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39-585: The language is attested by over 300 short inscriptions dating from the 6th to the 1st century BCE. Its speakers are identified with the ancient people called Veneti by the Romans and Enetoi by the Greeks . It became extinct around the 1st century when the local inhabitants assimilated into the Roman sphere. Inscriptions dedicating offerings to Reitia are one of the chief sources of knowledge of

78-636: A clear Indo-European origin, such as vhraterei < PIE *bʰréh₂trey = to the brother. In Venetic, PIE stops *bʰ , *dʰ and *gʰ developed to /f/ , /f/ and /h/ , respectively, in word-initial position (as in Latin and Osco-Umbrian), but to /b/ , /d/ and /ɡ/ , respectively, in word-internal intervocalic position (as in Latin). For Venetic, at least the developments of *bʰ and *dʰ are clearly attested. Faliscan and Osco-Umbrian have /f/ , /f/ and /h/ internally as well. There are also indications of

117-570: A system which he called Alteuropäisch (Old European). The network of old European water names comprises waters from Scandinavia to lower Italy, and from the British Isles to the Baltic. It denotes the period of development of the common Indo-European language which was finished by the second millennium BC. Hans Krahe claimed that by that time the Western languages (Germanic, Celtic, Illyrian,

156-466: Is evidenced in approximately 300 short inscriptions dating from the 6th to 1st centuries BC. Venetic appears to share several similarities with Latin and the other Italic languages , but also has some affinities with other Indo-European languages, especially Germanic and Celtic . Venetic should not be confused with Venetian , a Romance language presently spoken in the Veneto region. The extent of

195-509: Is limited to personal names, nouns, and verbs used in dedicatory formulae. There are even fewer remains of an Illyrian language which have been connected to the region and may indicate an Illyrian. However, this identification of the Adriatic Veneti as Illyrians has been discredited by many linguists. Hans Krahe and later Anton Mayer showed that Herodotus was not referring to the Adriatic Veneti, but to an Illyrian tribe that lived in

234-796: Is said to imply a link between the Veneti and the Vindelici who are related to Liburnians from the Istrian Coast. However, the reference to the Veneti in Virgil seems to place them in the "innermost realm of the Liburnians" which must have been the goal at which Antenor is said to have arrived. This however implies only that the ancient Liburnians may have once encompassed a wide swath of the Eastern Alps, from Vindelicia, through Noricum, to

273-523: The Amber Road . There were horsemen and fishermen, and members involved in animal husbandry. In the 7th century BC merchants at Este used bronze coins, while by the 3rd century BC silver money was in use, especially at Padua. Farmers cultivated grain and grapes. Artisans produced ceramic and bronze objects, and wove wool cloth. Artifacts show that among the sports enjoyed were boxing and boat races. Many archaeological excavations are still under way in

312-731: The Arsia River in the east in what is now Croatia to the Abdua in the current Italian region of Lombardy and from the Alps to the Adriatic Sea . Herodotus (c. 484–425 BC) at one point mentions the Veneti of the Adriatic ( Histories V.9) and at another refers in passing to the "Eneti in Illyria" ( Histories I.196) whose supposed marriage customs, he claims, mirrored those of

351-842: The Cenomani Celts who had settled in and eventually absorbed the areas of Brescia and Verona . The Veneti seem to have begun contact with Rome in the third century BC. They established amicitia with Rome against the Gauls c.  238  BC. During the Second Punic War , the Veneti were again allied with the Romans against the Celts, Iberians, and the Carthaginian expedition (218–203 BC) led by Hannibal . Livy records that they sent soldiers to fight along with

390-539: The Illyrian languages once spoken in the western Balkans , though the theory that Illyrian and Venetic were closely related is debated by current scholarship. While some scholars consider Venetic plainly an Italic language, and Eric P. Hamp in 1954 thought it more closely related to Latino-Faliscan than to the Osco-Umbrian languages , many authorities suggest, in view of the divergent verbal system, that Venetic

429-671: The University of Tübingen . Krahe in his work of 1937 as a follower of Pan-Illyrian theory , discussed the Venetic language known from hundreds of inscriptions as an Illyrian language which, with the lower Italian Messapian and the Balkan Illyrian languages, forms the separate Illyrian branch of the Indo-European language family. Krahe thought that not only the name of the Illyrian and Adriatic Enetoi peoples are

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468-533: The Veneto today at sites such as Este , Padua , Oderzo , Adria , Vicenza , Verona and Altinum . Studies have explored the vast influence of the Greeks in the Adriatic and their interaction with the Veneti, particularly focusing on the Euboeans , Phocaeans and Corinthians . Furthermore, studies have also been done on Etruscan activity in the region and their strong links to the Veneti. Modern surveys on

507-501: The Adriatic Veneti descended from Celts who in turn were related to later Celtic tribe of the same name who lived on the coast of Brittany and fought against Julius Caesar . He further suggested that the identification of the Adriatic Veneti with the Paphlagonian Enetoi led by Antenor—which he attributes to Sophocles (496–406 BC)—was a mistake due to the similarity of the names. Strabo also gives information on

546-715: The Babylonians. This led early scholars to seek to link the Veneti with the Illyrians . Their Illyrian origin is further strengthened by their close relationship with the inhabitants of the coastal regions of the Adriatic . Karl Pauli, a late 19th-century expert on the Venetic language, declared that the language was more closely related to that of the Illyrians than to any other language, even though knowledge of Venetic

585-606: The Dalmatian coast before the coming of the Veneti. Pliny the Elder (AD 23–79) mentions that Cornelius Nepos (100–24 BC) implied that the Paphlagonian Eneti ( Heneti ) were ancestors of the Veneti of Italy. He lists the towns of Ateste , Acelum , Patavium, Opitergium , Belunum , and Vicetia as belonging to the Veneti. The Greek historian Strabo (64 BC–AD 24), on the other hand, conjectured that

624-526: The Lex Pompeia de Transpadanis and Roman citizenship in 49 BC in the Lex Roscia. Roman colonies established at Este , Concordia , and Trieste between 49 BC and 14 AD and at Oderzo and Zuglio during the reign of Claudius further contributed to the absorption of the Veneti into Roman culture. The equivalent of Apollo was Belenus in Veneto and Noricum . He had an oracle in

663-542: The Romans at the battle of Cannae . With the foundation of the Latin colony of Aquileia by Rome in 181 BC and laying of the Via Postumia in 148 BC followed by the Via Annia in 131 BC, Roman influence among the Veneti increased. The Veneti seem to have voluntarily and gradually adopted the Latin language, Roman architecture, Roman city planning, and Roman religion. Votive offerings sometimes appear in

702-445: The Veneti and other Ancient Italic peoples , including the Venetic inscriptions from Este, were published by A. L. Prosdocimi , A. M. C. Bianchi and L. Capuis . Other tribes originally thought to have been Illyrians and shown to be actually related to the Veneti are: Histri , Carni , Catari , Catali , Liburni , Lopsi , Secusses , Venetulani . Hans Krahe Hans Krahe (7 February 1898 – 25 June 1965)

741-470: The Venetic language written with the Roman alphabet or in Venetic with a Latin translation. Roman consuls were asked to adjudicate border disputes between Este and Padua in 141 and again in 135 BC and also a border dispute between Este and Vicenza . In 175 BC, Padua requested the aid of Rome in putting down a local civil war. The Veneti were given Latin rights after the Social War in

780-853: The Venetic language. Venetic is a centum language. The inscriptions use a variety of the Northern Italic alphabet , similar to the Etruscan alphabet . The exact relationship of Venetic to other Indo-European languages is still being investigated, but the majority of scholars agree that Venetic, aside from Liburnian , shared some similarities with the Italic languages and so is sometimes classified as Italic. However, since it also shared similarities with other Western Indo-European branches (particularly Celtic languages and Germanic languages ), some linguists prefer to consider it an independent Indo-European language. Venetic may also have been related to

819-539: The borderlands of northern historical Macedonia . Later linguistic and paleontological studies further solidified their findings. Roman historian Titus Livius (59 BC–AD 17), himself a native of the Venetic town of Patavium , wrote that after the fall of Troy , the Trojan prince Antenor became the leader of the Paphlagonians after they all had been expelled from their homeland. Together, they migrated to

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858-518: The city of Aquileia and was worshipped as the divine protector of the town. Belenus was also connected with springs, which may suggest chthonic and medicinal powers. Belenus was most likely of Celtic origin, and the dominant god of the Norici . Information about Venetic society can be deduced from artifacts, tombs, and religious votive objects. There were village heads. Wealthy landowners were buried with amber jewelry. The Veneti traded actively on

897-977: The comparative material, Germanic languages had two terms of different origin: Old High German Winida 'Wende' points to Pre-Germanic *Wenétos , while Lat.-Germ. Venedi (as attested in Tacitus) and Old English Winedas 'Wends' call for Pre-Germanic *Wenetós . The latter, according to Tacitus, who would have been familiar with Adriatic Veneti, connects the Vistula Veneti with the Slavs . Etymologically related words include Latin venus, -eris 'love, passion, grace'; Sanskrit vanas- 'lust, zest', vani- 'wish, desire'; Old Irish fine (< Proto-Celtic *venjā ) 'kinship, kinfolk, alliance, tribe, family'; Old Norse vinr , Old Saxon, Old High German wini , Old Frisian, Old English wine 'friend'. The ancient Veneti spoke Venetic , an extinct Indo-European language which

936-657: The developments of PIE *kʷ > kv , *gʷ- > w- and PIE *gʷʰ- > f- in Venetic, the latter two being parallel to Latin; as well as the regressive assimilation of the PIE sequence *p...kʷ... > *kʷ...kʷ... , a feature also found in Italic and Celtic. A sample inscription in Venetic, found on a bronze nail at Este (Es 45): Another inscription, found on a situla (vessel such as an urn or bucket) at Cadore (Ca 4 Valle): The most prominent scholars who have deciphered Venetic inscriptions or otherwise contributed to

975-515: The knowledge of the Venetic language are Pauli, Krahe , Pellegrini, Prosdocimi, and Lejeune . Recent contributors include Capuis and Bianchi. Adriatic Veneti The Veneti (sometimes also referred to as Venetici , Ancient Veneti or Paleoveneti to distinguish them from the modern-day inhabitants of the Veneto region, called Veneti in Italian ) were an Indo-European people who inhabited northeastern Italy , in an area corresponding to

1014-468: The modern-day region of Veneto , from the middle of the 2nd millennium BC and developing their own original civilization along the 1st millennium BC. The Veneti were initially attested in the area between Lake Garda and the Euganean Hills ; later they expanded until they reached borders similar to those of the current Veneto region. According to the archaeological finds (which also agree with

1053-531: The northern end of the Adriatic coast where they established a settlement, and conquered and merged with indigenous people known as the Euganei . The story connects the Veneti with the Paphlagonian Eneti , mentioned by Homer (750 BC). Virgil (70-19 BC), in his epic the Aeneid , relates the same tradition. A commentary on Virgil's Aeneid by the grammarian Maurus Servius Honoratus (fl. c. AD 400)

1092-536: The oldest European river names with that of Old European hydronymy , a network of names of water courses dating back to the Bronze Age and to a time before Indo-European languages had developed in central, northern and western Europe. In his 1949 essay Ortsnamen als Geschichtsquelle ("Placenames as sources for history") Krahe presented the analysis of hydronymy (river names) as a source of information both historical and prehistorical, with an extended analysis of

1131-545: The other sub-branch being Celtic. During the period of Latin-Venetic bilingual inscriptions in the Roman script, i.e. 150–50 BCE, Venetic became flooded with Latin loanwords. The shift from Venetic to Latin resulting in language death is thought by scholarship to have already been well under way by that time. Venetic had about six, possibly seven, noun cases and four conjugations (similar to Latin). About 60 words are known, but some were borrowed from Latin ( liber.tos. < libertus ) or Etruscan . Many of them show

1170-472: The river Main as an example (Krahe 1949:17ff.) He examined the layers of European water names and did so using two theses. The first thesis was that the oldest layer will always be the one that cannot be explained with the language of the people who currently live on the banks or shores of the given water, and/or consist of a monosyllabic stem carrying a meaning (at times derived or conjugated monosyllabic words). He found that these monosyllabic water names give

1209-428: The same people. The basis of this theory is the similarity of the proper nouns and place names, but most of all in the water names of the Baltic and the Adriatic (Odra, Drava, Drama, Drweca, Opawa, Notec, etc.). Having the model of Illyrian in mind he assumed that together these elements represented the remnant of one archaic language. In his later work Krahe substituted Julius Pokorny 's Pan-Illyrian theory concerning

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1248-701: The same. Homer mentions a people in Asia Minor, the Paphlagonians, as from the Enetai province, and a few hundred years later Herodotus refers to the Enetoi twice, once as Illyrian and again as the occupants of the Adriatic sea. Krahe thought that the name of the Illyrian and Adriatic Enetos peoples are the same, and if Adriatic Enetoi were Adriatic Veneti (Venets) and Venets were the Vistula Veneti (Veneds) mentioned in other sources then Illyrians and Veneds were

1287-598: The so-called Italic group - the Latin-Faliscus, the Oscan-Umbrian along with Venetic-Baltic - and to some extent Slavic), though they still constituted a uniform Old European language which was to further divide later, had already dissociated from the ancient Indo-European language. The similarities in European water names resulted from the radiation of this old European system, and not from the resemblance of

1326-547: The territory occupied by the ancient Veneti before their incorporation by the Romans is uncertain. It included cities of the modern Veneto such as Este , Padua , Vicenza , Asolo , Oderzo , Montebelluna , Vittorio Veneto , Cadore , as well as other areas around the Po Delta . Venetic territory was incorporated into Cisalpine Gaul , and under Augustus was organized as the tenth region ( Regio X Venetia et Histria ) of Roman Italy . Regio X stretched geographically from

1365-465: The then-current domains of the Veneti. The territory of the Veneti came to the notice of the Greeks in the 4th c. BC. Strabo records that Dionysius I of Syracuse (c. 432–367 BC), desiring the famed horses of the Veneti, founded trading colonies along the Adriatic coast. The Sicilian tyrant favored the town of Adria as a trading partner, helping it build canals which linked it to the sea and broke

1404-657: The trading monopoly of Spina. In 303/302 BC the Lacedaemonian prince Cleonymus of Sparta led a fleet of mercenaries up the Brenta River intending on sacking Patavium . However, the Veneti fought back and the Spartan ships were captured and destroyed. The Veneti were in recurring conflict with the Celtic peoples who then occupied most of Northwestern Italy, although they maintained peaceful relations with

1443-637: The written sources), the western borders of their territory ran along Lake Garda, the southern ones followed a line that starts from the Tartaro river , follows the Po and reaches Adria , along the extinct branch of the Po of Adria , while the eastern ones reached up to the Tagliamento river . According to Julius Pokorný , the ethnonym Venetī (singular *Venetos ) is derived from Proto Indo-European root *wen- 'to strive, to wish for, to love'. As shown by

1482-619: Was a German philologist and linguist , specializing over many decades in the Illyrian languages . He was born in Gelsenkirchen . Between 1936 and 1946 he was a professor at the University of Würzburg , where he founded the Archiv für die Gewässernamen Deutschlands in 1942. Between 1947 and 1949 he held a chair at Heidelberg and from 1949 to the time of his death he was Professor für vergleichende Sprachwissenschaft und Slavistik and Leiter des indologischen und slavischen Seminars in

1521-613: Was not part of Italic proper, but split off from the core of Italic early. A 2012 study has suggested that Venetic was a relatively conservative language significantly similar to Celtic, on the basis of morphology, while it occupied an intermediate position between Celtic and Italic, on the basis of phonology. However these phonological similarities may have arisen as an areal phenomenon. Phonological similarities to Rhaetian have also been pointed out. In 2016, Celtologist Peter Schrijver argued that Venetic and Italic together form one sub-branch of an Italo-Celtic branch of Indo-European,

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