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67-485: Voloshinov , Волошинов (feminine: Voloshinova ) is a Russian surname. Notable people with the surname include: Valentin Voloshinov (1895–1936) Soviet and Russian linguist Vitaly Voloshinov (1947–2019), Soviet and Russian physicist [REDACTED] Surname list This page lists people with the surname Voloshinov . If an internal link intending to refer to

134-677: A Privatdozent . He commenced graduate work at the University of Leipzig and arrived at the university in October 1876. Two years later, at 21, Saussure published a book entitled Mémoire sur le système primitif des voyelles dans les langues indo-européennes ( Dissertation on the Primitive Vowel System in Indo-European Languages ). After this, he studied for a year at the University of Berlin under

201-452: A 'social fact', Saussure touches on topics that were controversial in his time, and that would continue to split opinions in the post-war structuralist movement. Saussure's relationship with 19th-century theories of language was somewhat ambivalent. These included social Darwinism and Völkerpsychologie or Volksgeist thinking which were regarded by many intellectuals as nationalist and racist pseudoscience . Saussure, however, considered

268-603: A few dozen papers and notes, all of them collected in a volume of some 600 pages published in 1922. Saussure did not publish anything of his work on ancient poetics even though he had filled more than a hundred notebooks. Jean Starobinski edited and presented material from them in the 1970s and more has been published since then. Some of his manuscripts, including an unfinished essay discovered in 1996, were published in Writings in General Linguistics , but most of

335-602: A form of semantic holism that acknowledged that the interconnection between terms in a language was not fully arbitrary and only methodologically bracketed the relationship between linguistic terms and the physical world. The naming of spectral colours exemplifies how meaning and expression arise simultaneously from their interlinkage. Different colour frequencies are per se meaningless, or mere substance or meaning potential. Likewise, phonemic combinations that are not associated with any content are only meaningless expression potential, and therefore not considered as signs . It

402-450: A foundation for many significant developments in both linguistics and semiotics in the 20th century. He is widely considered one of the founders of 20th-century linguistics and one of two major founders (together with Charles Sanders Peirce ) of semiotics, or semiology , as Saussure called it. One of his translators, Roy Harris , summarized Saussure's contribution to linguistics and the study of "the whole range of human sciences. It

469-526: A functionalism–formalism debate of the decades following The Selfish Gene , the ' functionalism ' camp attacking Saussure's legacy includes frameworks such as Cognitive Linguistics , Construction Grammar , Usage-based linguistics , and Emergent Linguistics . Arguing for 'functional-typological theory', William Croft criticises Saussure's use of the organic analogy : Structural linguist Henning Andersen disagrees with Croft. He criticises memetics and other models of cultural evolution and points out that

536-440: A later context, generative grammar and cognitive linguistics . Saussure's influence was restricted to American linguistics which was dominated by the advocates of Wilhelm Wundt 's psychological approach to language, especially Leonard Bloomfield (1887–1949). The Bloomfieldian school rejected Saussure's and other structuralists' sociological or even anti-psychological (e.g. Louis Hjelmslev , Lucien Tesnière ) approaches to

603-489: A ruling class will try to narrow the meaning of social signs, making them "uni-accentual", but the clash of various class-interests in times of social unrest will make clear the "multi-accentuality" of words. By virtue of his belief that the "struggle for meaning" coincides with class struggle , Voloshinov's theories have much in common with those of Italian Communist Antonio Gramsci , who shared an interest in linguistics. Voloshinov's work can also be seen to prefigure many of

670-700: A science of human speech". Saussure was born in Geneva in 1857. His father, Henri Louis Frédéric de Saussure , was a mineralogist , entomologist , and taxonomist . Saussure showed signs of considerable talent and intellectual ability as early as the age of fourteen. In the autumn of 1870, he began attending the private school called the Institution Martine (previously the Institution Lecoultre until 1969) in Geneva. There he lived with

737-569: A specific person led you to this page, you may wish to change that link by adding the person's given name (s) to the link. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Voloshinov&oldid=1236165530 " Categories : Surnames Russian-language surnames Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata All set index articles Valentin Voloshinov Details of Voloshinovs's early life

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804-552: A very influential contribution to it. The arbitrariness of words of different languages itself is a fundamental concept in Western thinking of language, dating back to Ancient Greek philosophers. The question of whether words are natural or arbitrary (and artificially made by people) returned as a controversial topic during the Age of Enlightenment when the medieval scholastic dogma, that languages were created by God, became opposed by

871-403: A whole. A second key contribution comes from Saussure's notion of the organisation of language based on the principle of opposition. Saussure made a distinction between meaning (significance) and value . On the semantic side, concepts gain value by being contrasted with related concepts, creating a conceptual system that could in modern terms be described as a semantic network . On the level of

938-410: A word) and 'the signified' (the meaning of the form). Saussure supported the argument for the arbitrariness of the sign although he did not deny the fact that some words are onomatopoeic , or claim that picture-like symbols are fully arbitrary. Saussure also did not consider the linguistic sign as random, but as historically cemented. All in all, he did not invent the philosophy of arbitrariness but made

1005-564: Is a system of signs that expresses ideas". A science that studies the life of signs within society and is a part of social and general psychology. Saussure believed that semiotics is concerned with everything that can be taken as a sign, and he called it semiology. While a student, Saussure published an important work about Proto-Indo-European , which explained unusual forms of word roots in terms of lost phonemes he called sonant coefficients . The Scandinavian scholar Hermann Möller suggested that they might be laryngeal consonants, leading to what

1072-600: Is directed at the Bloomfieldian school and not the proper address of the term; and that structural linguistics is not to be reduced to mere sentence analysis. It is also argued that Saussure's Course in General Linguistics begins and ends with a criticism of 19th-century linguistics where he is especially critical of Volkgeist thinking and the evolutionary linguistics of August Schleicher and his colleagues. Saussure's ideas replaced social Darwinism in Europe as it

1139-491: Is distinctly non-arbitrary is the way different kinds of meaning in language are expressed by different kinds of grammatical structure, as appears when linguistic structure is interpreted in functional terms Saussure's most influential work, Course in General Linguistics ( Cours de linguistique générale ), was published posthumously in 1916 by former students Charles Bally and Albert Sechehaye , based on notes taken from Saussure's lectures in Geneva. The Course became one of

1206-405: Is neither situated in speech nor the mind. It only properly exists between the two within the loop. It is located in – and is the product of – the collective mind of the linguistic group. An individual has to learn the normative rules of language and can never control them. The task of the linguist is to study the language by analysing samples of speech. For practical reasons, this is ordinarily

1273-442: Is not semantically motivated, they argued for the disconnectedness of syntax from semantics, thus fully rejecting structuralism. The question remained why the object should be in the verb phrase, vexing American linguists for decades. The post-Bloomfieldian approach was eventually reformed as a sociobiological framework by Noam Chomsky who argued that linguistics is a cognitive science ; and claimed that linguistic structures are

1340-418: Is not subject to passive understanding, but includes the active participation of both the speaker (or writer) and hearer (or reader). While every word is a sign taken from an inventory of available signs, the manipulation of the word contained in each speech act or individual utterance is regulated by social relations. In Voloshinov's view, the meaning of verbal signs is the arena of continuous class struggle :

1407-848: Is now known as the laryngeal theory. After Hittite texts were discovered and deciphered, Polish linguist Jerzy Kuryłowicz recognized that a Hittite consonant stood in the positions where Saussure had theorized a lost phoneme some 48 years earlier, confirming the theory. It has been argued that Saussure's work on this problem, systematizing the irregular word forms by hypothesizing then-unknown phonemes, stimulated his development of structuralism . The principles and methods employed by structuralism were later adapted in diverse fields by French intellectuals such as Roland Barthes , Jacques Lacan , Jacques Derrida , Michel Foucault , and Claude Lévi-Strauss . Such scholars took influence from Saussure's ideas in their areas of study (literary studies/philosophy, psychoanalysis, anthropology, etc.). Saussure approaches

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1474-691: Is one of the world's most quoted linguists, which is remarkable as he hardly published anything during his lifetime. Even his few scientific articles are not unproblematic. Thus, for example, his publication on Lithuanian phonetics is mostly taken from studies by the Lithuanian researcher Friedrich Kurschat , with whom Saussure traveled through Lithuania in August 1880 for two weeks and whose (German) books Saussure had read. Saussure, who had studied some basic grammar of Lithuanian in Leipzig for one semester but

1541-405: Is only when a region of the spectrum is outlined and given an arbitrary name, for example, 'blue', that the sign emerges. The sign consists of the signifier ('blue') and the signified (the colour region), and of the associative link which connects them. Arising from an arbitrary demarcation of meaning potential, the signified is not a property of the physical world. In Saussure's concept, language

1608-465: Is particularly marked in linguistics, philosophy , psychoanalysis , psychology , sociology and anthropology ." Although they have undergone extension and critique over time, the dimensions of organization introduced by Saussure continue to inform contemporary approaches to the phenomenon of language . As Leonard Bloomfield stated after reviewing the Cours : "he has given us the theoretical basis for

1675-480: Is the medium of ideology , and cannot be separated from ideology. Ideology, however, is not to be understood in the classical Marxist sense as an illusory mental phenomenon that arises as a reflex of a "real" material economic substructure. Language, as a socially constructed sign-system, is what allows consciousness to arise, and is in itself a material reality. Because of this belief that language and human consciousness are closely related, Voloshinov holds that

1742-456: Is ultimately not a function of reality, but a self-contained system. Thus, Saussure's semiology entails a bilateral (two-sided) perspective of semiotics. The same idea is applied to any concept. For example, natural law does not dictate which plants are 'trees' and which are 'shrubs' or a different type of woody plant ; or whether these should be divided into further groups. Like blue, all signs gain semantic value in opposition to other signs of

1809-746: Is unclear but it is believed he was born in to the family of an attorney. In his youth, he was a member of the mystical Rosicrucian society where he befriended Anastasia and Marina Tsvetayeva . Even before the revolution, he became a close friend of Mikhail Bakhtin , a participant in the Nevel school of philosophy. Voloshinov studied at the Faculty of Law of Petrograd University but his studies were interrupted in 1916. From 1919 to 1922, he lived in Nevel, later in Vitebsk where he published several articles on music, gave lectures on art history and literature at

1876-595: The Privatdozent Heinrich Zimmer , with whom he studied Celtic and Hermann Oldenberg with whom he continued his studies of Sanskrit. He returned to Leipzig to defend his doctoral dissertation De l'emploi du génitif absolu en Sanscrit , and was awarded his doctorate in February 1880. Soon, he relocated to the University of Paris , where he lectured on Sanskrit, Gothic , Old High German , and occasionally other subjects. Ferdinand de Saussure

1943-604: The Proletarian University founded by Pavel Medvedev in Vitebsk. In 1922, following Medvedev, he returned to Petrograd, where, after he and Bakhtin moved there in the spring of 1924, their close communication continued. He performed poems and musical sketches in the salon of pianist Maria Yudina . After graduating from Leningrad University, he was a postgraduate student of the Research Institute of Comparative History of Literature and Languages of

2010-421: The linguistic sign , which is composed of the signifier and the signified. Though the sign may also have a referent, Saussure took that to lie beyond the linguist's purview. Throughout the book, he stated that a linguist can develop a diachronic analysis of a text or theory of language but must learn just as much or more about the language/text as it exists at any moment in time (i.e. "synchronically"): "Language

2077-482: The seminal linguistics works of the 20th century not primarily for the content (many of the ideas had been anticipated in the works of other 20th-century linguists) but for the innovative approach that Saussure applied in discussing linguistic phenomena. Its central notion is that language may be analyzed as a formal system of differential elements, apart from the messy dialectics of real-time production and comprehension. Examples of these elements include his notion of

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2144-469: The Collège de Genève, to waste a year there as completely as a year can be wasted." He spent the year studying Latin , Ancient Greek , and Sanskrit and taking a variety of courses at the University of Geneva . He also purposely avoided taking the course in general linguistics due to its bad reputation, arranging instead to study foundational works in comparative-historical linguistics with Louis Morel,

2211-482: The Prague Linguistic Circle made great advances in the study of phonetics reforming it as the systemic study of phonology . Although the terms opposition and markedness are rightly associated with Saussure's concept of language as a semiological system, he did not invent the terms and concepts that had been discussed by various 19th-century grammarians before him. In his treatment of language as

2278-616: The West and East and later an associate professor at the Herzen Pedagogical Institute . In the last years of his life, Voloshinov was seriously ill and was cut off from his work and even reading. He died from tuberculosis in a tuberculosis sanatorium in Detskoye Selo , Leningrad. Some scholars believe that works bearing Voloshinov's name were actually authored by his colleague Mikhail Bakhtin , although

2345-405: The advocates of humanistic philosophy. There were efforts to construct a 'universal language', based on the lost Adamic language , with various attempts to uncover universal words or characters which would be readily understood by all people regardless of their nationality. John Locke , on the other hand, was among those who believed that languages were a rational human innovation, and argued for

2412-529: The analysis of written texts. The idea that language is studied through texts is by no means revolutionary as it had been the common practice since the beginning of linguistics. Saussure does not advise against introspection and takes up many linguistic examples without reference to a source in a text corpus . The idea that linguistics is not the study of the mind, however, contradicts Wilhelm Wundt 's Völkerpsychologie in Saussure's contemporary context; and in

2479-405: The arbitrariness of words. Saussure took it for granted in his time that "No one disputes the principle of the arbitrary nature of the sign." He however disagreed with the common notion that each word corresponds "to the thing that it names" or what is called the referent in modern semiotics. For example, in Saussure's notion, the word 'tree' does not refer to a tree as a physical object, but to

2546-447: The assessment of value between binary oppositions. These were studied extensively by post-war structuralists such as Claude Lévi-Strauss to explain the organisation of social conceptualisation, and later by the post-structuralists to criticise it. Cognitive semantics also diverges from Saussure on this point, emphasizing the importance of similarity in defining categories in the mind as well as opposition. Based on markedness theory,

2613-434: The central tenets of structural linguistics . His main contributions to structuralism include his notion of the arbitrariness of the linguistic sign. There is also his theory of a two-tiered reality about language. The first is the langue , the abstract and invisible layer, while the second, the parole , refers to the actual speech that we hear in real life. This framework was later adopted by Claude Levi-Strauss , who used

2680-540: The concept of 'adaptation' is not to be taken in linguistics in the same meaning as in biology. Humanistic and structuralistic notions are likewise defended by Esa Itkonen and Jacques François; the Saussurean standpoint is explained and defended by Tomáš Hoskovec, representing the Prague Linguistic Circle . Conversely, other cognitive linguists claim to continue and expand Saussure's work on

2747-781: The concerns of poststructuralism . Voloshinov devotes the last portion of Marxism and the Philosophy of Language to a treatment of reported speech in order to show social and temporal relations between utterances to be integral properties of language. This was taken up by Roman Jakobson in an essay entitled: "Shifters and Verbal Categories," and influenced the development of the Prague School of functional linguistics as well as linguistic anthropology . Through an entirely parallel evolution, Voloshinov's model of dialogism, of meaning being functionally contextual and of cognition/consciousness emerging from verbal behaviour, prefigured

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2814-493: The decades from 1940. Jakobson's universalizing structural-functional theory of phonology, based on a markedness hierarchy of distinctive features , was the first successful solution of a plane of linguistic analysis according to the Saussurean hypotheses. Elsewhere, Louis Hjelmslev and the Copenhagen School proposed new interpretations of linguistics from structuralist theoretical frameworks. In America, where

2881-434: The empirically derived poststructuralist model of language and cognition Relational Frame Theory which emerged in the 1990s, and upon which CBT and ACT therapies are based. Ferdinand de Saussure Ferdinand de Saussure ( / s oʊ ˈ sj ʊər / ; French: [fɛʁdinɑ̃ də sosyʁ] ; 26 November 1857 – 22 February 1913) was a Swiss linguist , semiotician and philosopher . His ideas laid

2948-485: The family of a classmate, Elie David. After graduating at the top of class, Saussure expected to continue his studies at the Gymnase de Genève, but his father decided he was not mature enough at fourteen and a half, and sent him to the Collège de Genève instead. The college also housed the Gymnase de Genève and some of its teachers also taught at the Collège. Saussure, however, was not pleased, as he complained: "I entered

3015-504: The idea of linguistics as a natural science as long as the study of the 'organism' of language excludes its adaptation to its territory. This concept would be modified in post-Saussurean linguistics by the Prague circle linguists Roman Jakobson and Nikolai Trubetzkoy , and eventually diminished. Perhaps the most famous of Saussure's ideas is the distinction between language and speech ( Fr. langue et parole ), with 'speech' referring to

3082-481: The ideas useful if treated properly. Instead of discarding August Schleicher's organicism or Heymann Steinthal 's "spirit of the nation", he restricted their sphere in ways that were meant to preclude any chauvinistic interpretations. Organic analogy Saussure exploited the sociobiological concept of language as a living organism. He criticises August Schleicher and Max Müller's ideas of languages as organisms struggling for living space but settles with promoting

3149-516: The individual occurrences of language usage. These constitute two parts of three of Saussure's 'speech circuit' ( circuit de parole ). The third part is the brain, that is, the mind of the individual member of the language community. This idea is in principle borrowed from Steinthal, so Saussure's concept of a language as a social fact corresponds to "Volksgeist", although he was careful to preclude any nationalistic interpretations. In Saussure's and Durkheim's thinking, social facts and norms do not elevate

3216-409: The individuals but shackle them. Saussure's definition of language is statistical rather than idealised. Saussure argues that language is a 'social fact'; a conventionalised set of rules or norms relating to speech. When at least two people are engaged in conversation, there forms a communicative circuit between the minds of the individual speakers. Saussure explains that language, as a social system,

3283-419: The linguistic expressions as giving rise to the conceptual system, on the other hand, became the foundation of the post-Second World War structuralists who adopted Saussure's concept of structural linguistics as the model for all human sciences as the study of how language shapes our concepts of the world. Thus, Saussure's model became important not only for linguistics but for humanities and social sciences as

3350-422: The manifestation of a random mutation in the human genome . Advocates of the new school, generative grammar , claim that Saussure's structuralism has been reformed and replaced by Chomsky's modern approach to linguistics. Jan Koster asserts: French historian and philosopher François Dosse however argues that there have been various misunderstandings. He points out that Chomsky's criticism of 'structuralism'

3417-632: The material in it had already been published in Engler's critical edition of the Course , in 1967 and 1974. Today it is clear that Cours owes much to its so-called editors Charles Bally and Albert Sèchehaye and various details are difficult to track to Saussure himself or his manuscripts. Saussure's theoretical reconstructions of the Proto-Indo-European language vocalic system and particularly his theory of laryngeals , otherwise unattested at

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3484-467: The psychological concept of a tree. The linguistic sign thus arises from the psychological association between the signifier (a 'sound-image') and the signified (a 'concept'). There can therefore be no linguistic expression without meaning, but also no meaning without linguistic expression. Saussure's structuralism, as it later became called, therefore includes an implication of linguistic relativity . However, Saussure's view has been described instead as

3551-407: The sign as the organizing concept for linguistic structure, using it to express the conventional nature of language in the phrase "l'arbitraire du signe". This has the effect of highlighting what is, in fact, the one point of arbitrariness in the system, namely the phonological shape of words, and hence allows the non-arbitrariness of the rest to emerge with greater clarity. An example of something that

3618-590: The sound-image, phonemes and morphemes gain value by being contrasted with related phonemes and morphemes; and on the level of the grammar, parts of speech gain value by being contrasted with each other. Each element within each system is eventually contrasted with all other elements in different types of relations so that no two elements have the same value: Saussure defined his theory in terms of binary oppositions: sign—signified, meaning—value, language—speech, synchronic—diachronic, internal linguistics—external linguistics , and so on. The related term markedness denotes

3685-424: The study of language. Voloshinov's theories are instead built on critical engagement with Wilhelm von Humboldt 's concept of language as a continuous creative or "generative" process, and with the view of language as a sign-system posited by Ferdinand de Saussure . To some extent, Voloshinov's linguistic thought is also mediated by the analyses of his Soviet contemporary Nicholas Marr . For Voloshinov, language

3752-543: The study of verbal interaction is key to understanding social psychology . Voloshinov further argues for understanding psychological mechanisms within a framework of ideological function in his book Freudianism: A Marxist critique . Voloshinov argues that it is a mistake to study language abstractly and synchronically (i.e. in an unhistorical manner), as Saussure does. For Voloshinov, words are dynamic social signs, which take different meanings for different social classes in different historical contexts. The meaning of words

3819-455: The system (e.g. red, colourless). If more signs emerge (e.g. 'marine blue'), the semantic field of the original word may narrow down. Conversely, words may become antiquated, whereby competition for the semantic field lessens. Or, the meaning of a word may change altogether. After his death, structural and functional linguists applied Saussure's concept to the analysis of the linguistic form as motivated by meaning. The opposite direction of

3886-457: The term 'structuralism' became highly ambiguous, Saussure's ideas informed the distributionalism of Leonard Bloomfield , but his influence remained limited. Systemic functional linguistics is a theory considered to be based firmly on the Saussurean principles of the sign, albeit with some modifications. Ruqaiya Hasan describes systemic functional linguistics as a 'post-Saussurean' linguistic theory. Michael Halliday argues: Saussure took

3953-462: The theory of language from two different perspectives. On the one hand, language is a system of signs. That is, a semiotic system; or a semiological system as he calls it. On the other hand, a language is also a social phenomenon: a product of the language community. One of Saussure's key contributions to semiotics lies in what he called semiology , the concept of the bilateral (two-sided) sign which consists of 'the signifier' (a linguistic form, e.g.

4020-399: The theory of language . Problematically, the post-Bloomfieldian school was nicknamed 'American structuralism', confusing. Although Bloomfield denounced Wundt's Völkerpsychologie and opted for behavioural psychology in his 1933 textbook Language , he and other American linguists stuck to Wundt's practice of analysing the grammatical object as part of the verb phrase . Since this practice

4087-401: The time, bore fruit and found confirmation after the decipherment of Hittite in the work of later generations of linguists such as Émile Benveniste and Walter Couvreur , who both drew direct inspiration from their reading of the 1878 Mémoire . Saussure had a major impact on the development of linguistic theory in the first half of the 20th century with his notions becoming incorporated in

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4154-504: The topic is still the subject of debate; a few of these works have been added to reprinted editions of Bakhtin's collected works. Written in the late 1920s in the USSR , Voloshinov's Marxism and the Philosophy of Language ( tr. : Marksizm i Filosofiya Yazyka ) attempts to incorporate the field of linguistics into Marxism . The book's main inspiration does not come from previous Marxists, whom Voloshinov saw as largely indifferent towards

4221-515: The two-tiered model to determine the reality of myths. His idea was that all myths have an underlying pattern, which forms the structure that makes them myths. In Europe, the most important work after Saussure's death was done by the Prague school . Most notably, Nikolay Trubetzkoy and Roman Jakobson headed the efforts of the Prague School in setting the course of phonological theory in

4288-614: Was banished from humanities at the end of World War II. The publication of Richard Dawkins 's memetics in 1976 brought the Darwinian idea of linguistic units as cultural replicators back to vogue. It became necessary for adherents of this movement to redefine linguistics in a way that would be simultaneously anti-Saussurean and anti-Chomskyan. This led to a redefinition of old humanistic terms such as structuralism, formalism, functionalism, and constructionism along Darwinian lines through debates that were marked by an acrimonious tone. In

4355-555: Was not until 1907 that Saussure began teaching the Course of General Linguistics, which he would offer three times, ending in the summer of 1911. He died in 1913 in Vufflens-le-Château , Vaud , Switzerland. His brothers were the linguist and Esperantist René de Saussure , and scholar of ancient Chinese astronomy, Léopold de Saussure . His son Raymond de Saussure was a psychiatrist and prolific psychoanalytic theorist, who

4422-422: Was trained under Sigmund Freud himself. Saussure attempted, at various times in the 1880s and 1890s, to write a book on general linguistic matters. His lectures about important principles of language description in Geneva between 1907 and 1911 were collected and published by his pupils posthumously in the famous Cours de linguistique générale in 1916. Work published in his lifetime includes two monographs and

4489-477: Was unable to speak the language, was thus dependent on Kurschat. Saussure taught at the École pratique des hautes études for eleven years during which he was named Chevalier de la Légion d'Honneur (Knight of the Legion of Honor ). When offered a professorship in Geneva in 1892, he returned to Switzerland. Saussure lectured on Sanskrit and Indo-European at the University of Geneva for the remainder of his life. It

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