Power Treaty at the Washington Conference made the Anglo–Japanese Alliance defunct in December, 1921; however, it would not officially terminate until all parties ratified the treaty on 17 August 1923. At that time, the Alliance was officially terminated, as per Article IV in the Anglo–Japanese Alliance Treaties of 1902 and 1911. The distrust between

696-474: A major limitation of the alliance. British banks saw Japan as a risky investment due to what they saw as restrictive property laws and an unstable financial situation, and offered loans to Japan with high interest rates, similar to those they offered the Ottoman Empire , Chile, China, and Egypt , which was disappointing to Japan. The banker and later Prime Minister Takahashi Korekiyo argued that Britain

783-414: A reconciliation with Russia. He was mostly unsuccessful, and Britain expressed concerns over duplicity on Japan's part, so Hayashi hurriedly re-entered negotiations in 1902. " Splendid isolation " was ended as for the first time Britain saw the need for a peace-time military alliance. It was the first alliance on equal terms between East and West. For Britain, the revision of "Splendid isolation" spurred by

870-506: A result of these factors many Russians blamed the British for their defeat. Outright war between Russia and Britain came close during the Dogger bank incident . Japan, for its part, did not attempt to involve the British, instead going to great pains to show their victories were their own. Meanwhile, even before the war, British and Japanese intelligence had co-operated against Russia due to

957-734: A special interest in China, many of them envisioning that China would follow the American example. However these dreams proved difficult to realize. American investments, while considerable, did not reach major proportions; the Open Door policy could not protect China against Japanese interference, first the Manchurian Incident of 1931, then the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945), and Chinese leaders, while willing to seek American aid, were not willing to play

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1044-471: A unified international policy. One of the major issues of the conference was the renewal of the Anglo–Japanese Alliance. The conference began with all but Canadian Prime Minister Arthur Meighen supporting the immediate renewal of an alliance with Japan. The prevailing hope was for a continuance of the alliance with the Pacific power, which could potentially provide security for British imperial interests in

1131-676: Is dedicated to the 72 Japanese sailors who died in the conflict, including the 1917 torpedoing of the Japanese destroyer Sakaki . The alliance formed the basis for positive trading and cultural exchanges between Britain and Japan. Japanese agencies published numerous English-language releases and publications. Rapid industrialisation and the development of the Japanese armed forces provided significant new export opportunities for British shipyards and arms manufacturers. Japanese educated in Britain were also able to bring new technology to Japan, such as advances in ophthalmology . British artists of

1218-508: The Telegraph were the driving force behind such support, while in Japan the pro-alliance mood of politician Ōkuma Shigenobu stirred the Mainichi and Yomiuri newspapers into pro-alliance advocacy. The 1894 Anglo-Japanese Treaty of Commerce and Navigation had also paved the way for equal relations and the possibility of an alliance. In the end, the common interest truly fuelling

1305-610: The genrō and Emperor Taishō , and approved by the Diet . Ambassador Hioki Eki delivered the list to President Yuan Shikai of the Beiyang government in a private audience on 18 January 1915, with warnings of dire consequences if China were to reject them. The Twenty One Demands were divided into five groups: Knowing the negative reaction "Group 5" would cause, Japan initially tried to keep its contents secret. The Chinese government attempted to stall for as long as possible and leaked

1392-577: The Kiautschou Bay concession since 1898. With the onset of the First World War, Japan declared war against Germany on 23 August 1914. Japanese and British forces quickly seized all German holdings in the Far East, after the Siege of Tsingtao . Japan, under Prime Minister Ōkuma Shigenobu and Foreign Minister Katō Takaaki , drafted the initial list of Twenty-One Demands, which were reviewed by

1479-551: The Paris Peace Conference of 1919–1920. On 8 July 1920, the two governments issued a joint statement to the effect that the alliance treaty "is not entirely consistent with the letter of that Covenant (of the League of Nations), which both Governments earnestly desire to respect". The demise of the alliance was signaled by the 1921 Imperial Conference , in which British and Dominion leaders convened to determine

1566-727: The Philippine Islands , the United States increased its Asian presence and expected to further its commercial and political interests in China. It felt threatened by other powers' much larger spheres of influence in China and worried that it might lose access to the Chinese market if it were to be partitioned. As a response, William Woodville Rockhill formulated the Open Door Policy to safeguard American business opportunities and other interests in China. On September 6, 1899, U.S. Secretary of State John Hay sent notes to

1653-666: The Qing dynasty China after the First Opium War (1839–1842) which included most favored nation provisions designed to keep any one nation from gaining an advantage. The concept was seen at the Berlin Conference of 1885, which declared that no power could levy preferential duties in the Congo . As a concept and policy, the Open Door Policy was a principle that was never formally adopted via treaty or international law. It

1740-667: The Triple Intervention of France, Germany and Russia against the Japanese occupation of the Liaodong Peninsula . While this single event was an unstable basis for an alliance, the case was strengthened by the support Britain had given Japan in its drive towards modernisation and their co-operative efforts to put down the Boxer Rebellion . Newspapers of both countries voiced support for such an alliance; in Britain, Francis Brinkley of The Times and Edwin Arnold of

1827-542: The 1911 revision. The first version of the alliance was announced on 12 February 1902. In response, Russia sought to form alliances with France and Germany, which Germany declined. The French also were reluctant to become more deeply involved with Russia in east Asia. On 16 March 1902, a joint Franco-Russian declaration was issued responding to the alliance, reserving their right to intervene in and around China to defend their interests. The British and later historians found this declaration to be "anodyne", signaling that France

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1914-410: The 20th and 21st centuries, scholars such as Christopher Layne in the neorealist school have generalized the use of the term to applications in 'political' open door policies and 'economic' open door policies of nations in general, which interact on a global or international basis. The theory of the Open Door Policy originated with British commercial practice, as reflected in treaties concluded with

2001-608: The Anglo-Japanese Alliance, culminated in the Entente Cordiale (1904) with France and Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907 . The treaty contained six articles: Article 1 Article 2 Article 3 Article 4 Article 5 Article 6 Articles 2 and 3 were most crucial concerning war and mutual defense. The treaty laid out an acknowledgment of Japanese interests in Korea without obligating Britain to help if

2088-509: The Anglo-Japanese Alliance. During the war, Indian Army stations in Malaya and China often intercepted and read wireless and telegraph cable traffic relating to the war, which was shared with the Japanese. In their turn, the Japanese shared information about Russia with the British with one British official writing of the "perfect quality" of Japanese intelligence. In particular, British and Japanese intelligence gathered much evidence that Germany

2175-494: The Anglo–Japanese Alliance would create a Japanese-dominated market in the Pacific, and close China off from American trade. These fears were elevated by the news media in America and Canada, which reported alleged secret anti-American clauses in the treaty, and advised the public to support abrogation. The press, combined with Meighen's convincing argument of Canadian fears that Japan would attack imperial assets in China, caused

2262-538: The British Empire and Japan, as well as the manner in which the Anglo–Japanese Alliance concluded, have been suggested by some as being leading causes in Japan's involvement in World War II . However, more recent scholarship has argued against this, on the basis that Japan-British imperial interests had already substantially conflicted before 1921: therefore the end of the Alliance was instead symptomatic of

2349-608: The British and the Americans to push for the termination of the alliance. Open Door Policy The Open Door Policy ( Chinese : 門戶開放政策 ) is the United States diplomatic policy established in the late 19th and early 20th century that called for a system of equal trade and investment and to guarantee the territorial integrity of Qing China . The policy was created in U.S. Secretary of State John Hay 's Open Door Note , dated September 6, 1899, and circulated to

2436-490: The Chinese delegation to sign the treaty). This, in turn, provoked ill-will from the United States government, as well as widespread hostility within China; a large-scale boycott against Japanese goods was just one effect. In 1922, the U.S. brokered a solution: China was awarded nominal sovereignty over all of Shandong, while in practice Japan's economic dominance continued. Anglo-Japanese Alliance The first Anglo-Japanese Alliance ( 日英同盟 , Nichi-Ei Dōmei )

2523-650: The Demands. American Minister Paul Reinsch reported to the US State Department that the Chinese were surprised at the leniency of the ultimatum, as it demanded much less than they had already committed themselves to concede. The results of the revised final (Thirteen Demands) version of the Twenty-One Demands were far more negative for Japan than positive. Without "Group 5", the new treaty gave Japan little more than it already had in China. On

2610-563: The Imperial Conference to shelve the alliance. The conference communicated their desire to consider leaving the alliance to the League of Nations , which stated that the alliance would continue, as originally stated with the leaving party giving the other a twelve-month notice of their intentions. The British Empire decided to sacrifice its alliance with Japan in favour of goodwill with the United States, yet it desired to prevent

2697-514: The Japanese delegation at the Paris Peace Conference . The clause, which was to be attached to the Covenant of the League of Nations , was compatible with the British stance of equality for all subjects as a principle for maintaining imperial unity; however, there were significant deviations in the stated interests of Britain's dominions , notably Australia , and the British delegation ultimately acceded to imperial opposition and declined to support

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2784-434: The Japanese government gained little influence in China, but lost prestige amongst the Western nations (including Britain, which was affronted and no longer trusted the Japanese as a reliable ally). Even though Britain was the wealthiest industrialized power, and Japan was a newly industrialized power with a large export market, which would seem to create natural economic ties, those ties were somewhat limited, which provided

2871-590: The Japanese government to channel it through some controlled enterprises acting as intermediaries with the private sector in London and Tokyo, which was seen as excess regulation by some British industrialists. Nevertheless, Britain did lend capital to Japan during the Russo-Japanese War, while Japan provided major loans to the Entente during World War I. The alliance was viewed as an obstacle already at

2958-421: The Open Door Policy as a basic doctrine, and Chinese diplomats appealed to it as they sought American support, but critics pointed out that the policy had little practical effect. The term "Open Door" also describes the economic policy initiated by Deng Xiaoping in 1978 to open China to foreign businesses that wanted to invest in the country. The policy set into motion the economic transformation of China. In

3045-435: The Open Door Policy refers to the new policy announced by Deng Xiaoping in December 1978 to open the door to foreign businesses that wanted to set up in China. Special Economic Zones (SEZ) were set up in 1980 in his belief that to modernize China's industry and boost its economy, he needed to welcome foreign direct investment. Chinese economic policy then shifted to encouraging and supporting foreign trade and investment. It

3132-470: The Open Door Policy, competition continued abated among the various powers for special concessions within China for railroad rights, mining rights, loans, foreign trade ports, and so forth. On October 6, 1900, Britain and Germany signed the Yangtze Agreement to oppose the partition of China into spheres of influence. The agreement, signed by Lord Salisbury and Ambassador Paul von Hatzfeldt ,

3219-654: The Resident-General to Seoul. At the renewal in 1911, Japanese diplomat Komura Jutarō played a key role to restore Japan's tariff autonomy. Although the "second" alliance in 1905 was meant to last a decade, the alliance was renewed earlier in 1911. Over those six years, great power politics had substantially changed, following the Anglo-Russian entente of 1907 settling the Russo-British Great Game ; continuing Japanese negotiations in

3306-574: The US, which was uncomfortable with the rise of Japan as a power. Furthermore, Britain was unwilling to protect Japanese interests in Korea and likewise, the Japanese were unwilling to support Britain in India. Hayashi and Lord Lansdowne began their discussions in July 1901, and disputes over Korea and India delayed them until November. At this point, Hirobumi Itō requested a delay in negotiations in order to attempt

3393-591: The United States and Japan. There were renewed assurances that the Open Door Policy would be respected, but the United States would recognize Japan's special interests in China (the Lansing–Ishii Agreement ). The Open Door Policy had been further weakened by a series of secret treaties in 1917 between Japan and the Allied Triple Entente that promised Japan the German possessions in China after

3480-461: The United States and became the world's biggest trading nation in goods, with a total for imports and exports valued at US$ 4.16 trillion for the year. On 21 July 2020, Chinese Communist Party general secretary Xi Jinping made a speech to a group of public and private business leaders at the entrepreneur forum in Beijing. Xi emphasized that "We must gradually form a new development pattern with

3567-511: The United States policy had consistently maintained fundamental principles, "which include the doctrine of the Open Door...." Since the policy effectively hindered Chinese sovereignty, the government of the Republic of China endeavored to revise the related treaties with foreign powers in the 1920s and 1930s. However, only after the conclusion of World War II would China manage to regain its full sovereignty. In China's modern economic history,

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3654-462: The United States, demanded the British Empire remove itself from the treaty to avoid being forced into a war between the two nations. The rest of the delegates agreed that it was best to court America and try to find a solution that the American government would find suitable, but only Meighen called for the complete abrogation of the treaty. The American government feared that the renewal of

3741-511: The alliance was opposition to Russian expansion, such as the invasion of Manchuria continuing after the Boxer Rebellion. This was made clear as early as the 1890s, when the British diplomat Cecil Spring Rice identified that Britain and Japan working in concert was the only way to challenge Russian power in the region. Negotiations began when Russia began to move into China . Nevertheless, both countries had their reservations. Britain

3828-606: The already-present political reality of eroding ties between both countries, rather than its cause. Britain had for example, become increasingly suspicious of a potential Japanese threat to its Asian colonies and interests, due to growing Japanese ambitions in China, the rise in Pan-Asianism, as demonstrated by Japanese support for Indian revolutionaries and the presence of Japanese propagandists in Malaya and India. According to Zoltan Buzas, racially shaped threat perceptions led

3915-476: The area. The Australians feared that they could not fend off any advances from the Imperial Japanese Navy , and desired a continuance of the buildup of naval resources for a possible future conflict as they feared that an alliance with the United States (then in a state of post-war isolationism ) would provide little protection. Meighen, fearing that a conflict could develop between Japan and

4002-511: The average annual rate of trade expansion was above 15 percent, and a high rate of growth continued for the next decade. In 1978, its exports in the world market share was negligible and in 1998, it still had less than 2%, but by 2010, it had a world market share of 10.4% according to the World Trade Organization (WTO), with merchandise export sales of more than $ 1.5 trillion, the highest in the world. In 2013, China overtook

4089-556: The book as having a major impact on opportunities for people with blindness. The Japan–British Exhibition in 1910 in White City, London had eight million visitors. It sought to promote knowledge of Japan's modernization and the idea of an 'alliance of peoples' between Britain and Japan. It featured Japanese fine arts, musicians, Sumo demonstrations, and influenced by Edwardian expectations, it featured exhibitions of Ainu, Taiwanese and Japanese 'villages'. The organizers portrayed

4176-467: The clause. Another strain was the Twenty-One Demands issued by Japan to the Republic of China in 1915. The demands would have drastically increased Japanese influence in China and transformed the Chinese state into a de facto protectorate of Japan. Feeling desperate, the Chinese government appealed to Britain and the U.S., which forced Japan to moderate the demands issued; ultimately,

4263-713: The countries of the future." Henry Dyer wrote after 1906 that Japanese bonds "has aroused keen interest among British investors, who have always been partial to Japanese bonds." Dyer, a recipient of the Order of the Rising Sun from Emperor Meiji, had played a role in the expansion of industrialization and engineering in Japan as part of a significant foreign investment. Dyer criticized what he saw as widespread British skepticism of Japan's economy. Meanwhile, influential industrialists in Japan such as businessman Iwasaki Yanosuke were at times skeptical of foreign investment, which led

4350-547: The country, which set into motion the economic transformation of modern China. With its defeat in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895), China faced an imminent threat of being partitioned and colonized by imperial powers with a presence in China (which included France, Germany, Britain, Italy, Japan, and Russia). After winning the Spanish–American War of 1898, with the newly acquired territory of

4437-415: The domestic internal circulation as the main body and the domestic and international dual circulations mutually promoting each other." Since then "internal circulation" became a hot word in China. Some Chinese worry that the emphasis of "internal circulation"signals returning to 1960s-era seclusion, and ending of open door policy. Scholars such as Christopher Layne in the neorealist school have generalized

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4524-829: The equator during the War. Japan attacked the German base at Qingdao in 1914 and forced the Germans to surrender (see Siege of Tsingtao ). Japanese officers aboard British warships were casualties at the Battle of Jutland in 1916. In 1917, Japanese warships were sent to the Mediterranean and assisted in the protection of Allied shipping near Malta from U-boat attacks. A memorial at the Kalkara Naval Cemetery in Malta

4611-498: The expected alliance between Japan and either Germany or Russia from coming into being. Empire delegates convinced America to invite several nations to Washington to participate in talks regarding Pacific and Far East policies, specifically naval disarmament. Japan came to the Washington Naval Conference with a deep mistrust of Britain, feeling that London no longer wanted what was best for Japan. Despite

4698-576: The fifth set of demands that would have given Japan a large measure of control over the entire Chinese economy and ended the Open Door Policy . Japan and China reached a series of agreements which ratified the first four sets of goals on 25 May 1915. Japan had gained a large sphere of influence in northern China and Manchuria through its victories in the First Sino-Japanese War and the Russo-Japanese War , and had thus joined

4785-436: The full contents of the Twenty-One Demands to European powers in the hope that due to a perceived threat to their own political and economic spheres of interest, they would help contain Japan. After China rejected Japan's revised proposal on 26 April 1915, the genrō intervened and deleted ‘Group 5’ from the document, as these had proved to be the most objectionable to the Chinese government. A reduced set of "Thirteen Demands"

4872-552: The growing rift, Japan joined the conference in hopes of avoiding a war with the United States. The Pacific powers of the United States, Japan, France and Britain would sign the Four-Power Treaty , and adding on various other countries such as China to create the Nine-Power Treaty . The Four-Power Treaty would provide a minimal structure for the expectations of international relations in the Pacific, as well as

4959-570: The major European powers. In order to prevent the " carving of China like a melon ", as they were doing in Africa , the Note asked the powers to keep China open to trade with all countries on an equal basis and called upon all powers, within their spheres of influence to refrain from interfering with any treaty port or any vested interest, to permit Chinese authorities to collect tariffs on an equal basis, and to show no favors to their own nationals in

5046-421: The major powers (France, Germany, Britain, Italy, Japan, and Russia) to ask them to declare formally that they would uphold Chinese territorial and administrative integrity and they would not interfere with the free use of the treaty ports in their spheres of influence in China. The Open Door Policy stated that all nations, including the United States, could enjoy equal access to the Chinese market. Hay's logic

5133-443: The matter of harbor dues or railroad charges. The policy was accepted only grudgingly, if at all, by the major powers, and it had no legal standing or enforcement mechanism. In July 1900, as the powers contemplated intervention to put down the violently anti-foreign Boxer uprising , Hay circulated a Second Open Door Note affirming the principles. Over the next decades, American policy-makers and national figures continued to refer to

5220-438: The other hand, the United States expressed strongly negative reactions to Japan's rejection of the Open Door Policy . In the Bryan Note issued by Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan on 13 March 1915, the U.S., while affirming Japan's "special interests" in Manchuria, Mongolia and Shandong, expressed concern over further encroachments to Chinese sovereignty. Great Britain, Japan's closest ally , expressed concern over what

5307-402: The overall political impact of Japan's actions was highly negative, creating a considerable amount of public ill-will towards Japan , contributing to the May Fourth Movement , and a significant upsurge in nationalism . Japan continued to push for outright control over Shandong Province and won European diplomatic recognition for their claim at the Treaty of Versailles (despite the refusal of

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5394-481: The passive role that the Open Door implied. In 1902, the U.S. government protested that the Russian incursion into Manchuria after the Boxer Rebellion was a violation of the Open Door Policy. When Japan replaced Russia in southern Manchuria after the Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905) the Japanese and American governments pledged to maintain a policy of equality in Manchuria. In 1905–1907 Japan made overtures to enlarge its sphere of influence to include Fujian . Japan

5481-422: The ranks of the European imperialist powers in their scramble to establish political and economic domination over Imperial China under the Qing dynasty . With the overthrow of the Qing dynasty in the Xinhai Revolution , and the subsequent establishment of the new Republic of China, Japan saw an opportunity to further expand its position in China. The German Empire was in control of Shandong province as part of

5568-545: The successful conclusion of World War I. The subsequent realization of the promise in the 1919 Versailles Treaty angered the Chinese public and sparked the protest known as the May Fourth Movement . The Nine-Power Treaty , signed in 1922, expressly reaffirmed the Open Door Policy. In 1949, the United States State Department issued the China White Paper , a selection of official documents on United States-China relations, 1900–1949. The introductory "Letter of Transmittal," signed by Secretary of State Dean Acheson , asserted that

5655-500: The time such as James McNeill Whistler , Aubrey Beardsley and Charles Rennie Mackintosh were heavily inspired by Japanese kimono , swords , crafts and architecture . Unique cultural exchanges included that the author Yoshimoto Tadasu (b. 1878, d. 1973), who wrote True Britain (Shin no Eikoku) in 1902, was the first blind person in Japan to receive higher education, and brought some British ideas on public welfare to Japan. The clergyman Kumagai Tetsutaro (b. 1883, d. 1979) praised

5742-420: The two in July. Fukushima represented Emperor Meiji at the coronation of King Edward VII on 9 August and stayed until September 1902 to work on the details. The existence and contents of the agreements were not made public. The alliance was renewed and extended in 1905. This was partly prompted by Japan's gains in the Russo-Japanese War which prompted a restatement of the Japanese-British agreement. It

5829-418: The use of the term to applications in 'political' open door policies and 'economic' open door policies of nations in general, which interact on a global or international basis. William Appleman Williams , considered as the foremost member of the "Wisconsin School" of diplomatic history , departed from the mainstream of U.S. historiography in the 1950s by arguing that the United States was more responsible for

5916-411: The wake of the Russo-Japanese War , including a 1907 partitioning of Manchuria with Russia; as well as increasing British-American rapprochement and the UK's growing rivalry with the German Empire . In this context, Japan and Britain augmented a "third" Anglo-Japanese alliance to reassure each other of their interests. Komura Jutarō and later Prime Minister Katō Takaaki were major organizers during

6003-449: Was a senior intelligence officer of the Army General Staff and the initial commander of the Japanese Army sent to China to stop the Boxer Rebellion in 1900, was sent to London to wrap up informal discussions on military intelligence cooperation. Director General of Mobilisation and Military Intelligence , Sir William Nicholson headed the British side of the negotiation, and various intelligence cooperation agreements were signed between

6090-405: Was also partly prompted by British suspicions about Russian intentions in South Asia, leading to Britain considering asking Japan to help defend India. The July 1905 renegotiations allowed for Japanese support of British interests in India and British support for Japanese progress into Korea. By November of that year, Korea was a Japanese protectorate, and in February 1906 Itō Hirobumi was posted as

6177-421: Was an alliance between Britain and Japan . It was in operation from 1902 to 1922. The original British goal was to prevent Russia from expanding in Manchuria while also preserving the territorial integrity of China and Korea. For the British, it marked the end of a period of " splendid isolation " while allowing for greater focus on protecting India and competing in the Anglo-German naval arms race. The alliance

6264-415: Was an endorsement of the Open Door Policy. The Germans supported it because a partition of China would limit Germany to a small trading market, instead of all of China. The policy built popular sympathy for China and raised hopes for a vast "China market" and American influence in China's development. The effect of the policy was partly diplomatic, but it also reflected what the historian Michael Hunt calls

6351-620: Was at war with more than one power, and thus had the effect of deterring France from assisting its ally Russia militarily in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904. Instead, France concluded the Entente Cordiale with Britain and limited its support of Russia to providing loans. However, Britain siding with Japan angered the United States and some British dominions, whose opinion of the Empire of Japan worsened and gradually became hostile. The possibility of an alliance between Great Britain and Japan had been canvassed since 1895, when Britain refused to join

6438-505: Was cautious about abandoning its policy of "splendid isolation", wary of antagonizing Russia, and unwilling to act on the treaty if Japan were to attack the United States. There were factions in the Japanese government that still hoped for a compromise with Russia, including the highly powerful political figure Hirobumi Itō , who had served four terms as Prime Minister of Japan . It was thought that friendship within Asia would be more amenable to

6525-420: Was implying, through unattractive loan terms, that Japan had reverted from one of the "civilized nations" to "undeveloped nations", referring that Japan had more easily received foreign capital to fund its First Sino-Japanese War than the Russo-Japanese War . Nathaniel Rothschild was initially skeptical of Japan's economy; however, he would later describe Osaka as the "Manchester of Japan" and Japan as "one of

6612-478: Was invoked or alluded to but never enforced as such. The policy collapsed in 1931 when the Japanese seized and kept Manchuria , despite international disapproval. Technically, the term Open Door Policy is applicable only before the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949. After Deng Xiaoping took power in 1978, the term referred to China's policy of opening up to foreign business that wanted to invest in

6699-424: Was not activated, because its terms stipulated a promise of support only if a signatory entered war with more than one power, whereas Japan was only at war with Russia. However, the nature of the alliance meant that Russia's then closest ally , France, was unable to come to Russia's aid as this would have meant going to war with Britain. This was considered Britain's diplomatic contribution in favour of Japan, and as

6786-501: Was part of a larger British strategy to reduce imperial overcommitment and recall the Royal Navy to defend Britain. The Japanese, on the other hand, gained international prestige from the alliance and used it as a foundation for their diplomacy for two decades. In 1905, the treaty was redefined in favor of Japan concerning Korea. It was renewed in 1911 for another ten years and replaced by the Four-Power Treaty in 1922. The alliance

6873-510: Was perceived as Japan's overbearing, bullying approach to diplomacy, and the British Foreign Office in particular was unhappy with Japanese attempts to establish what would effectively be a Japanese protectorate over all of China. Afterwards, Japan and the United States looked for a compromise; as a result, the Lansing–Ishii Agreement was concluded in 1917. It was approved by the Paris Peace Conference in 1919. In China,

6960-492: Was reconsidering its military obligations towards Russia. China and the United States were strongly opposed to the alliance. The Russo-Japanese War broke out in 1904, as Japan sought to halt the expansion of the Russian Empire's colonies in China. Britain did not officially join the Russo-Japanese War, but supported Japan in espionage, ship design, finance, and diplomacy during the war. The Anglo-Japanese Alliance

7047-499: Was signed in London at Lansdowne House on 30 January 1902 by Lord Lansdowne , British Foreign Secretary , and Hayashi Tadasu , Japanese diplomat. The Anglo-Japanese alliance was renewed and expanded in scope twice, in 1905 and 1911, playing a major role in World War I before the alliance's demise in 1921 and termination in 1923. The main threat for both sides was from Russia . The initial treaty triggered if either country

7134-461: Was supporting Russia in the war as part of a bid to disturb the balance of power in Europe, which led to British officials increasingly perceiving that country as a threat to the international order. The alliance's provisions for mutual defence permitted Japan to enter the First World War on the British side. The Treaty made possible the Japanese seizure of German possessions in the Pacific north of

7221-410: Was that American economic power would then be able to dominate the Chinese market and fend off other foreign competitors. In reply, each country tried to evade Hay's request by taking the position that it could not commit itself until the other nations had complied. However, by July 1900, Hay announced that each of the powers had granted its consent in principle. Although treaties after 1900 referred to

7308-422: Was the first to be established and showed the most rapid growth, averaging a very high growth rate of 40% per annum between 1981 and 1993, compared to the average GDP growth of 9.8% for the country as a whole. Other SEZs were set up in other parts of China. In 1978, China was ranked 32nd in the world in export volume, but by 1989, it had doubled its world trade and became the 13th exporter. Between 1978 and 1990,

7395-545: Was the turning point in China's economic fortune, which started its way on the path to becoming 'The World's Factory'. Four SEZs were initially set up in 1980: Shenzhen , Zhuhai and Shantou in Guangdong , and Xiamen in Fujian . The SEZs were strategically located near Hong Kong , Macau , and Taiwan but with a favorable tax regime and low wages to attract capital and business from these Chinese communities. Shenzhen

7482-414: Was transmitted on May 7 in the form of an ultimatum, with a two-day deadline for response. Yuan Shikai was not in a position to risk war with Japan, and accepted appeasement , a tactic followed by his successors. The final form of the treaty was signed by both parties on May 25, 1915. Katō Takaaki publicly admitted that the ultimatum was invited by Yuan to save face with the Chinese people in conceding to

7569-474: Was trying to obtain French loans and also avoid the Open Door Policy. Paris provided loans on condition that Japan respect the Open Door principles and not violate China's territorial integrity. In finance, American efforts to preserve the Open Door Policy led in 1909 to the formation of an international banking consortium through which all Chinese railroad loans agreed in 1917 to another exchange of notes between

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