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53-508: Non-state allies Non-state opponents The United Wa State Army ( Parauk : Kru' Naing' Rob Rom' Hak Tiex Praog , simplified Chinese : 佤邦联合军 ; traditional Chinese : 佤邦聯合軍 ; pinyin : Wǎbāng Liánhéjūn ; Burmese : ဝပြည် သွေးစည်းညီညွတ်ရေး တပ်မတော် , IPA: [wa̰ pjì θwésí ɲìɲʊʔjé taʔmədɔ̀] ), abbreviated as the UWSA or the UWS Army , is the military wing of

106-423: A forced relocation , away from the poppy fields, of six northern Wa districts south to mainly Shan and Lahu areas. The World Food Program (WFP) and China also provided emergency food assistance to former poppy farmers. Chinese criminal organisations in the area however may have simply switched the production line from heroin to amphetamine -type stimulants (ATS) such as yaa baa . Wei Hsueh-kang founded

159-612: A plan to end drug production and trafficking in Wa State. According to an interview with Wa officials in 1994, Bao Youyi (Tax Kuad Rang; also known as Bao Youyu) became wanted by the Chinese police for his involvement in drug trafficking. As a result, Bao Youxiang and Zhao Nyi-Lai went to Cangyuan Va Autonomous County of China and signed the Cangyuan Agreement with local officials, which stated that, "No drugs will go into

212-602: A successor but does not comment on the arrest. The towns of Pangkham and Mong Pawk are within the area of this special region. The UWSA negotiated a cease-fire agreement with the Burmese military in the 1990s, and currently backs a counterinsurgency strategy of the Myanmar Army against the Shan State Army (RCSS) (RCSS/SSA). The UWSA defied the military regime 's recent demand to disarm and participate in

265-648: A transcription adapted to the new pinyin romanization , known as new Wa orthography , "PRC orthography" or "Chinese orthography", was developed for the Wa people in China. However, its publications, mainly propagated through the Yunnan administration, are yet to reach a wider public beyond academics. This transcription, which originally included even a couple of letters of the Cyrillic script , has also since been revised. Despite

318-705: A variety spoken in Zhongke 中课, Masan 马散, Ximeng County that was documented by Zhou & Yan (1984)) (Watkins 2002:8). David Bradley (1994) estimates that there is a total of about 500,000 Wa speakers in Burma . A small number of Wa speakers also reside in Taunggyi , Mandalay and Yangon . The PRC writing system for Wa is based on the Wa variant in Aishuai, Cangyuan County , Yunnan . David Bradley (1994) estimates that there are 322,000 Wa speakers in China. In China,

371-558: Is Zhao Zhongdang . In 2022, due to the advanced age of both Bao Youxiang and Zhao, Bao Youxiang's nephew Bao Ai Chan was promoted to be Deputy Commander-in-Chief alongside Zhao, who retains his position. The 2022 reshuffle will not largely change the administration and leadership of the UWSA, but signals a lesson learnt from the 1989 CPB leadership crises. The foreign affairs spokesperson role that Li Ziru played has been taken over by Zhao Guoan, another ethnically Chinese veteran. He took part in

424-518: Is a phonemic feature in syllables with unaspirated initials. There are 15 diphthongs: /iu, ɯi, ui, ia, ɤi, ua, ei, ou, oi~ɔi, ai, aɯ, au/ and 2 triphthongs: /iau, uai/ . The general syllabic structure of Wa is C(C)(V)V(V)(C). Only a few words have zero-initials. The Wa language formerly had no script and some of the few Wa that were literate used Chinese characters , while others used the Shan language and its script. Christian missionary work among

477-610: Is based at Pangkham with offices also in Yangon , Mandalay , Lashio , Tachilek and Mawlamyine and minor bases in Sankang and Khailong . UWSA also operated its own bank in the past. Ho Chun Ting (also known as Aik Haw and Hsiao Haw), the son-in-law of Bao Youxiang, is the principal owner and managing director of Yangon Airways and chairman of Tetkham Co Ltd that runs a chain of hotels. Close to Khin Nyunt and several other generals in

530-509: Is cheaper and easier to manufacture than heroin . Thai authorities have denounced methamphetamine production, trafficking, and consumption as a threat to national security . It denied involvement in the Mekong incident of 5 November 2011. Poppy cultivation has declined in both northern Laos and the Wa region partly as a result of a ban imposed by the UWSP in 2005. In 1999, Bao Youxiang ordered

583-627: Is unlike most of the ethnic armed organizations in Myanmar. On 17 April 1989, ethnic Wa soldiers, among other groups, split from the Communist Party of Burma (CPB) in a mutiny and ended the long-running Communist insurgency in Burma . On 9 May 1989, the Burmese government signed a cease-fire agreement with UWSA, formally ending the conflict. The United Wa State Party was formed as a merger of

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636-516: The Burmese military , including the trafficking of drugs to neighbouring Thailand and Laos. The Wa have used revenue generated from the sale of drugs to finance political and economic goals, like weapons and hospitals. Using commercial concessions granted through favorable relations with General Khin Nyut , the UWSA operated illicit enterprises in the 1990s via affiliated businesspeople and enterprises. In August 1990, government officials began drafting

689-485: The Hong Pang Group in 1998 with revenues from the drug trade after taking advantage of the privileges offered in the cease-fire deal by Khin Nyunt. Its position in the country's economy, not just the Wa State, is reflected by the multitude of businesses it owns and controls in construction, agriculture, gems and minerals, petroleum, electronics and communications, distilleries and department stores. Hong Pang Group

742-806: The Kachin Independence Army (KIA), the Myanmar National Democratic Alliance Army (MNDAA) and the Ta'ang National Liberation Army (TNLA) – are also members of the Northern Alliance . The FPNCC is the largest negotiating body of EAOs in the country. The Chinese government formally engages with the FPNCC, which is also recognised by the Chinese government as an EAO negotiation body with

795-615: The Sino-Myanmar pipelines . Beijing's official delegate is only one layer of its approach to diplomacy with not just the central government but also the various ethnic armies along the China–Myanmar border China's involvement in the UWSA's peace process aims to create stability for its multiple large infrastructure investments and keep its natural resource trade across the border protected. The Chinese government uses former CPB forces like UWSA as proxies within Burma, and works to ensure

848-821: The Ta'ang Army and the Arakan Army . The MNDAA is a Kokang CPB splinter group and both the Ta'ang Army and the Arakan Army fought alongside the MNDAA in Kokang in 2015. These three groups, among others, receive Chinese weapons from the UWSA either as gifts or purchases. The United Wa State Army also works with the ULFA -ATF, an Assam resistance group which launches attacks in India through mobile bases in Myanmar. In November 2023,

901-616: The Thai military have a long-standing business relationship with the UWSA. Despite publicly declaring neutrality, the UWSA allegedly supplies weapons (with the exception of MANPADS) to anti-Junta groups such as the Three Brotherhood Alliance. UWSA has benefited from long-standing political and military ties to China, and has a close relationship with China's security agencies. Most significantly, this provides China leverage inside Burma allowing it to push other issues like

954-520: The Union Peace Conference – 21st Century Panglong peace talks in 2017 and 2018. Although he is from Yunnan , he was the only delegate comfortable speaking Burmese among the ethnic armies. In October 2023, Deputy Commander-in-Chief Bao Ai Chan was arrested while in China, in a string of arrests and extraditions relating to over 1,000 Chinese citizens involved in cyber scams in connection with Wa State. The UWSA has reportedly appointed

1007-615: The United Wa State Party (UWSP), the de facto ruling party of Wa State (officially known as the Wa Self-Administered Division ) in Myanmar . It is a well-equipped ethnic minority army of an estimated 20,000–30,000 Wa soldiers, led by Bao Youxiang . The UWSA was formed after the collapse of the armed wing of the Communist Party of Burma (CPB) in 1989. The UWSA announced its territory as

1060-563: The Wa people live in (Watkins 2002): A small number of Wa speakers also reside in Kunming and throughout various parts of Yunnan . The three dialects of Wa (and their respective subdialects) according to Zhou et al. (2004) are: Jackson Sun (2018a) lists the Awa dialects and their alternate names as follows. The Dai exonym for the Wa of Yongde, Zhenkang and Nanla 南腊 is la³¹ . In Sipsongpanna,

1113-575: The opium poppy . The opium poppy harvest had increased since the former drug baron and warlord Lo Hsing Han managed to rebuild his drug empire after he became the intermediary for cease-fire agreements between the military intelligence chief Khin Nyunt and the Kokang and Wa insurgents who had rebelled against and toppled the Communist leadership in 1989. In addition to the traditional Golden Triangle export of opiates , production has diversified to methamphetamine , or yaa baa , which

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1166-649: The "Wa State Government Special Administrative Region" on 1 January 2009. The de facto President is Bao Youxiang, and the Vice President is Xiao Minliang. Although the Government of Myanmar does not officially recognise the sovereignty of Wa State, the Tatmadaw (Myanmar Armed Forces) has frequently allied with the UWSA to fight against Shan nationalist militia groups, such as the Shan State Army (RCSS) . Despite being de facto independent from Myanmar,

1219-402: The 2010 elections , and instead proposed to declare the territory under their control as a special autonomous region. According to 2008 constitution, six townships are designated as the Wa Self-Administered Division . Those are Mongmao , Pangwaun , Namphan , Pangkham (Pangsang), Hopang and Matman Township . Although Mong Pawk is not part of it, but part of Mong Yang Township , the UWSA

1272-793: The Burma National United Party and the non-communist Wa National Council in November 1989, following the CPB mutiny in spring of 1989. The UWSA is supported by China , who gives the UWSA more support than to the Myanmar government. Until 1996 the United Wa State Army was involved in a conflict against the Shan Mong Tai Army led by drug kingpin Khun Sa which suited the objectives of the Tatmadaw in

1325-683: The Burmese central government. The FPNCC was established on 19 April 2017, in Pangkham , the headquarters of the United Wa State Army. FPNCC was formed in response to the failure of the United Nationalities Federal Council to generate trust among member EAOs, four of which (KIA, SSPP, MNDAA, and AA) broke away from the council. The seven founding members were all non-signatories to the Nationwide Ceasefire Agreement . In March 2023, in

1378-619: The China-Burma border are stationed another three "divisions": The United Wa State Army has 30,000 active service men with a 10,000 strong auxiliary force. It is one of the largest cease fire groups. Monthly salary is only 60 CNY (US$ 7.5). UWSA had clashes with the Thai Army in Mar–May 2002. According to Jane's Intelligence Review in April 2008, China has become the main source of arms to

1431-528: The Chinese government, many opium farmers in Wa State shifted to the production of rubber and tea. However, some poppy farmers continued to cultivate the flower outside of Wa State. The United States government Drug Enforcement Administration labelled the UWSA as a narcotic trafficking organisation on 29 May 2003. On 3 November 2005, The Department of the Treasury's Office of Foreign Assets Control listed 11 individuals and 16 companies that were "part of

1484-620: The Dai call them the va¹¹ , va¹¹ dip⁵⁵ ("Raw Va" 生佤), va¹¹ ʔău⁵⁵ho⁵⁵ ("Head-carrying Wa" 拿头佤), va¹¹ sə⁵⁵să⁵⁵na⁵³ ("Religious Wa" 信教佤). In Ximeng and Menglian counties, the Wa autonym is xa³¹va⁵³ , while in Cangyuan and Gengma counties it is xa³¹va⁵³lɒi⁵³ (Zhou, et al. 2004:2). Yan and Zhou (2012:138) list the following names for Wa in various counties. A language known as Bujiao 补角 (autonym: Puga 仆嘎) in Mengla County

1537-639: The UWSA did not sign the NCA in 2015. In April 2017, China helped the UWSA establish a seven-member alliance called the Federal Political Negotiation and Consultative Committee (FPNCC), after the demise of another alliance, the United Nationalities Federal Council, in the wake of the NCA. Today, the UWSA maintains close links with FPNCC partners like the Myanmar National Democratic Alliance Army (MNDAA),

1590-753: The UWSA have acquired the FN-6 Surface-to-air missile to supplant the HN-5N in service, which was promptly denied by the UWSA. It is also the middleman between Chinese arms manufacturers and other insurgent groups in Myanmar. By 2012, Chinese support had increased to the point of supplying armoured vehicles such as the 6 × 6 PTL-02 assault gun being sighted in Pangkham . On 29 April 2013, Janes IHS reported that several Mil Mi-17 helicopters armed with TY-90 air-to-air missiles were supplied to UWSA by China. The allegations were dismissed by China, Thai military sources, other Myanmar ethnic sources and

1643-524: The UWSA or Wa State administration. Larger families are obligated to provide two males for the army or administration. Wa language It is Recognized as a State Language by the government of Wa State . Gerard Diffloth refers to the Wa geographic region as the "Wa corridor", which lies between the Salween and Mekong Rivers . According to Diffloth, variants include South Wa, "Bible Wa" and Kawa (Chinese Wa). Christian Wa are more likely to support

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1696-493: The UWSA themselves. In 2015 IHS Jane's reported that UWSA members had been photographed training with Chinese Type 96 122 mm howitzers and HJ-8 ATGMs. A Jane' s report in December 2008 stated that the UWSA had turned to arms production to supplement their income from arms and drug trafficking, and started a small arms production line for AK-47s . The UWSA requires that at least one male in each household serve in either

1749-457: The UWSA vowed to use force against armed incursions from both sides in the Myanmar civil war after Wa State was declared a neutral zone . Tensions between the UWSA and Thailand increased in November 2024 over alleged encroachment on Thai border territory. The Burma National United Party (BNUP) and, later, the United Wa State Army (UWSA) was founded and led by Chao Ngi Lai , also spelt as Zhao Nyi-lai. After his stroke in 1995, Bao Youxiang ,

1802-412: The United Wa State Army became involved in the Kokang incident , a violent conflict with Burma's military junta 's Myanmar Armed Forces (Tatmadaw). This was the largest outbreak of fighting between ethnic armies and government troops since the signing of the cease-fire 20 years earlier. Myanmar signed a peace deal with the UWSA in 2013 in the leadup to the Nationwide Ceasefire Agreement (NCA). However,

1855-661: The United Wa State Army, displacing traditional black market sources in South East Asia such as Thailand and Cambodia . Arms transfers to the UWSA from China are directed from the highest level in Beijing. Jane's reported in 2001 that the UWSA had acquired HN-5 N surface-to-air missiles (SAMs) from China as part of the build-up near the Thai border where they were reported to be operating 40–50 laboratories manufacturing yaa baa . In November 2014, Janes further reported that

1908-449: The Wa State officially recognizes Myanmar's sovereignty over all of its territory. In 1989 the two parties signed a ceasefire agreement, and in 2013 signed a peace deal. As the largest non-state armed group in Myanmar, it has effectively led the Federal Political Negotiation and Consultative Committee (FPNCC) since 2017, representing nearly every pre- 2021 non-ceasefire signatory armed groups. In not seeking independence or secession, UWSA

1961-512: The Wa began at the beginning of the 20th century first in the Burmese and later in the Chinese areas of the Wa territory. It was led by William Marcus Young, from Nebraska . The first transcription of the Wa language was devised by Young and Sara Yaw Shu Chin (Joshua) in 1931 with the purpose of translating the Bible . This first Wa alphabet was based on the Latin script and the very first publication

2014-533: The aftermath of the 2021 Myanmar coup d'état and ongoing Myanmar civil war , the FPNCC officially called on China to help defuse the internal crisis in Myanmar. As of March 2023 , the FPNCC's members included: Some members of the committee are also in alliances with each other. MNDAA, AA and TNLA make up the Three Brotherhood Alliance and the three of them combined with the KIA make up

2067-533: The area. During this conflict the Wa army occupied areas close to the Thai border, ending up with the control of two separate swathes of territory north and south of Kengtung . UWSA is one of the 17 armed ceased fire groups that attended long National Convention orchestrated by Myanmar military. In 1990s the Wa Women's Association established an orphanage in Pangkham for children's whose parents were killed in fighting between UWSA and Shan forces. In August 2009,

2120-470: The drugs they produce are not smuggled into China. Wa State has benefited from substantial Chinese tourism, turning Mong La into a Chinese tourist hub. China also helped the UWSA establish themselves as the de facto leaders of the FPNCC. The Chinese also supply military hardware, arms, and training to the UWSA. The United Wa State Army (UWSA) has five "divisions" deployed along the Thai-Burma border: On

2173-515: The financial and commercial network of designated significant foreign narcotics trafficker Wei Hsueh-kang and the United Wa State Army (UWSA)." The UWSA is said to be the largest drug-producing organisation in Southeast Asia . The UWSP on its part blamed both the Ne Win military government and the CPB for using the Wa as "pawns in the violent destructive games" and encouraging them to grow

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2226-482: The international society (from Wa State); no drugs will go into China (from Wa State); no drugs will go into Burmese government-controlled areas (from Wa State)." However, the agreement did not mention whether or not Wa State could sell drugs to insurgent groups. In 1997, the United Wa State Party officially proclaimed that Wa State would be drug-free by the end of 2005. With the help of the United Nations and

2279-824: The junta, he was also involved in gems auctions and several large construction projects with the Yangon City Development Council. He was reported to have fled to Pangkham following the arrest of his known associates in a drug-related offence in January 2009. Aik Haw was included in the Specially Designated Nationals and Blocked Persons List published by the US Treasury's Office of Foreign Assets Control on 25 November 2008. Former Thai Premier Thaksin Shinawatra and

2332-640: The military commander of the UWSA, took over leadership, while Chao remained the General-Secretary of the United Wa State Party (UWSP) until he died at the age of 70 in 2009. Ai Xiaoxue, as the founder of the Wa National Council (WNC), was also instrumental in the merger establishing the UWSA with the BNUP. He formed the WNC with Maha Hsang Wiang Ngeun, his brother-in-law, in 1984. His group was

2385-457: The nucleus of UWSA's 171 Military Region near the Thai border. He died at the age of 78 in Mandalay on 29 October 2011. Today, Bao Youxiang remains the Commander-in-Chief, running the UWSA with his brothers Bao Youyi and Bao Youliang. Youyi, who became the deputy-general secretary of the UWSP in 2005, holds an important position in the army. Youliang manages the headquarters of the northern Wa hills in Möng Mao The first Deputy Commander-in-Chief

2438-437: The past several decades, mainly from Burma. There are about 10,000 Wa speakers in Thailand. Wa villages can be found in (Watkins 2002:6): Standard Wa is a non-tonal language. However, tone has developed in some of the dialects. There is correspondence between tones in tonal dialects and tenseness in non-tonal dialects. In Wa, there are 44 phonemes; 35 consonants and 9 vowels. All of these vowels can be tense or lax. Tenseness

2491-664: The revisions, both the Chinese and the Bible orthography are still marred by inconsistencies. Recently, a revised Bible orthography adopting some features from the Chinese orthography has been adopted as Wa State Wa orthography or "official Wa spelling" by the central authorities of the Wa State in Pangkham which have published a series of primers in order to improve the literacy of the United Wa State Army troops. Also, after 2000 Wa people in social networks such as Facebook , as well as Wa songwriters in karaoke lyrics of Wa songs, use this Myanmar (revised Bible) orthography in its main variations. The Wa Women's Association promotes

2544-426: The use of Standard Wa, since their Bible is based on a standard version of Wa, which is in turn based on the variant spoken in Bang Wai, 150 miles north of Kengtung (Watkins 2002). Bang Wai is located in Northern Shan State , Burma , close to the Chinese border where Cangyuan County is located. Certain dialects of Wa preserve a final -/s/. They include the variants spoken in Meung Yang and Ximeng County (such as

2597-436: The use of the script. Federal Political Negotiation and Consultative Committee The Federal Political Negotiation and Consultative Committee ( Burmese : ပြည်ထောင်စုနိုင်ငံရေးဆွေးနွေးညှိနှိုင်းရေးကော်မတီ , abbreviated FPNCC ) is an alliance and coalition of seven ethnic armed organisations (EAOs) in Myanmar seeking to negotiate with the central government. Four FPNCC members – the Arakan Army (AA),

2650-426: Was Li Ziru, an ethnically Chinese former Red Guard volunteer. He remained with the CPB through the 1970s when many Chinese CPB members returned to China and eventually joined the UWSA serving until his death in 2005. It is plausible that Li and other ethnic Chinese remained in the CPB splinter groups because China wanted to maintain influence even after the mutiny of 1989. The group's Deputy Commander-in-Chief today

2703-436: Was a compilation of Wa hymns in 1933, the Wa New Testament being completed in 1938. This transcription, known as Bible orthography , is known as lǎowǎwén 老佤文 old Wa orthography in Chinese, and is now used mainly in the Burmese Wa areas and among the Wa in Thailand through the materials published by the Wa Welfare Society (Cub Yuh Bwan Ka son Vax, Cub Pa Yuh Phuk Lai Vax, Phuk Lai Hak Tiex Vax) in Chiang Mai . In 1956,

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2756-407: Was mentioned in Yunnan (1960) The Bujiao were classified as ethnic Bulang and had a population of 212 in 1960. The Kela 克拉 (Dai exonym: Kala 卡拉; population: 393 people) live in District 3 三区 of Tengchong County 腾冲县, Yunnan (You 2013:359). The Kela used to speak a variety of Wa, but now speak only Chinese. The Kela also refer to themselves as the Wama 佤妈. Wa have also migrated to Thailand in

2809-418: Was strongly against to give away that area from its control because it serves as a link with its ally, the National Democratic Alliance Army (NDAA) in Mongla . Hopang and Matman are not under UWSA control. UWSA announced its territory as Wa State Government Special Administrative Region in January 2009. The cease-fire agreement allowed the United Wa State Army to freely expand their logistical operations with

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