Transliteration is a type of conversion of a text from one script to another that involves swapping letters (thus trans- + liter- ) in predictable ways, such as Greek ⟨ α ⟩ → ⟨ a ⟩ , Cyrillic ⟨ д ⟩ → ⟨ d ⟩ , Greek ⟨ χ ⟩ → the digraph ⟨ ch ⟩ , Armenian ⟨ ն ⟩ → ⟨ n ⟩ or Latin ⟨ æ ⟩ → ⟨ ae ⟩ .
22-555: JSC Ulyanovsk Mechanical Plant or UMP for short ( translit. Ulyanovsk Mekhanicheskiy Zavod , UMZ ) is a Soviet/Russian military enterprise, now part of Almaz-Antey holding. Founded on January 1, 1966, by the Decree of Soviet government. Located in the city of Ulyanovsk , Russia next to UAZ . UMZ settled to mass production of: 54°18.49′N 48°20.60′E / 54.30817°N 48.34333°E / 54.30817; 48.34333 Transliteration For instance, for
44-623: A semivowel , glide or semiconsonant is a sound that is phonetically similar to a vowel sound but functions as the syllable boundary, rather than as the nucleus of a syllable. Examples of semivowels in English are the consonants y and w in yes and west , respectively. Written / j w / in IPA , y and w are near to the vowels ee and oo in seen and moon, written / iː uː / in IPA . The term glide may alternatively refer to any type of transitional sound, not necessarily
66-510: A semivowel. In the International Phonetic Alphabet , the diacritic attached to non-syllabic vowel letters is an inverted breve placed below the symbol representing the vowel: U+ 032F ◌̯ COMBINING INVERTED BREVE BELOW . When there is no room for the inverted breve under a symbol, it may be written above, using U+ 0311 ◌̑ COMBINING INVERTED BREVE . Before 1989, non-syllabicity
88-413: A semivowel. Semivowels form a subclass of approximants . Although "semivowel" and "approximant" are sometimes treated as synonymous, most authors use the term "semivowel" for a more restricted set; there is no universally agreed-upon definition, and the exact details may vary from author to author. For example, Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996) do not consider the labiodental approximant [ʋ] to be
110-408: A single segment, and the approximant-vowel sequence is analyzed as two separate segments. In addition to phonological justifications for the distinction (such as the diphthong alternating with /e/ in singular-plural pairs), there are phonetic differences between the pair: Although a phonological parallel exists between /o̯a/ and /wa/ , the production and perception of phonetic contrasts between
132-430: A third category of "spirant approximant", contrasting both with semivowel approximants and with fricatives. Though the spirant approximant is more constricted (having a lower F2 amplitude), longer, and unspecified for rounding ( viuda [ˈb ju ða] 'widow' vs. ayuda [aˈ ʝʷu ða] 'help'), the distributional overlap is limited. The spirant approximant can only appear in the syllable onset (including word-initially, where
154-406: Is common, as for Burmese , for instance. In Modern Greek , the letters ⟨η, ι, υ⟩ and the letter combinations ⟨ει, oι, υι⟩ are pronounced [i] (except when pronounced as semivowels ), and a modern transcription renders them as ⟨i⟩. However, a transliteration distinguishes them; for example, by transliterating them as ⟨ē, i, y⟩ and ⟨ei, oi, yi⟩. (As the ancient pronunciation of ⟨η⟩ was [ɛː] , it
176-671: Is not long . Transcription , conversely, seeks to capture sound, but phonetically approximate it into the new script; ⟨ Ελληνική Δημοκρατία ⟩ corresponds to [eliniˈci ðimokraˈtia] in the International Phonetic Alphabet . While differentiation is lost in the case of [i] , note the allophonic realization of /k/ as a palatalized [c] when preceding front vowels /e/ and /i/ . Angle brackets ⟨ ⟩ may be used to set off transliteration, as opposed to slashes / / for phonemic transcription and square brackets for phonetic transcription. Angle brackets may also be used to set off characters in
198-581: Is not present in most forms of English and is often transliterated as "kh" as in Nikita Khrushchev . Many languages have phonemic sounds, such as click consonants , which are quite unlike any phoneme in the language into which they are being transliterated. Some languages and scripts present particular difficulties to transcribers. These are discussed on separate pages. Examples of languages and writing systems and methods of transliterating include: Semivowel In phonetics and phonology ,
220-565: Is often transliterated as ⟨ē⟩.) On the other hand, ⟨αυ, ευ, ηυ⟩ are pronounced /af, ef, if/ , and are voiced to [av, ev, iv] when followed by a voiced consonant – a shift from Ancient Greek /au̯, eu̯, iu̯/ . A transliteration would render them all as ⟨au, eu, iu⟩ no matter the environment these sounds are in, reflecting the traditional orthography of Ancient Greek, yet a transcription would distinguish them, based on their phonemic and allophonic pronunciations in Modern Greek. Furthermore,
242-571: Is opposed to letter transcription , which is a letter by letter conversion of one language into another writing system. Still, most systems of transliteration map the letters of the source script to letters pronounced similarly in the target script, for some specific pair of source and target language. Transliteration may be very close to letter-by-letter transcription if the relations between letters and sounds are similar in both languages. For many script pairs, there are one or more standard transliteration systems. However, unsystematic transliteration
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#1732801398990264-404: Is the process of representing or intending to represent a word, phrase, or text in a different script or writing system. Transliterations are designed to convey the pronunciation of the original word in a different script, allowing readers or speakers of that script to approximate the sounds and pronunciation of the original word. Transliterations do not change the pronunciation of the word. Thus, in
286-527: Is uncommon, though rounded [ẅ] (or [w̟] ), equivalent to [ʉ] , is found in Swedish and Norwegian . Semivowels, by definition, contrast with vowels by being non-syllabic. In addition, they are usually shorter than vowels. In languages such as Amharic , Yoruba , and Zuni , semivowels are produced with a narrower constriction in the vocal tract than their corresponding vowels. Nevertheless, semivowels may be phonemically equivalent with vowels. For example,
308-642: The Greek term ⟨ Ελληνική Δημοκρατία ⟩ , which is usually translated as ' Hellenic Republic ', the usual transliteration into the Latin script is ⟨Hellēnikḗ Dēmokratía⟩ ; and the Russian term ⟨ Российская Республика ⟩ , which is usually translated as ' Russian Republic ', can be transliterated either as ⟨Rossiyskaya Respublika⟩ or alternatively as ⟨Rossijskaja Respublika⟩ . Transliteration
330-604: The soft palate but on the uvula , but the pronunciation varies between different dialects of Arabic . The letter is sometimes transliterated into "g", sometimes into "q" or " ' " (for in Egypt it is silent) and rarely even into "k" in English. Another example is the Russian letter "Х" (kha) . It is pronounced as the voiceless velar fricative /x/ , like the Scottish pronunciation of ⟨ch⟩ in "lo ch ". This sound
352-406: The English word fly can be considered either as an open syllable ending in a diphthong [flaɪ̯] or as a closed syllable ending in a consonant [flaj] . It is unusual for a language to contrast a semivowel and a diphthong containing an equivalent vowel, but Romanian contrasts the diphthong /e̯a/ with /ja/ , a perceptually similar approximant-vowel sequence. The diphthong is analyzed as
374-454: The Greek above example, ⟨λλ⟩ is transliterated ⟨ll⟩ though it is pronounced exactly the same way as [l] , or the Greek letters, ⟨λλ⟩ . ⟨Δ⟩ is transliterated ⟨D⟩ though pronounced as [ð] , and ⟨η⟩ is transliterated ⟨ī⟩ , though it is pronounced [i] (exactly like ⟨ι⟩ ) and
396-461: The initial letter ⟨h⟩ reflecting the historical rough breathing ⟨ ̔⟩ in words such as ⟨Hellēnikḗ⟩ would intuitively be omitted in transcription for Modern Greek, as Modern Greek no longer has the /h/ sound. A simple example of difficulties in transliteration is the Arabic letter qāf . It is pronounced, in literary Arabic, approximately like English [k], except that the tongue makes contact not on
418-400: The original script. Conventions and author preferences vary. Systematic transliteration is a mapping from one system of writing into another, typically grapheme to grapheme. Most transliteration systems are one-to-one , so a reader who knows the system can reconstruct the original spelling. Transliteration, which adapts written form without altering the pronunciation when spoken out,
440-488: The semivowel never appears). The two overlap in distribution after /l/ and /n/ : enyesar [ẽɲ ɟʝ eˈsaɾ] ('to plaster') aniego [ãˈn j eɣo] ('flood') and although there is dialectal and idiolectal variation, speakers may also exhibit other near-minimal pairs like ab ye cto ('abject') vs. ab ie rto ('opened'). One potential minimal pair (depending on dialect) is ya visto [ (ɟ)ʝa ˈβisto] ('already seen') vs. y ha visto [ ja ˈβisto] ('and he has seen'). Again, it
462-476: The two is much weaker, likely because of lower lexical load for /wa/ , which is limited largely to loanwords from French , and speakers' difficulty in maintaining contrasts between two back rounded semivowels in comparison to front ones. According to the standard definitions, semivowels (such as [j] ) contrast with fricatives (such as [ʝ] ) in that fricatives produce turbulence, but semivowels do not. In discussing Spanish , Martínez Celdrán suggests setting up
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#1732801398990484-481: Was represented by U+ 0306 ◌̆ COMBINING BREVE , which now stands for extra-shortness . Additionally, there are dedicated symbols for four semivowels that correspond to the four close cardinal vowel sounds: In addition, some authors consider the rhotic approximants [ ɹ ] , [ ɻ ] to be semivowels corresponding to R-colored vowels such as [ ɚ ] . An unrounded central semivowel, [j̈] (or [j˗] ), equivalent to [ɨ] ,
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