186-541: The Salween is a Southeast Asian river, about 3,289 km (2,044 mi) long, flowing from the Tibetan Plateau south into the Andaman Sea . The Salween flows primarily within southwest China and eastern Myanmar (Burma), with a short section forming the border of Burma and Thailand . Throughout most of its course, it runs swiftly through rugged mountain canyons. Despite the river's great length, only
372-727: A 2010 peace agreement signed between ethnic militias and the Myanmar Union Government, commercial logging was able to increase dramatically in Karenni State. The Burmese government has banned the cutting of teak, but illegal logging for teak has persisted, driven by strong demand abroad. On the Thai side of the river, illegal logging has been ongoing since the 1990s in Salawin National Park. In Karen State, limestone quarrying for cement production along
558-453: A Chinese Ming emperor sent a princess, Hang Li Po , to Malacca, with a retinue of 500, to marry Sultan Mansur Shah after the emperor was impressed by the wisdom of the sultan. Hang Li Poh's Well (constructed 1459) is now a tourist attraction there, as is Bukit Cina , where her retinue settled. The strategic value of the Strait of Malacca , which was controlled by Sultanate of Malacca in
744-614: A concentrated belt that stretches east–west except in East China where it is tilted east-northeast over Korea and Japan. The seasonal rain is known as Meiyu in China, Jangma in Korea, and Bai-u in Japan, with the latter two resembling frontal rain. The onset of the summer monsoon is marked by a period of premonsoonal rain over South China and Taiwan in early May. From May through August,
930-434: A diversity of habitats for freshwater, brackish and marine fishes. Subsistence fishing is predominant along the inland channels and bays, while a large commercial fishery is supported offshore. The most important commercial species include Nga pone na ( Paradise threadfin ) and Nga pyat (Coitor croaker). Prawns and shrimps are important in the local diet. Villages further upstream also depend on Salween fish, with Inle Lake being
1116-643: A dominant maritime power of Indian subcontinent, in 1025. The invasion reshaped power and trade in the region, resulted in the rise of new regional powers such as the Khmer Empire and Kahuripan . Continued commercial contacts with the Chinese Empire enabled the Cholas to influence the local cultures. Many of the surviving examples of the Hindu cultural influence found today throughout Southeast Asia are
1302-410: A dominant westerly component and a strong tendency to ascend and produce copious amounts of rain (because of the condensation of water vapor in the rising air). The intensity and duration, however, are not uniform from year to year. Winter monsoons, by contrast, have a dominant easterly component and a strong tendency to diverge, subside and cause drought. Similar rainfall is caused when moist ocean air
1488-622: A few sub-systems, such as the Indian Subcontinental Monsoon which affects the Indian subcontinent and surrounding regions including Nepal, and the East Asian Monsoon which affects southern China, Taiwan , Korea and parts of Japan. The southwestern summer monsoons occur from June through September. The Thar Desert and adjoining areas of the northern and central Indian subcontinent heat up considerably during
1674-788: A framework for the integration of commerce and regional responses to international concerns. China has asserted broad claims over the South China Sea , based on its nine-dash line , and has built artificial islands in an attempt to bolster its claims. China also has asserted an exclusive economic zone based on the Spratly Islands . The Philippines challenged China in the Permanent Court of Arbitration in The Hague in 2013, and in Philippines v. China (2016),
1860-750: A launching point for several invasions of Siam, which led to the collapse of the Ayutthaya Kingdom. The Burmese were unable to maintain lasting control over territories east of the river, although Burma regained the Tenasserim coast from Siam in a 1793 treaty. After the First Anglo-Burmese War in 1824, the Konbaung dynasty ceded coastal areas of Burma to the British Empire , including the whole Tenasserim coast south of
2046-547: A low pressure system known as a monsoon trough develops over South-East Asia and Australasia and winds are directed toward Australia. In the Philippines, northeast monsoon is called Amihan . The East Asian monsoon affects large parts of Indochina , the Philippines , China, Taiwan , Korea, Japan, and Siberia . It is characterised by a warm, rainy summer monsoon and a cold, dry winter monsoon. The rain occurs in
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#17327655295322232-464: A more even temperature, while land temperatures are more variable. During warmer months sunlight heats the surfaces of both land and oceans, but land temperatures rise more quickly. As the land's surface becomes warmer, the air above it expands and an area of low pressure develops. Meanwhile, the ocean remains at a lower temperature than the land, and the air above it retains a higher pressure. This difference in pressure causes sea breezes to blow from
2418-521: A new local power emerged. Myinsaing Kingdom became the real ruler of Central Burma and challenged the Mongol rule. This resulted in the second Mongol invasion of Burma in 1300, which was repulsed by Myinsaing. The Mongols would later in 1303 withdrawn from Burma. In 1292, The Mongols sent envoys to Singhasari Kingdom in Java to ask for submission to Mongol rule. Singhasari rejected the proposal and injured
2604-569: A part of Southeast Asia because of its cultural and religious ties to Mainland Southeast Asia. The eastern half of the island of New Guinea , which is not a part of Indonesia, namely, Papua New Guinea, is sometimes included as a part of Maritime Southeast Asia, and so are Guam , the Northern Mariana Islands , and Palau , which were all parts of the Spanish East Indies with strong cultural and linguistic ties to
2790-425: A particularly rich fishery. Overfishing combined with lack of regulation has become an issue in the 21st century, with catches in the lower Salween declining as much as 60 percent at some villages. The use of large "bag nets" that result in excessive bycatch , as well as the use of illegal poisons by commercial fishermen, have also contributed to the decline. Increased sedimentation from upstream logging has made
2976-801: A productive rice industry. The river flows for a further 100 km (62 mi) before terminating at a modestly sized delta and estuary in Mawlamyine in Mon State . The Salween is tidally influenced up to 75 km (47 mi) inland. Here it is joined by the Gyaing River from the east and the Ataran river from the southeast. The Thanlwin Bridge , the second longest bridge in Burma, connects Mawlamyine to Mottama . The combined river then breaks into
3162-566: A result of famine and forced labour during the Japanese occupation. The Allied powers who then defeated Japan (and other allies of Axis ) in the South-East Asian theatre of World War II then contended with nationalists to whom the occupation authorities had granted independence. Gujarat , India had a flourishing trade relationship with Southeast Asia in the 15th and 16th centuries. The trade relationship with Gujarat declined after
3348-625: A significant floral and faunal barrier as well as a rain shadow , and has been regarded as a major driver of plant speciation in the region. Around the Burma–China border, the Salween flows through the Northern Indochina subtropical forests ecoregion, which consists largely of subtropical broad-leaved evergreen forests, with pine forests at higher elevations and tropical forests at the lower margins. Further south in Burma and Thailand,
3534-646: A weakening of the Leeuwin Current (LC). The weakening of the LC would have an effect on the sea surface temperature (SST) field in the Indian Ocean, as the Indonesian Throughflow generally warms the Indian Ocean. Thus these five intervals could probably be those of considerable lowering of SST in the Indian Ocean and would have influenced Indian monsoon intensity. During the weak LC, there
3720-881: Is bordered to the north by East Asia , to the west by South Asia and the Bay of Bengal , to the east by Oceania and the Pacific Ocean , and to the south by Australia and the Indian Ocean . Apart from the British Indian Ocean Territory and two out of 26 atolls of the Maldives in South Asia, Maritime Southeast Asia is the only other subregion of Asia that lies partly within the Southern Hemisphere . Mainland Southeast Asia
3906-474: Is delivered to the ocean during the monsoon season. The Salween delta is physically contiguous with the Irrawaddy and Sittaung deltas. The Irrawaddy–Sittaung–Salween delta is relatively stable, with the coastline advancing an average of 3.4 m (11 ft) per year between 1925 and 2006. Sediment accumulation is largely balanced out by subsidence and transport by ocean currents. However, proposed dams along
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#17327655295324092-666: Is directly of "cyclonic" (i.e., monsoon-driven) origin (as opposed to " local convection "). The effects also extend westwards to the Mediterranean, where however the impact of the monsoon is to induce drought via the Rodwell-Hoskins mechanism . Around September, with the sun retreating south, the northern landmass of the Indian subcontinent begins to cool off rapidly, and air pressure begins to build over northern India. The Indian Ocean and its surrounding atmosphere still hold their heat, causing cold wind to sweep down from
4278-541: Is entirely in the Northern Hemisphere . East Timor and the southern portion of Indonesia are the parts of Southeast Asia that lie south of the equator . The region lies near the intersection of geological plates , with both heavy seismic and volcanic activities. The Sunda Plate is the main plate of the region, featuring almost all Southeast Asian countries except Myanmar , northern Thailand , northern Laos , northern Vietnam , and northern Luzon of
4464-497: Is evident in the Arab-Indonesian, Arab-Singaporean, and Arab-Malay populations who were at one time very prominent in each of their countries. Finally, the ruling classes embraced Islam and that further aided the permeation of the religion throughout the region. The ruler of the region's most important port, Malacca Sultanate , embraced Islam in the 15th century, heralding a period of accelerated conversion of Islam throughout
4650-623: Is geographically divided into two subregions, namely Mainland Southeast Asia (or the Indochinese Peninsula) and Maritime Southeast Asia . Mainland Southeast Asia includes : Maritime Southeast Asia includes : While Peninsular Malaysia is geographically situated in Mainland Southeast Asia, it shares many similar cultural and ecological affinities with surrounding islands, thus it is often grouped with them as part of Maritime Southeast Asia. Geographically,
4836-618: Is intimately related to a Chinese Muslim, Admiral Zheng He ." There are several theories to the Islamization process in Southeast Asia. Another theory is trade. The expansion of trade among West Asia, India, and Southeast Asia helped the spread of the religion as Muslim traders from South Arabia ( Hadhramaut ) brought Islam to the region with their large volume of trade. Many settled in Indonesia, Singapore, and Malaysia. This
5022-514: Is irrigated with surface water, and the rest with groundwater . Total water withdrawals amount to less than 3 percent of the river flow at 5.1 km (4,100,000 acre⋅ft). In recent years rubber, sugarcane and corn have become major cash crops, with the majority of this production exported to China. From 1998 to 2010, the area cultivated for rubber in Mon State increased fivefold, accompanied by significant deforestation. Further upstream,
5208-581: Is joined by the Ka, Suo and Ga rivers, all flowing from the southern slope of the Tanggula Mountains. In Biru County , the river begins a series of turns south and southeast, passing through Nyingchi prefecture. Shortly before entering Yunnan , it is joined from the east by the Yu River, its longest tributary within China. The Tibetan portion of the Salween basin is lightly populated, especially in
5394-533: Is lifted upwards by mountains, surface heating, convergence at the surface, divergence aloft, or from storm-produced outflows at the surface. However the lifting occurs, the air cools due to expansion in lower pressure, and this produces condensation . The monsoon of western Sub-Saharan Africa is the result of the seasonal shifts of the Intertropical Convergence Zone and the great seasonal temperature and humidity differences between
5580-498: Is now used to describe seasonal changes in atmospheric circulation and precipitation associated with annual latitudinal oscillation of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) between its limits to the north and south of the equator. Usually, the term monsoon is used to refer to the rainy phase of a seasonally changing pattern, although technically there is also a dry phase. The term is also sometimes used to describe locally heavy but short-term rains. The major monsoon systems of
5766-463: Is one of the most culturally diverse regions of the world. There are many different languages and ethnicities in the region. Historically, Southeast Asia was significantly influenced by Indian , Chinese , Muslim , and colonial cultures, which became core components of the region's cultural and political institutions. Most modern Southeast Asian countries were colonised by European powers. European colonisation exploited natural resources and labour from
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5952-595: Is only a homophone , due to Chinese having no phonetic script.) For more than 1,000 km (620 mi) the Salween runs parallel to, and west of the headwaters of the Mekong and Yangtze , separated by high mountain ridges of the Hengduan Mountains . The Gaoligong Mountains west of the Salween form the border between China and Burma. Between the Salween and Mekong rivers around the Tibet–Yunnan boundary are
6138-609: Is politically represented through the Pacific Islands Forum , a governing body which, up until 2022, included Australia, New Zealand and all independent territories in Melanesia , Micronesia, and Polynesia . Several countries of Maritime Southeast Asia, such as Indonesia and the Philippines, are dialogue partners of the Pacific Islands Forum, but none have full membership. Maritime Southeast Asia
6324-670: Is the only country where its folk religion makes up the plurality. Recently, Vietnamese folk religion is undergoing a revival with the support of the government. Elsewhere, there are ethnic groups in Southeast Asia that resisted conversion and still retain their original animist beliefs, such as the Dayaks in Kalimantan , the Igorots in Luzon, and the Shans in eastern Myanmar. After
6510-533: Is the possibility of reduced intensity of the Indian winter monsoon and strong summer monsoon, because of change in the Indian Ocean dipole due to reduction in net heat input to the Indian Ocean through the Indonesian Throughflow. Thus a better understanding of the possible links between El Niño , Western Pacific Warm Pool, Indonesian Throughflow, wind pattern off western Australia, and ice volume expansion and contraction can be obtained by studying
6696-552: Is the third most populous geographical region in Asia after South Asia and East Asia. The region is culturally and ethnically diverse, with hundreds of languages spoken by different ethnic groups. Ten countries in the region are members of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), a regional organisation established for economic, political, military, educational, and cultural integration among its members. Southeast Asia
6882-471: Is transported via waterways during the rainy season. In China, some forests in western Yunnan were intensively logged until the 1990s, when logging was banned there due to environmental impacts. The rate of deforestation has increased sharply in the 21st century, particularly in Shan, Karenni and Karen states. Before 2010, armed conflicts made it difficult for logging companies to access many of these areas. After
7068-734: The Andaman and Nicobar Islands of India is also considered a part of Maritime Southeast Asia. Eastern Bangladesh and Northeast India have strong cultural ties with Mainland Southeast Asia and are sometimes considered transregional areas between South Asia and Southeast Asia. To the east, Hong Kong is sometimes regarded as part of Southeast Asia. Similarly, Christmas Island and the Cocos (Keeling) Islands have strong cultural ties with Maritime Southeast Asia and are sometimes considered transregional areas between Southeast Asia and Australia/Oceania. On some occasions, Sri Lanka has been considered
7254-640: The Austronesian peoples , who form the majority of the modern population in Brunei, Indonesia, East Timor, Malaysia, and the Philippines, migrated to Southeast Asia from Taiwan in the first seaborne human migration known as the Austronesian Expansion . They arrived in the northern Philippines between 7,000 BC to 2,200 BC and rapidly spread further into the Northern Mariana Islands and Borneo by 1500 BC; Island Melanesia by 1300 BC; and to
7440-718: The Cocos (Keeling) Islands are located on the Australian Plate , south of the Sunda Trench . Even though they are geographically closer to Maritime Southeast Asia than mainland Australia , these two Australian external territories are not geologically associated with Asia as none of them is actually on the Sunda Plate . The UN Statistics Division 's geoscheme , which is a UN political geography tool created specifically for statistical purposes, has classified both island territories as parts of Oceania , under
7626-537: The East Indies or simply the Indies until the 20th century. Chinese sources referred to the region as Nanyang (" 南洋 "), which literally means the "Southern Ocean". The mainland section of Southeast Asia was referred to as Indochina by European geographers due to its location between China and the Indian subcontinent and its having cultural influences from both neighbouring regions. In the 20th century, however,
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7812-622: The Eemian interglacial, suggests that they had an average duration of around 64 years, with the minimum duration being around 50 years and the maximum approximately 80 years, similar to today. A study of marine plankton suggested that the South Asian Monsoon (SAM) strengthened around 5 million years ago. Then, during ice periods, the sea level fell and the Indonesian Seaway closed. When this happened, cold waters in
7998-756: The Hadley circulation during boreal winter. It is associated with the development of the Siberian High and the movement of the heating maxima from the Northern Hemisphere to the Southern Hemisphere. North-easterly winds flow down Southeast Asia, are turned north-westerly/westerly by Borneo topography towards Australia. This forms a cyclonic circulation vortex over Borneo, which together with descending cold surges of winter air from higher latitudes, cause significant weather phenomena in
8184-399: The Himalayas and Indo-Gangetic Plain towards the vast spans of the Indian Ocean south of the Deccan peninsula. This is known as the Northeast Monsoon or Retreating Monsoon. While travelling towards the Indian Ocean, the cold dry wind picks up some moisture from the Bay of Bengal and pours it over peninsular India and parts of Sri Lanka . Cities like Chennai , which get less rain from
8370-423: The Indonesian region of Western New Guinea (Papua and West Papua ). Both countries share the island of New Guinea . Islands to the east of the Philippines make up the region of Micronesia . These islands are not biogeographically, geologically or historically linked to mainland Asia, and are considered part of Oceania by the United Nations , The World Factbook , and other organisations. The Oceania region
8556-440: The Irrawaddy and Brahmaputra river systems on the west and the Mekong system on the east, and sharing a shorter boundary with the Yangtze system to the north. With a mean elevation of 3,515 m (11,532 ft), the Salween basin includes numerous glaciated mountain ranges, and the river flows for much of its length at high elevation. In China, the Salween basin is situated in Tibet Autonomous Region and Yunnan . In Burma
8742-402: The Meili Xue Shan , which include Kawagarbo , the highest peak in the Salween basin at 6,740 m (22,110 ft). Much of the river within Yunnan is part of the Three Parallel Rivers of Yunnan Protected Areas , a World Heritage Site . Forming canyons up to 4,500 m (14,800 ft) deep, this section is often called the "Grand Canyon of the East". Continuing south, the river crosses
8928-404: The Nanding River and Hka River from the east, and the Pang , Teng , and Pawn Rivers from the west. The Pang River is noted for its extensive limestone formations near the confluence with the Salween, where it breaks into a myriad of cataracts, channels and islets known as Kun Heng , "Thousand Islands". Inle Lake , the second largest lake in Burma and a World Biosphere Reserve , drains into
9114-399: The Philippines , while the Sunda Plate only includes western Indonesia to as far east as the Indonesian province of Bali . The mountain ranges in Myanmar, Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia , and the Indonesian islands of Sumatra , Java , Bali , Lesser Sunda Islands , and Timor are part of the Alpide belt , while the islands of the Philippines and Indonesia as well as East Timor are part of
9300-627: The Sahara and the equatorial Atlantic Ocean. The ITCZ migrates northward from the equatorial Atlantic in February, reaches western Africa on or near June 22, then moves back to the south by October. The dry, northeasterly trade winds , and their more extreme form, the harmattan , are interrupted by the northern shift in the ITCZ and resultant southerly, rain-bearing winds during the summer. The semiarid Sahel and Sudan depend upon this pattern for most of their precipitation. The North American monsoon ( NAM ) occurs from late June or early July into September, originating over Mexico and spreading into
9486-472: The South China Sea led to a timing of the monsoon beginning 15–20 million years ago and linked to early Tibetan uplift. Testing of this hypothesis awaits deep ocean sampling by the Integrated Ocean Drilling Program . The monsoon has varied significantly in strength since this time, largely linked to global climate change , especially the cycle of the Pleistocene ice ages. A study of Asian monsoonal climate cycles from 123,200 to 121,210 years BP, during
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#17327655295329672-421: The Srivijaya kingdom of Sangrama Vijayatungavarman in Kadaram ( Kedah ); the capital of the powerful maritime kingdom was sacked and the king was taken captive. Along with Kadaram, Pannai in present-day Sumatra and Malaiyur and the Malayan peninsula were attacked too. Soon after that, the king of Kedah Phra Ong Mahawangsa became the first ruler to abandon the traditional Hindu faith, and converted to Islam with
9858-440: The Sultanate of Kedah established in 1136. Samudera Pasai converted to Islam in 1267, the King of Malacca Parameswara married the princess of Pasai, and the son became the first sultan of Malacca. Soon, Malacca became the center of Islamic study and maritime trade, and other rulers followed suit. Indonesian religious leader and Islamic scholar Hamka (1908–1981) wrote in 1961: "The development of Islam in Indonesia and Malaya
10044-514: The Sunda pangolin . Limestone caves along the Salween in Thailand are home to numerous bat species, including the endemic Kitti's hog-nosed bat , the smallest known bat species in the world. The Nam San Valley along the Shan reach of the river provides habitat for the critically endangered white-rumped vulture and the slender-billed vulture . In the Salween delta, wetlands provide habitat for fishing cat , Asian small-clawed otter and Siamese crocodile , among other species. Along its lower course
10230-470: The UNSD subregion "Australia and New Zealand" ( Australasia ). Some definitions of Southeast Asia may include Taiwan . Taiwan has sometimes been included in Southeast Asia as well as East Asia but is not a member of ASEAN . Likewise, a similar argument could be applied to some southern parts of mainland China , as well as Hong Kong and Macau , may also considered as part of Southeast Asia as well as East Asia but are not members of ASEAN . The region
10416-445: The Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau via a series of deep canyons broken by wider valleys. In Longling County it is joined by the Kuke River and turns west, entering Burma. The total length of the river in China is 1,948 km (1,210 mi), not including a short 25 km (16 mi) segment along the China–Burma border. By the time it leaves China the Salween has descended more than 4,000 m (13,000 ft) from its source. In Burma
10602-455: The return of the westerlies ) is the result of a resurgence of westerly winds from the Atlantic, where they become loaded with wind and rain. These westerly winds are a common phenomenon during the European winter, but they ease as spring approaches in late March and through April and May. The winds pick up again in June, which is why this phenomenon is also referred to as "the return of the westerlies". The rain usually arrives in two waves, at
10788-415: The 1060s King Anawrahta expanded the boundaries of the Pagan Kingdom (First Burmese Empire) from its origins in the Irrawaddy valley, conquering Thaton and the other Mon kingdoms in the Salween delta. In the late 1100s King Narapatisithu (Sithu II) conquered most of the Shan States, extending Burmese rule to the western bank of the Salween river from the delta as far north as Yunnan. For almost 500 years,
10974-409: The 15th and early 16th century, did not go unnoticed by Portuguese writer Tomé Pires , who wrote in the Suma Oriental : "Whoever is lord of Malacca has his hand on the throat of Venice ." (Venice was a major European trading partner, and goods were transported there via the Straight.) Western influence started to enter in the 16th century, with the arrival of the Portuguese in Malacca, Maluku , and
11160-400: The 1890s. Contemporary British maps labeled the river as "Salween", an anglicization of the Burmese name Thanlwin . Southeast Asia Southeast Asia is the geographical southeastern region of Asia , consisting of the regions that are situated south of China , east of the Indian subcontinent , and northwest of the Australian mainland , which is part of Oceania . Southeast Asia
11346-467: The Asian monsoon has been linked to the uplift of the Tibetan Plateau after the collision of the Indian subcontinent and Asia around 50 million years ago. Because of studies of records from the Arabian Sea and that of the wind-blown dust in the Loess Plateau of China, many geologists believe the monsoon first became strong around 8 million years ago. More recently, studies of plant fossils in China and new long-duration sediment records from
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#173276552953211532-447: The Burma–Thailand border south of this point. In Karen State, the river flows through karst limestone hills where numerous caves and unusual rock formations line the banks, particularly around the city of Hpa-An . The Salween emerges from the mountains into the coastal plain near Hlaingbwe Township . Near the coast, annual rainfall is as high as 4,000 to 5,000 mm (160 to 200 in), supporting dense tropical rainforest as well as
11718-428: The Burmese military and local ethnic militias. The Salween is one of the least fragmented large river systems in Asia, with only a few small dams in the headwaters of the river and on tributaries. The river has extremely high hydropower potential, with a fall of more than 5,000 m (16,000 ft) from its source. Since the 1970s, the Burmese and Thai governments have sought to build massive hydroelectric dams along
11904-453: The Burmese name dating from 19th-century British maps. Due to its great range of elevation and latitude coupled with geographic isolation, the Salween basin is considered one of the most ecologically diverse regions in the world, containing an estimated 25 percent of the world's terrestrial animal species and thousands of plant species. Along its course the Salween provides water for agriculture and supports abundant fisheries, especially in
12090-498: The Court ruled in favour of the Philippines and rejected China's claims. Indonesia is the largest country in Southeast Asia and is also the largest archipelago in the world by size (according to the CIA World Factbook ). Geologically, the Indonesian Archipelago is one of the most volcanically active regions in the world. Geological uplifts in the region have also produced some impressive mountains, culminating in Puncak Jaya in Papua , Indonesia at 5,030 metres (16,503 feet), on
12276-436: The Dayebauk (north) and Mawlamyine (south) channels, forming Bilugyun Island before emptying into the Gulf of Martaban . Major tributaries by average flow (1971–2000): Flow regime at Hpa-an Station of Thanlwin River: Monthly flow pattern Thanlwin river at Hpa-an during 2009 to 2013: The present course of the Salween began to form about 5 million years ago as the Indian subcontinent collided with Asia, resulting in
12462-486: The EASM grew in strength, but it has been suggested to have decreased in strength during Heinrich events . The EASM expanded its influence deeper into the interior of Asia as sea levels rose following the LGM; it also underwent a period of intensification during the Middle Holocene, around 6,000 years ago, due to orbital forcing made more intense by the fact that the Sahara at the time was much more vegetated and emitted less dust. This Middle Holocene interval of maximum EASM
12648-406: The East Asian Winter Monsoon (EAWM) became stronger as the subarctic front shifted southwards. An abrupt intensification of the EAWM occurred 5.5 million years ago. The EAWM was still significantly weaker relative to today between 4.3 and 3.8 million years ago but abruptly became more intense around 3.8 million years ago as crustal stretching widened the Tsushima Strait and enabled greater inflow of
12834-405: The GDP and employs 70% of the population) is heavily dependent on the rains, for growing crops especially like cotton , rice , oilseeds and coarse grains. A delay of a few days in the arrival of the monsoon can badly affect the economy, as evidenced in the numerous droughts in India in the 1990s. The monsoon is widely welcomed and appreciated by city-dwellers as well, for it provides relief from
13020-434: The Indian Ocean aided the colonisation of Madagascar, as well as commerce between Western Asia, eastern coast of India and Chinese southern coast. Gold from Sumatra is thought to have reached as far west as Rome. Pliny the Elder wrote in his Natural History about Chryse and Argyre , two legendary islands rich in gold and silver, located in the Indian Ocean. Their vessels, such as the vinta , were capable to sail across
13206-445: The Late Holocene, significant glacial accumulation in the Himalayas still occurred due to cold temperatures brought by westerlies from the west. During the Middle Miocene , the July ITCZ, the zone of rainfall maximum, migrated northwards, increasing precipitation over southern China during the East Asian Summer Monsoon (EASM) while making Indochina drier. During the Late Miocene Global Cooling (LMCG), from 7.9 to 5.8 million years ago,
13392-533: The Mongols tried to invade Đại Việt and Champa . The invasions were unsuccessful, yet both Dai Viet and Champa agreed to become tributary states to Yuan dynasty to avoid further conflicts. The Mongols also invaded Pagan Kingdom in Burma from 1277 to 1287, resulted in fragmentation of the Kingdom and rise of smaller Shan States ruled by local chieftains nominally submitted to Yuan dynasty. However, in 1297,
13578-505: The Nu River in western Yunnan, span elevations of 1,000 to 6,000 m (3,300 to 19,700 ft) and range from subtropical broadleaf evergreen to subalpine conifer forests. The rare Taiwania , one of the largest conifers in Asia, is found here along with more than twenty other conifer species. Due to its rugged and inaccessible terrain, this is considered one of the most intact large forest regions in China. The Mekong–Salween divide forms
13764-486: The Pacific Ring of Fire . Both seismic belts meet in Indonesia, causing the region to have relatively high occurrences of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, particularly in the Philippines and Indonesia . It covers about 4,500,000 km (1,700,000 sq mi), which is 8% of Eurasia and 3% of Earth's total land area. Its total population is more than 675 million, about 8.5% of the world's population. It
13950-506: The Pacific were impeded from flowing into the Indian Ocean. It is believed that the resulting increase in sea surface temperatures in the Indian Ocean increased the intensity of monsoons. In 2018, a study of the SAM's variability over the past million years found that precipitation resulting from the monsoon was significantly reduced during glacial periods compared to interglacial periods like
14136-557: The Papuan-related and East Asian-related branches of the Eastern non-African lineage. The hunter-gatherer individual had approximately ~50% "Basal-East Asian" ancestry, and was positioned in between modern East Asians and Papuans of Oceania. The authors concluded that East Asian-related ancestry expanded from Mainland Southeast Asia into Maritime Southeast Asia much earlier than previously suggested, as early as 25,000BC, long before
14322-802: The Philippines, the latter being settled by the Spaniards years later, which they used to trade between Asia and Latin America . Throughout the 17th and 18th centuries, the Dutch established the Dutch East Indies ; the French Indochina ; and the British Strait Settlements . By the 19th century, all Southeast Asian countries were colonised except for Thailand . European explorers were reaching Southeast Asia from
14508-552: The Portuguese invasion of Southeast Asia in the 17th century. The United States took the Philippines from Spain in 1898. Internal autonomy was granted in 1934, and independence in 1946. Most countries in the region maintain national autonomy. Democratic forms of government are practised in most Southeast Asian countries and human rights is recognised but dependent on each nation state. Socialist or communist countries in Southeast Asia include Vietnam and Laos. ASEAN provides
14694-546: The Salween River. Due to its strategic location, Mawlamyine (anglicized as Moulmein) served as the capital of British Burma from 1826 until 1852 and as a gateway for overland trade into Yunnan. It became the center of a lucrative timber industry, particularly in teak . Logs were floated down the Salween River to meet oceangoing ships in Mawlamyine port. Forests in the lower Salween basin were extensively logged until
14880-522: The Salween are prime sources of tropical hardwoods including teak, pyinkadoe (red ironwood) and padauk (Burmese rosewood). Logging in the Burmese part of the basin first occurred on a large scale during the British colonial period in the 19th century. Clearcutting has destabilized soils along the river and raised sediment loads. Due to the lack of good roads across most of the basin, the majority of timber
15066-669: The Salween as more Han people settled in Yunnan. Martaban (now Mottama ) in the Salween Delta was a major trading port on the Maritime Silk Road as early as 200 BCE. By the 6th century CE, the Thaton Kingdom (one of the early Mon kingdoms ) ruled the Salween Delta and surrounding coasts from the capital of Thaton . From 738–902 CE, the kingdom of Nanzhao controlled Yunnan and parts of northern Burma, with
15252-630: The Salween basin includes the Kayah-Karen montane rain forests , where the karst limestone landscape of cliffs, sinkholes and caverns lends itself to a multitude of forest types. Limestone soils host drought deciduous forests, while dipterocarp –dominant tropical forests occur on granitic soils. Montane deciduous forests are widespread in the Shan Hills. Mangrove forests occur in the Salween delta, especially on Bilugyun Island. The basin supports about 151 fish species, with 77 of those found in
15438-513: The Salween basin on both sides of the China–Burma border, migrated south along the river from Tibet around 500–300 BCE. The Lisu people , also originating in Tibet, arrived in Yunnan sometime before 1000 CE. Chinese records begin to mention Lisu in the late Tang dynasty (618–907 CE). The Lisu originally inhabited areas further east in Yunnan, but over centuries they were pushed north and west towards
15624-693: The Salween by way of the Pawn River. Further south, the river enters Karen State (Kayin State) and forms the border between Burma and Thailand for about 120 km (75 mi). In Thailand the river is known as Salawin ; much of the Thai side of the border is part of Salawin National Park and the Salawin Wildlife Sanctuary . At the south end of the border section it is joined by the northwest-flowing Moei River , which forms
15810-426: The Salween flows south and descends in elevation, it travels from temperate to subtropical and finally tropical climate zones, with yearly precipitation ranging from 1,200 to 2,000 mm (47 to 79 in) in the Shan Hills area. The total length of the river in Burma and Thailand is 1,316 km (818 mi). In Shan State and Karenni State (Kayah State) the river is joined by several large tributaries, including
15996-514: The Salween flows through Shan State , Karenni State , Karen State and Mon State . In Thailand the Salween borders only on Mae Hong Son Province , with tributaries extending into Chiang Mai , Tak and Kanchanaburi Province . The average flow rate at the China–Burma border is 68.74 km/a (2,178 m/s). Along the Burma–Thailand border the Salween carries an average annual flow of 200 km/a (6,300 m/s). The estimated flow rate at
16182-499: The Salween forming its southwestern boundary with the Burmese Pyu city-states . Tang China had several overland trade routes with Burma via Nanzhao, which it was allied with at times. One route started from Yinsheng (around present-day Jingdong , Yunnan) and headed west then south along the Salween River, reaching the Indian Ocean at Martaban. Another crossed the Salween around present day Baoshan , heading west towards India. In
16368-435: The Salween in and around Nujiang Prefecture . Although China had been expanding into the area since Ming times, the greatest influx of settlers was around 1700 to 1850. At the same time, Tibet was expanding its influence into western Yunnan. Tibetan parties raided down the Salween valley and took slaves from the indigenous Nu and Derung populations, which were not well politically organized and unable to offer much resistance. On
16554-407: The Salween in eastern Burma are home to dozens of medicinal plants crucial to the production of traditional herbal medicines. Some medicinal plants are cultivated, while others are harvested wild in the forest. Many wild species are threatened by deforestation and agricultural conversion. The Salween estuary and delta is a particularly rich fishery, with the complex network of tidal channels providing
16740-554: The Salween river is officially known as Thanlwin ; in Shan State , which the river enters immediately upon leaving China, it is also known as Nam Khone . Turning south, the river slices a winding course through the vast upland region known as the Shan Hills . This area is characterized by a complex, broken topography of small mountain ranges, plateaus and cliffs, through which the Salween has cut an extensive series of gorges. As
16926-425: The Salween river. Subsequently, Bayinnaung moved north up the Salween, subjugating all the independent Shan states by 1557. These victories were enabled in part by the acquisition of firearms from Dutch and Portuguese traders who first reached these coasts around 1511. European mercenaries also fought in some of these battles. At Martaban the Portuguese established a trading post, one of the first European settlements in
17112-481: The Salween sustains both flood and irrigated agriculture. The Salween delta is a major rice-growing area; it is the single most productive agricultural region in the Salween basin and home to over 500,000 people. Rice paddies are highly dependent on the river's annual flooding, bringing deposits of rich sediment. Other crops grown in the Salween basin include maize, wheat, chili, cotton, potatoes, groundnut, sesame, pulses, betel, tea, and various vegetables. Certain areas of
17298-750: The Salween would trap much of the sediment with potential detrimental impacts to coastal erosion. The Salween basin is home to thousands of species of plants, with the highest plant diversity found in Yunnan's Three Parallel Rivers region. The Three Parallel Rivers protected areas include the Gaoligongshan National Nature Reserve and the Nu Jiang Reserve within the Salween basin; the Gaoligongshan reserve has more than 4,300 plant species. The Nujiang Langcang Gorge alpine conifer and mixed forests , situated along
17484-549: The South China Sea. Mayon Volcano , despite being dangerously active , holds the record of the world's most perfect cone which is built from past and continuous eruption . Geographically, Southeast Asia is bounded to the southeast by the Australian continent , the boundary between these two regions is most often considered to run through Wallacea . Geopolitically, the boundary lies between Papua New Guinea and
17670-667: The Southwest Monsoon first hits the Western Ghats of the coastal state of Kerala , India, thus making this area the first state in India to receive rain from the Southwest Monsoon. This branch of the monsoon moves northwards along the Western Ghats ( Konkan and Goa ) with precipitation on coastal areas, west of the Western Ghats. The eastern areas of the Western Ghats do not receive much rain from this monsoon as
17856-603: The Southwest Monsoon, receive rain from this Monsoon. About 50% to 60% of the rain received by the state of Tamil Nadu is from the Northeast Monsoon. In Southern Asia, the northeastern monsoons take place from October to December when the surface high-pressure system is strongest. The jet stream in this region splits into the southern subtropical jet and the polar jet. The subtropical flow directs northeasterly winds to blow across southern Asia, creating dry air streams which produce clear skies over India. Meanwhile,
18042-660: The Tibetan Plateau and northwest China starting around 1000 BCE. Tai peoples , ancestors of the Shan , began moving into the Shan Hills area of the middle Salween from Yunnan around 1000 CE and established multiple independent kingdoms, often known as the Shan States . The Nu people , originating in the Tibetan Plateau, may have inhabited the areas of the Salween (Nu) and Mekong (Lancang) in modern day China as early as 2000 BCE. The Wa people , who today inhabit parts of
18228-458: The air temperature remains relatively stable for two reasons: water has a relatively high heat capacity (3.9 to 4.2 J g K ), and because both conduction and convection will equilibrate a hot or cold surface with deeper water (up to 50 metres). In contrast, dirt, sand, and rocks have lower heat capacities (0.19 to 0.35 J g K ), and they can only transmit heat into the earth by conduction and not by convection. Therefore, bodies of water stay at
18414-593: The ancestral Red into different drainage systems, with the Yangtze heading east towards the Pacific, and the Mekong and Salween flowing south into what is now Thailand's Chao Phraya River . About 1.5 million years ago, volcanic activity diverted the Salween west towards the Andaman Sea, roughly creating the modern path of the river. The parallel modern courses of the upper Salween, Mekong and Yangtze are located where
18600-594: The area. In the 1640s, the last years of the Ming dynasty, geographer Xu Xiake explored the Salween River country and determined that the upper Salween, Mekong and Red rivers (previously believed to be part of the same river system) were in fact separate. After the rise of the Qing dynasty China entered a new period of western expansion. In 1717 the Dzungar Khanate conquered Tibet, and China sought to expel them from
18786-583: The arrival at the Eastern Himalayas, the winds turns towards the west, travelling over the Indo-Gangetic Plain at a rate of roughly 1–2 weeks per state, pouring rain all along its way. June 1 is regarded as the date of onset of the monsoon in India, as indicated by the arrival of the monsoon in the southernmost state of Kerala. The monsoon accounts for nearly 80% of the rainfall in India. Indian agriculture (which accounts for 25% of
18972-507: The beginning of June, and again in mid- to late June. The European monsoon is not a monsoon in the traditional sense in that it doesn't meet all the requirements to be classified as such. Instead, the return of the westerlies is more regarded as a conveyor belt that delivers a series of low-pressure centres to Western Europe where they create unsettled weather. These storms generally feature significantly lower-than-average temperatures, fierce rain or hail, thunder, and strong winds. The return of
19158-414: The behaviour of the LC during Quaternary at close stratigraphic intervals. The South American summer monsoon (SASM) is known to have become weakened during Dansgaard–Oeschger events. The SASM has been suggested to have been enhanced during Heinrich events. Monsoons were once considered as a large-scale sea breeze caused by higher temperature over land than in the ocean. This is no longer considered as
19344-611: The cause and the monsoon is now considered a planetary-scale phenomenon involving the annual migration of the Intertropical Convergence Zone between its northern and southern limits. The limits of the ITCZ vary according to the land–sea heating contrast and it is thought that the northern extent of the monsoon in South Asia is influenced by the high Tibetan Plateau. These temperature imbalances happen because oceans and land absorb heat in different ways. Over oceans,
19530-514: The caves of Borneo . Homo floresiensis also lived in the area up until at least 50,000 years ago, after which they became extinct. During much of this time the present-day islands of western Indonesia were joined into a single landmass known as Sundaland due to lower sea levels. Ancient remains of hunter-gatherers in Maritime Southeast Asia, such as one Holocene hunter-gatherer from South Sulawesi , had ancestry from both
19716-713: The climax of summer heat in June. However, the roads take a battering every year. Often houses and streets are waterlogged and slums are flooded despite drainage systems. A lack of city infrastructure coupled with changing climate patterns causes severe economic loss including damage to property and loss of lives, as evidenced in the 2005 flooding in Mumbai that brought the city to a standstill. Bangladesh and certain regions of India like Assam and West Bengal , also frequently experience heavy floods during this season. Recently, areas in India that used to receive scanty rainfall throughout
19902-399: The colder months, the cycle is reversed. Then the land cools faster than the oceans and the air over the land has higher pressure than air over the ocean. This causes the air over the land to flow to the ocean. When humid air rises over the ocean, it cools, and this causes precipitation over the oceans. (The cool air then flows towards the land to complete the cycle.) Most summer monsoons have
20088-553: The countries (sovereign states and dependent territories) listed below. Ten of the eleven states of Southeast Asia are members of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), while East Timor is an observer state. Papua New Guinea has stated that it might join ASEAN, and is currently an observer. Sovereignty issues exist over some islands in the South China Sea . * Administrative centre in Putrajaya . Southeast Asia
20274-527: The delta region. The Salween basin is home to numerous ethnic minority groups, whose ancestors largely originated in the Tibetan Plateau and northwest China. Starting about 5,000 years ago, people began migrating south along the river, establishing small kingdoms and city-states . During the last 1,000 years, the Salween has defined various frontiers of the Burmese empires to the west, the Kingdom of Siam to
20460-686: The departure of the Mongols, Wijaya established the Majapahit Empire in eastern Java in 1293. Majapahit would soon grow into a regional power. Its greatest ruler was Hayam Wuruk , whose reign from 1350 to 1389 marked the empire's peak when other kingdoms in the southern Malay Peninsula , Borneo , Sumatra , and Bali came under its influence. Various sources such as the Nagarakertagama also mention that its influence spanned over parts of Sulawesi , Maluku , and some areas of western New Guinea and southern Philippines , making it one of
20646-469: The dominant trading power in mainland Southeast Asia for about five centuries, provided passage for Indian and Chinese goods and assumed authority over the flow of commerce through Southeast Asia. In maritime Southeast Asia, the first recorded Indianised kingdom was Salakanagara , established in western Java circa second century CE. This Hindu kingdom was known by the Greeks as Argyre (Land of Silver). By
20832-530: The early people travelled along the south coast of Asia, first entered the Malay Peninsula 50,000–90,000 years ago. The Orang Asli, in particular the Semang who show Negrito characteristics, are the direct descendants of these earliest settlers of Southeast Asia. These early people diversified and travelled slowly northwards to China, and the populations of Southeast Asia show greater genetic diversity than
21018-531: The eastern Tibetan Plateau intersects the uplands of the Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau . The mountain ranges separating these rivers are individual terranes (crustal fragments) that accreted separately to the Asian continent – forming a basin and range landscape with drainage running from north to south – then compressed together such that the rivers flow only 20 km (12 mi) apart in places. As
21204-527: The elite language of the region, which effectively made Southeast Asia part of the Indosphere . Most of the region had been Indianised during the first centuries, while the Philippines later Indianised c. ninth century when Kingdom of Tondo was established in Luzon. Vietnam, especially its northern part, was never fully Indianised due to the many periods of Chinese domination it experienced. The first Indian-influenced polities established in
21390-458: The envoys, enraged the Mongols and made them sent a large invasion fleet to Java. Unbeknownst to them, Singhasari collapsed in 1293 due to a revolt by Kadiri, one of its vassals. When the Mongols arrived in Java, a local prince named Raden Wijaya offered his service to assist the Mongols in punishing Kadiri. After Kadiri was defeated, Wijaya turned on his Mongol allies, ambushed their invasion fleet and forced them to immediately leave Java. After
21576-484: The estuary shallower and reduced its productivity, in turn reducing the rate of fish migration and spawning. The Burmese government has made efforts to address the issues, including seasonal fishing bans first implemented in 2012, but these laws have been rarely enforced. An alternative approach, using small, self-enforced community-based reserves where fishing is not allowed, has successfully protected fish populations and species diversity in northern Thailand. Forests along
21762-522: The expansion of Austroasiatic and Austronesian groups. Distinctive Basal-East Asian (East-Eurasian) ancestry was recently found to have originated in Mainland Southeast Asia at ~50,000BC, and expanded through multiple migration waves southwards and northwards respectively. Geneflow of East Asian-related ancestry into Maritime Southeast Asia and Oceania could be estimated to ~25,000BC (possibly also earlier). The pre-Neolithic Papuan-related populations of Maritime Southeast Asia were largely replaced by
21948-411: The expansion of various East Asian-related populations, beginning about 50,000BC to 25,000BC years ago from Mainland Southeast Asia. The remainders, known as Negritos, form small minority groups in geographically isolated regions. Southeast Asia was dominated by East Asian-related ancestry already in 15,000BC, predating the expansion of Austroasiatic and Austronesian peoples . In the late Neolithic ,
22134-590: The fifth century CE, trade networking between East and West was concentrated in the maritime route. Foreign traders were starting to use new routes such as Malacca and Sunda Strait due to the development of maritime Southeast Asia. This change resulted in the decline of Funan, while new maritime powers such as Srivijaya , Tarumanagara , and Mataram emerged. Srivijaya especially became the dominant maritime power for more than 5 centuries, controlling both Strait of Malacca and Sunda Strait . This dominance started to decline when Srivijaya were invaded by Chola Empire ,
22320-400: The floodplain are suitable for both farming and fishing, such as the seasonal Daw Lar Lake upstream of Hpa-An, where crops are grown on islands in the lake during the dry season. Following the annual harvest, the land is used for grazing livestock. In the rainy season fish migrate from the Salween River to spawn in the lake, and are caught in large numbers as the water level recedes at the end of
22506-597: The former western colonies under the concept of " Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere ". However, the Shōwa occupation regime committed violent actions against civilians such as live human experimentation, sexual slavery under the brutal " comfort women " system, the Manila massacre and the implementation of a system of forced labour , such as the one involving four to ten million romusha in Indonesia. A later UN report stated that four million people died in Indonesia as
22692-476: The frigid headwater regions where precipitation is scarce and river flow depends almost entirely on glacier melt. The upper Salween basin includes more than 12,000 km (4,600 sq mi) of glaciers. In Yunnan, the Salween is known as the Nujiang ( Chinese : 怒江 ; pinyin : Nujiang ) or Nu River , after the indigenous Nu people , but also translating literally to "angry river". (The character
22878-515: The hot summers. This causes a low pressure area over the northern and central Indian subcontinent. To fill this void, the moisture-laden winds from the Indian Ocean rush into the subcontinent. These winds, rich in moisture, are drawn towards the Himalayas . The Himalayas act like a high wall, blocking the winds from passing into Central Asia, and forcing them to rise. As the clouds rise, their temperature drops, and precipitation occurs . Some areas of
23064-461: The island of New Guinea ; it is the only place where ice glaciers can be found in Southeast Asia. The highest mountain in Southeast Asia is Hkakabo Razi at 5,967 metres (19,577 feet) and can be found in northern Burma sharing the same range of its parent peak, Mount Everest . The South China Sea is the major body of water within Southeast Asia. The Philippines, Vietnam, Malaysia, Brunei, Indonesia, and Singapore, have integral rivers that flow into
23250-598: The lake, the Tibetan section of the river is called Gyalmo Nagqu , "black river". In Tibet the river flows mostly within Nagqu prefecture. From Cona Lake, the river flows south and turns east near Nagqu Town , where the Chalong hydroelectric station is situated. Further east, the river is dammed at the smaller Jiquan hydroelectric station. As of 2017, these are the only two dams on the Salween River proper. Continuing east, it
23436-479: The lands they conquered, and attempted to spread European institutions to the region. Several Southeast Asian countries were also briefly occupied by the Japanese Empire during World War II . The aftermath of World War II saw most of the region decolonised. Today, Southeast Asia is predominantly governed by independent states. The region, together with part of South Asia, was well known by Europeans as
23622-472: The largest empire to ever exist in Southeast Asian history. By the 15th century CE however, Majapahit's influence began to wane due to many war of successions it experienced and the rise of new Islamic states such as Samudera Pasai and Malacca Sultanate around the strategic Strait of Malacca . Majapahit then collapsed around 1500. It was the last major Hindu kingdom and the last regional power in
23808-513: The last 90 km (56 mi) are navigable, where it forms a modest estuary and delta at Mawlamyine . The river is known by various names along its course, including the Thanlwin (named after Elaeocarpus sp., an olive-like plant that grows on its banks) in Burma and the Nu Jiang (or Nu River, named after Nu people ) in China. The commonly used spelling "Salween" is an anglicisation of
23994-783: The lower Salween defined the frontier between Burma and the Ayutthaya Kingdom (Siam). In the late 1200s, the Pagan Kingdom collapsed after invasions of the Mongol Empire . The Mongols had also conquered the Dali Kingdom (Nanzhao's successor). In 1287 the Hanthawaddy Kingdom emerged in the Salween and Irrawaddy deltas. Martaban served as the Hanthawaddy capital between 1287 and 1364. Along
24180-588: The lowest population density is in Tibet (5 people/km). The Salween originates in the Tanggula Mountains in the central Tibetan Plateau. The headwaters are located near Dengka Peak, east of Tanggula Pass . The highest source is Jiangmeiergang Galou glacier, 5,432 m (17,822 ft) above sea level. The various headwater streams flow southwest through high mountain valleys and accumulate in Cona Lake , at 4,594 m (15,072 ft). Downstream of
24366-513: The monsoon is not a simple response to heating but a more complex interaction of topography, wind and sea, as demonstrated by its abrupt rather than gradual withdrawal from the region. The Australian monsoon (the "Wet") occurs in the southern summer when the monsoon trough develops over Northern Australia . Over three-quarters of annual rainfall in Northern Australia falls during this time. The European Monsoon (more commonly known as
24552-505: The mountainous middle reaches of the Salween River, former Shan vassal states regained their independence. Starting around 1380, Ming China annexed Yunnan and conquered some of the eastern Shan states. From 1436-49, Chinese armies crossed the Salween to wage the Luchuan–Pingmian campaigns against the Shan state of Mong Mao . These wars were an expensive failure for the Ming, and triggered tribal uprisings that fragmented Chinese power in
24738-496: The mountains continued to rise, the rivers incised into the landscape along parallel fault zones, creating the deep canyons of the present day. The Nujiang fault zone stretches over 600 km (370 mi) along the river in Yunnan. The formation of the Himalayas blocked drainage from the Tibetan Plateau south towards the Indian Ocean, forcing drainage north of the mountains east towards the Yangtze river. This east-flowing river,
24924-438: The mouth is 6,600 m/s (230,000 cu ft/s). About 89 percent of the annual flow occurs in the monsoon season (mid-May through November), and only 11 percent in the remainder of the year. The average volume of sediment in the Salween Delta is around 180 million tonnes per year. The population of the Salween basin is estimated at 24 million, or 76 persons/km. About 10 million people live adjacent or close to
25110-420: The nearby Irrawaddy and Sittaung Rivers . The river also hosts a number of invasive exotic fish which were introduced for commercial purposes. In addition to fish, the Salween provides habitat for 92 amphibian species. The Salween has the greatest diversity of turtles of any river in the world. The endangered Giant Asian pond turtle and Big-headed turtle are found here. The Salween basin includes up to 25% of
25296-576: The north between approximately 8,000 and 4,000 BP, and most recently retreated southward once more between 4,000 and 0 BP. The January ITCZ migrated further south to its present location during the Middle Miocene, strengthening the summer monsoon of Australia that had previously been weaker. Five episodes during the Quaternary at 2.22 Ma ( PL-1), 1.83 Ma (PL-2), 0.68 Ma (PL-3), 0.45 Ma (PL-4) and 0.04 Ma (PL-5) were identified which showed
25482-413: The ocean to the land, bringing moist air inland. This moist air rises to a higher altitude over land and then it flows back toward the ocean (thus completing the cycle). However, when the air rises, and while it is still over the land, the air cools . This decreases the air's ability to hold water , and this causes precipitation over the land. This is why summer monsoons cause so much rain over land. In
25668-667: The ocean. Magellan's voyage records how much more manoeuvrable their vessels were, as compared to the European ships. A slave from the Sulu Sea was believed to have been used in the Magellan expedition as a translator. Studies presented by the Human Genome Organisation (HUGO) through genetic studies of the various peoples of Asia show empirically that there was a single migration event from Africa, whereby
25854-452: The other hand, the Lisu fiercely resisted efforts to take slaves and land. In the 1590s Siam had captured the Tenasserim coast, and the Salween delta again became the border with Burma. For more than a hundred years this remained a disputed area, changing hands several times between the Burmese and Siamese. Burmese rule returned to the Salween delta in the 1750s with the expansion of the Konbaung dynasty . Starting in 1759, Martaban served as
26040-408: The predecessor of the modern Yarlung Tsangpo river, was repeatedly captured into drainages to the south, finding various routes to the sea via the Red, Mekong, Salween and Irrawaddy rivers. The combined Salween–Yarlung Tsangpo drainage would have been much longer than the modern Salween, stretching an additional 1,500 km (930 mi) west across the Tibetan Plateau. Ultimately the Yarlung Tsangpo
26226-423: The present day. The Indian Summer Monsoon (ISM) underwent several intensifications during the warming following the Last Glacial Maximum, specifically during the time intervals corresponding to 16,100–14,600 BP, 13,600–13,000 BP, and 12,400–10,400 BP as indicated by vegetation changes in the Tibetan Plateau displaying increases in humidity brought by an intensifying ISM. Though the ISM was relatively weak for much of
26412-443: The region and Sri Lanka . Buddhism later established a strong presence in Funan region in the fifth century. In present-day mainland Southeast Asia, Theravada is still the dominant branch of Buddhism, practised by the Thai, Burmese, and Cambodian Buddhists. This branch was fused with the Hindu-influenced Khmer culture. Mahayana Buddhism established presence in Maritime Southeast Asia, brought by Chinese monks during their transit in
26598-407: The region and made contacts with local courts. Local rulers converted to Hinduism or Buddhism and adopted Indian religious traditions to reinforce their legitimacy, elevate ritual status above their fellow chief counterparts and facilitate trade with South Asian states. They periodically invited Indian Brahmins into their realms and began a gradual process of Indianisation in the region. Shaivism
26784-423: The region as Islam provided a positive force among the ruling and trading classes. Gujarati Muslims played a pivotal role in establishing Islam in Southeast Asia. Trade among Southeast Asian countries has a long tradition. The consequences of colonial rule, struggle for independence, and in some cases war influenced the economic attitudes and policies of each country. From 111 BC to 938 AD northern Vietnam
26970-411: The region before the arrival of the Europeans. Islam began to make contacts with Southeast Asia in the eighth-century CE, when the Umayyads established trade with the region via sea routes. However its spread into the region happened centuries later. In the 11th century, a turbulent period occurred in the history of Maritime Southeast Asia . The Indian Chola navy crossed the ocean and attacked
27156-523: The region came under contact with the Indian subcontinent c. 400 BCE , it began a gradual process of Indianisation where Indian ideas such as religions, cultures, architectures, and political administrations were brought by traders and religious figures and adopted by local rulers. In turn, Indian Brahmins and monks were invited by local rulers to live in their realms and help transforming local polities to become more Indianised, blending Indian and indigenous traditions. Sanskrit and Pali became
27342-589: The region en route to Nalanda . It is still the dominant branch of Buddhism practised by Indonesian and Malaysian Buddhists. The spread of these two Indian religions confined the adherents of Southeast Asian indigenous beliefs into remote inland areas. The Maluku Islands and New Guinea were never Indianised and its native people were predominantly animists until the 15th century when Islam began to spread in those areas. While in Vietnam, Buddhism never managed to develop strong institutional networks due to strong Chinese influence. In present-day Southeast Asia, Vietnam
27528-527: The region were the Pyu city-states that already existed circa second century BCE, located in inland Myanmar. It served as an overland trading hub between India and China. Theravada Buddhism was the predominant religion of these city states, while the presence of other Indian religions such as Mahayana Buddhism and Hinduism were also widespread. In the first century, the Funan states centered in Mekong Delta were established, encompassed modern-day Cambodia, southern Vietnam, Laos, and eastern Thailand. It became
27714-434: The region, specifically, the Philippines. East Timor and the eastern half of Indonesia (east of the Wallace Line in the region of Wallacea ) are considered to be geographically associated with Oceania due to their distinctive faunal features. Geologically, the island of New Guinea and its surrounding islands are considered as parts of the Australian continent , connected via the Sahul Shelf . Both Christmas Island and
27900-408: The region. The Toungoo dynasty emerged in Burma during the 1500s, conquering much of Southeast Asia by 1565 to create the First Toungoo Empire (Second Burmese Empire). King Tabinshwehti captured and destroyed Martaban in 1541. Under the subsequent rule of Bayinnaung , an 800,000-strong army crossed the Salween in 1548 and invaded Siam. This was the first time Burmese rule had been extended east of
28086-446: The region. Examples are the formation of a rare low-latitude tropical storm in 2001, Tropical Storm Vamei , and the devastating flood of Jakarta in 2007. The onset of the monsoon over Australia tends to follow the heating maxima down Vietnam and the Malay Peninsula (September), to Sumatra , Borneo and the Philippines (October), to Java , Sulawesi (November), Irian Jaya and northern Australia (December, January). However,
28272-444: The region. In 1718 the Qing sent an army but were unsuccessful in reaching Tibet, reaching only as far as the Salween River where they were defeated by Dzungar troops in the Battle of the Salween River . In response, the Qing sent a larger force to Tibet in 1720 , driving out the Dzungars and establishing Qing rule of Tibet . As the Qing pushed into Yunnan, the indigenous Lisu people were driven further west, eventually settling along
28458-487: The rest of Indonesia , Malaysia , southern Vietnam , and Palau by 1000 BC. They often settled along coastal areas, replacing and assimilating the diverse preexisting peoples. The Austronesian peoples of Southeast Asia have been seafarers for thousands of years. They spread eastwards to Micronesia and Polynesia , as well as westwards to Madagascar , becoming the ancestors of modern-day Malagasy , Micronesians , Melanesians , and Polynesians . Passage through
28644-405: The result of the Chola expeditions. As Srivijaya influence in the region declined, The Hindu Khmer Empire experienced a golden age during the 11th to 13th century CE. The empire's capital Angkor hosts majestic monuments—such as Angkor Wat and Bayon . Satellite imaging has revealed that Angkor, during its peak, was the largest pre-industrial urban centre in the world. The Champa civilisation
28830-406: The river bank in the southeastern Tibetan Plateau. The Mon are some of the earliest inhabitants of the Salween basin within Burma, migrating south from China around 3000 BCE, and settling in the Salween delta and adjacent coastal areas. Agriculture was first practiced in the Salween and Irrawaddy basins around the first century BCE. Ancestors of the Karen migrated down the Salween River area from
29016-464: The river has increased in the 21st century. There is also increasing sand and gravel mining in the lower river. As of 2015 the Burmese government was seeking international investment in the mining sector, and new policies could lead to considerable increase in mining activity along the river. Human presence along the upper Salween River dates to at least 31,000–39,000 years ago. Archeological evidence includes stone tools and animal remains discovered along
29202-460: The river proper. People of the Salween basin represent a large diversity of ethnic groups. In China, the Salween basin is home to Blang , Derung , Lisu , Nu , Palaung (De'ang), Shan , Tibetan and Wa . In Burma and Myanmar, the major ethnic groups include Akha , Lahu , Lisu, Hmong , Kachin , Karen , Karenni , Kokang , Pa'O , Shan and Yao . The highest population densities are in Mon State (300 people/km) and Yunnan (100 people/km), while
29388-464: The river provides a water source for numerous remote villages. With arable land limited by mountainous terrain, farming occurs primarily on the seasonally flooded river banks and islands. However, forest land has been increasingly converted to agriculture, which has led to sedimentation and other water quality issues. The higher elevation valleys are used for grazing, particularly in Tibet, where yaks, sheep, goats, horses and cattle are raised. Forests along
29574-435: The river. China also planned to dam the upper Salween, but in 2016 these plans were dropped in favor of establishing a national park. The future of dam projects in Myanmar and Thailand remains uncertain. The Salween basin includes about 283,500 km (109,500 sq mi), of which 48 percent is in China, 44 percent in Burma, and 8 percent in Thailand. The basin is extremely long and narrow, situated between
29760-474: The season. The Salween generally floods in July–September and reaches its lowest around October–December. Compared to Burma's principal rice growing region, the Irrawaddy delta, the Salween delta floods more erratically, and is prone to drought for 1–2 years out of five. Approximately 380,000 ha (940,000 acres) of land are irrigated in the Salween basin, with 50 percent in Burma, 42 percent in China and 8 percent in Thailand. About 97 percent
29946-457: The south, and Imperial China to the east, with the Shan States along the middle Salween being a frequently contested area. In the 19th century, the British Empire invaded Burma with Mawlamyine serving as the colonial capital for many decades. Since Burmese independence in 1948, the Salween basin has been a battleground for several fronts of the Burmese Civil War , with large areas in Shan State and Karen State ( Kayin State ) contested between
30132-417: The southwest United States by mid-July. It affects Mexico along the Sierra Madre Occidental as well as Arizona , New Mexico , Nevada , Utah , Colorado , West Texas and California . It pushes as far west as the Peninsular Ranges and Transverse Ranges of Southern California, but rarely reaches the coastal strip (a wall of desert thunderstorms only a half-hour's drive away is a common summer sight from
30318-428: The subcontinent receive up to 10,000 mm (390 in) of rain annually. The southwest monsoon is generally expected to begin around the beginning of June and fade away by the end of September. The moisture-laden winds on reaching the southernmost point of the Indian Peninsula , due to its topography, become divided into two parts: the Arabian Sea Branch and the Bay of Bengal Branch . The Arabian Sea Branch of
30504-423: The summer monsoon shifts through a series of dry and rainy phases as the rain belt moves northward, beginning over Indochina and the South China Sea (May), to the Yangtze River Basin and Japan (June) and finally to northern China and Korea (July). When the monsoon ends in August, the rain belt moves back to southern China. The rainy season occurs from September to February and it is a major source of energy for
30690-483: The sunny skies along the coast during the monsoon). The North American monsoon is known to many as the Summer , Southwest , Mexican or Arizona monsoon. It is also sometimes called the Desert monsoon as a large part of the affected area are the Mojave and Sonoran deserts . However, it is controversial whether the North and South American weather patterns with incomplete wind reversal should be counted as true monsoons. The Asian monsoons may be classified into
30876-425: The term became more restricted to territories of the former French Indochina (Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam). The maritime section of Southeast Asia is also known as the Malay Archipelago , a term derived from the European concept of a Malay race . Another term for Maritime Southeast Asia is Insulindia (Indian Islands), used to describe the region between Indochina and Australasia . The term "Southeast Asia"
31062-435: The uplift of the Himalaya mountains and the Tibetan Plateau. Prior to the Himalaya orogeny , what are now the upper Irrawaddy, Salween, Mekong and Yangtze rivers may have all flowed into the Red River , emptying into the South China Sea . The landscape was hilly but not particularly rugged, with average elevations of 1,000 m (3,300 ft) or less. As the continents converged, a complex jumble of mountains arose, breaking
31248-513: The upper Salween. The Salween has numerous cyprinid species, including the endangered Garra cryptonema and Akrokolioplax bicornis which are endemic to the basin. Inle Lake in Shan State, designated a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve in 2015, provides habitat for numerous endemic fish species. The Thousand Islands area at the Salween–Pang confluence, as well as the confluence of the Salween and Moei rivers, are also identified as critical fish habitat. The Salween shares most of its fish species with
31434-593: The warm Tsushima Current into the Sea of Japan. Circa 3.0 million years ago, the EAWM became more stable, having previously been more variable and inconsistent, in addition to being enhanced further amidst a period of global cooling and sea level fall. The EASM was weaker during cold intervals of glacial periods such as the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) and stronger during interglacials and warm intervals of glacial periods. Another EAWM intensification event occurred 2.6 million years ago, followed by yet another one around 1.0 million years ago. During Dansgaard–Oeschger events ,
31620-402: The west and from the east. Regular trade between the ships sailing east from the Indian Ocean and south from mainland Asia provided goods in return for natural products, such as honey and hornbill beaks from the islands of the archipelago. Before the 18th and 19th centuries, the Europeans mostly were interested in expanding trade links. For the majority of the populations in each country, there
31806-425: The wind does not cross the Western Ghats. The Bay of Bengal Branch of Southwest Monsoon flows over the Bay of Bengal heading towards north-east India and Bengal , picking up more moisture from the Bay of Bengal. The winds arrive at the Eastern Himalayas with large amounts of rain. Mawsynram , situated on the southern slopes of the Khasi Hills in Meghalaya , India, is one of the wettest places on Earth. After
31992-581: The world consist of the West African , Asian– Australian , the North American , and South American monsoons. The term was first used in English in British India and neighboring countries to refer to the big seasonal winds blowing from the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea in the southwest bringing heavy rainfall to the area. The etymology of the word monsoon is not wholly certain. The English monsoon came from Portuguese monção ultimately from Arabic موسم ( mawsim , "season"), "perhaps partly via early modern Dutch monson ". Strengthening of
32178-489: The world's terrestrial animal species. About one-half of all animal species in China can be found in the upper Salween, which provides habitat for endangered species including the snow leopard and black snub-nosed monkey . The remote jungles of the Salween basin in Burma and Thailand, particularly in Kayin and Shan states, are home to dozens of large mammal species including the Indochinese tiger , clouded leopard , Asiatic black bear , sun bear , eastern hoolock gibbon , and
32364-407: The year, like the Thar Desert , have surprisingly ended up receiving floods due to the prolonged monsoon season. The influence of the Southwest Monsoon is felt as far north as in China's Xinjiang . It is estimated that about 70% of all precipitation in the central part of the Tian Shan Mountains falls during the three summer months, when the region is under the monsoon influence; about 70% of that
32550-412: The younger population of China. Solheim and others have shown evidence for a Nusantao maritime trading network ranging from Vietnam to the rest of the archipelago as early as 5000 BC to 1 AD. The Bronze Age Dong Son culture flourished in Northern Vietnam from about 1000 BC to 1 BC. Its influence spread to other parts Southeast Asia. The region entered the Iron Age era in 500 BC, when iron
32736-441: Was already inhabited by Homo erectus from approximately 1,500,000 years ago during the Middle Pleistocene age. Distinct Homo sapiens groups, ancestral to Eastern non-African (related to East Asians as well as Papuans) populations, reached the region by between 50,000BC to 70,000BC, with some arguing earlier. Rock art (parietal art) dating from 40,000 years ago (which is currently the world's oldest) has been discovered in
32922-471: Was associated with an expansion of temperate deciduous forest steppe and temperate mixed forest steppe in northern China. By around 5,000 to 4,500 BP, the East Asian monsoon's strength began to wane, weakening from that point until the present day. A particularly notable weakening took place ~3,000 BP. The location of the EASM shifted multiple times over the course of the Holocene: first, it moved southward between 12,000 and 8,000 BP, followed by an expansion to
33108-432: Was captured by the Brahmaputra River in present-day India. The Salween may once have had additional tributaries above its present source, but due to the uplift of the Himalaya blocking moisture from the Indian Ocean, these tributaries dried up, leaving the numerous terminal lakes scattered across Nagqu today. The Salween carries an estimated 108 to 237 million tonnes of sediment per year. About 92 percent of sediment
33294-598: Was comparatively little interaction with Europeans and traditional social routines and relationships continued. For most, a life with subsistence-level agriculture, fishing and, in less developed civilisations, hunting and gathering was still hard. Europeans brought Christianity allowing Christian missionaries to become widespread. Thailand also allowed Western scientists to enter its country to develop its own education system as well as start sending royal members and Thai scholars to get higher education from Europe and Russia. During World War II, Imperial Japan invaded most of
33480-457: Was first used in 1839 by American pastor Howard Malcolm in his book Travels in South-Eastern Asia . Malcolm only included the Mainland section and excluded the Maritime section in his definition of Southeast Asia. The term was officially used in the midst of World War II by the Allies , through the formation of South East Asia Command (SEAC) in 1943. SEAC popularised the use of the term "Southeast Asia", although what constituted Southeast Asia
33666-459: Was forged also in northern Vietnam still under Dong Son, due to its frequent interactions with neighbouring China. Most Southeast Asian people were originally animist , engaged in ancestors, nature, and spirits worship. These belief systems were later supplanted by Hinduism and Buddhism after the region, especially coastal areas, came under contact with Indian subcontinent during the first century. Indian Brahmins and traders brought Hinduism to
33852-498: Was located in what is today central Vietnam, and was a highly Indianised Hindu Kingdom. The Vietnamese launched a massive conquest against the Cham people during the 1471 Vietnamese invasion of Champa , ransacking and burning Champa, slaughtering thousands of Cham people, and forcibly assimilating them into Vietnamese culture. During the 13th century CE, the region experienced Mongol invasions , affected areas such as Vietnamese coast, inland Burma and Java . In 1258, 1285 and 1287,
34038-414: Was not fixed; for example, SEAC excluded the Philippines and a large part of Indonesia while including Ceylon . However, by the late 1970s, a roughly standard usage of the term "Southeast Asia" and the territories it encompasses had emerged. Although from a cultural or linguistic perspective the definitions of "Southeast Asia" may vary, the most common definitions nowadays include the area represented by
34224-413: Was often grouped with Australia and Oceania in the mid to late 1800s, rather than with mainland Asia. The term Oceania came into usage at the beginning of the 1800s, and the earlier definitions predated the advent of concepts such as Wallacea. Monsoon A monsoon ( / m ɒ n ˈ s uː n / ) is traditionally a seasonal reversing wind accompanied by corresponding changes in precipitation but
34410-436: Was the dominant religious tradition of many southern Indian Hindu kingdoms during the first century. It then spread into Southeast Asia via Bay of Bengal , Indochina, then Malay Archipelago, leading to thousands of Shiva temples on the islands of Indonesia as well as Cambodia and Vietnam, co-evolving with Buddhism in the region. Theravada Buddhism entered the region during the third century, via maritime trade routes between
34596-405: Was under Chinese rule. Vietnam was successfully governed by a series of Chinese dynasties including the Han , Eastern Han , Eastern Wu , Cao Wei , Jin , Liu Song , Southern Qi , Liang , Sui , Tang , and Southern Han . Records from Magellan's voyage show that Brunei possessed more cannon than European ships, so the Chinese must have been trading with them. Malaysian legend has it that
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