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72-743: The most famous and populated part of this area is Pietrasanta , which extends along the coastline and is at the foot of the Apuan Alps , travelling from South to North, beginning at Stazzema and up to Marina di Massa . The coastal shelf is sandy sloping gradually into the Ligurian Sea , which stretches from the Ligurian coast up to the Piombino promontory, and not from the Tyrrhenian Sea as mistakenly believed, whose name has replaced

144-575: A blood meal from a previously Plasmodium infected person or animal. Parasites are then typically introduced by the bite of an infected Anopheles mosquito. Some of these inoculated parasites, called " sporozoites ", probably remain in the skin, but others travel in the bloodstream to the liver , where they invade hepatocytes . They grow and divide in the liver for 2–10 days, with each infected hepatocyte eventually harboring up to 40,000 parasites. The infected hepatocytes break down, releasing these invasive Plasmodium cells, called " merozoites ", into

216-462: A child under five died of malaria in 2021, and "many of these deaths are preventable and treatable". Malaria is commonly associated with poverty and has a significant negative effect on economic development. In Africa, it is estimated to result in losses of US$ 12 billion a year due to increased healthcare costs, lost ability to work, and adverse effects on tourism. The term malaria originates from Medieval Italian : mala aria 'bad air',

288-414: A consistent supply of microscopy slides and stains. In places where microscopy is unavailable, malaria is diagnosed with RDTs, rapid antigen tests that detect parasite proteins in a fingerstick blood sample. A variety of RDTs are commercially available, targeting the parasite proteins histidine rich protein 2 (HRP2, detects P. falciparum only), lactate dehydrogenase , or aldolase . The HRP2 test

360-472: A greater likelihood of complications and death. Malaria infection affects the immune responses following vaccination for various diseases. For example, malaria suppresses immune responses to polysaccharide vaccines. A potential solution is to give curative treatment before vaccination in areas where malaria is present. Due to the non-specific nature of malaria symptoms, diagnosis is typically suspected based on symptoms and travel history, then confirmed with

432-456: A laboratory test showing hemoglobin levels below 8 grams per deciliter of blood. In areas of the world with little to no malaria, the WHO recommends only testing people with possible exposure to malaria (typically travel to a malaria-endemic area) and unexplained fever. In sub-Saharan Africa, testing is low, with only about one in four (28%) of children with a fever receiving medical advice or

504-488: A laboratory test to detect the presence of the parasite in the blood (parasitological test). In areas where malaria is common, the World Health Organization (WHO) recommends clinicians suspect malaria in any person who reports having fevers, or who has a current temperature above 37.5 °C without any other obvious cause. Malaria should be suspected in children with signs of anemia : pale palms or

576-534: A large amount of sweat on the surface of the skin. Due to the high levels of lactic acid released from the human body, it has been hypothesized to represent a specific human host-recognition cue for anthropophilic (attracted to humans) mosquitoes. Pungent foot odor Most studies use human odors as stimuli to attract host seeking mosquitoes and have reported a strong and significant attractive effect. The studies have found human odor samples very effective in attracting mosquitoes. Foot odors have been demonstrated to have

648-636: A less pronounced and almost continuous fever. Symptoms typically begin 10–15 days after the initial mosquito bite, but can occur as late as several months after infection with some P. vivax strains. Travellers taking preventative malaria medications may develop symptoms once they stop taking the drugs. Severe malaria is usually caused by P. falciparum (often referred to as falciparum malaria). Symptoms of falciparum malaria arise 9–30 days after infection. Individuals with cerebral malaria frequently exhibit neurological symptoms, including abnormal posturing , nystagmus , conjugate gaze palsy (failure of

720-435: A non-invasive way to detect malarial infections. In addition, these volatile compounds were heavily detected by mosquito antennae as an attractant, making the children more vulnerable to the bite of the mosquitos. Fatty acids Fatty acids have been identified as an attractive compound for mosquitoes, they are typically found in volatile emissions from the skin. These fatty acids that produce body odor profiles originate from

792-564: A part of miasma theory ; the disease was formerly called ague or marsh fever due to its association with swamps and marshland. The term appeared in English at least as early as 1768. Malaria was once common in most of Europe and North America, where it is no longer endemic, though imported cases do occur. The scientific study of malaria is called malariology. Adults with malaria tend to experience chills and fever—classically in periodic intense bouts lasting around six hours, followed by

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864-530: A period of sweating and fever relief—as well as headache, fatigue, abdominal discomfort, and muscle pain . Children tend to have more general symptoms: fever, cough, vomiting, and diarrhea. Initial manifestations of the disease—common to all malaria species—are similar to flu-like symptoms , and can resemble other conditions such as sepsis , gastroenteritis , and viral diseases . The presentation may include headache , fever , shivering , joint pain , vomiting , hemolytic anemia , jaundice , hemoglobin in

936-575: A postdoctoral scholar at the University of California, Berkeley studying the structural basis of membrane manipulation and cell-cell fusion by bacterial pathogens, discusses studies that determine how odor profiles can be used to diagnose the disease. Within the study, samples of volatile compounds from around 400 children within schools in Western Kenya were collected - to identify asymptomatic infections. These biomarkers have been established as

1008-635: A rapid diagnostic test in 2021. There was a 10-percentage point gap in testing between the richest and the poorest children (33% vs 23%). Additionally, a greater proportion of children in Eastern and Southern Africa (36%) were tested than in West and Central Africa (21%). According to UNICEF, 61% of children with a fever were taken for advice or treatment from a health facility or provider in 2021. Disparities are also observed by wealth, with an 18 percentage point difference in care-seeking behaviour between children in

1080-466: A short time, and a "thin film" of blood, allowing them to clearly see individual parasites and identify the infecting Plasmodium species. Under typical field laboratory conditions, a microscopist can detect parasites when there are at least 100 parasites per microliter of blood, which is around the lower range of symptomatic infection. Microscopic diagnosis is relatively resource intensive, requiring trained personnel, specific equipment, electricity, and

1152-595: A small proportion of public expenditure on health. In contrast, a similar programme in Tanzania would cost an estimated one-fifth of the public health budget. In 2021, the World Health Organization confirmed that China has eliminated malaria. In 2023, the World Health Organization confirmed that Azerbaijan , Tajikistan , and Belize have eliminated malaria. In areas where malaria is common, children under five years old often have anaemia , which

1224-518: A way past the net. Insecticide-treated nets (ITNs) are estimated to be twice as effective as untreated nets and offer greater than 70% protection compared with no net. Between 2000 and 2008, the use of ITNs saved the lives of an estimated 250,000 infants in Sub-Saharan Africa. According to UNICEF, only 36% of households had sufficient ITNs for all household members in 2019. In 2000, 1.7 million (1.8%) African children living in areas of

1296-484: Is twinned with Malaria Malaria is a mosquito-borne infectious disease that affects vertebrates and Anopheles mosquitoes. Human malaria causes symptoms that typically include fever , fatigue , vomiting , and headaches . In severe cases, it can cause jaundice , seizures , coma , or death . Symptoms usually begin 10 to 15 days after being bitten by an infected Anopheles mosquito . If not properly treated, people may have recurrences of

1368-479: Is a feature of blackwater fever , where haemoglobin from lysed red blood cells leaks into the urine. Infection with P. falciparum may result in cerebral malaria, a form of severe malaria that involves encephalopathy . It is associated with retinal whitening, which may be a useful clinical sign in distinguishing malaria from other causes of fever. An enlarged spleen , enlarged liver or both of these , severe headache, low blood sugar , and haemoglobin in

1440-543: Is a town and comune on the coast of northern Tuscany in Italy , in the province of Lucca . Pietrasanta is part of Versilia , on the last foothills of the Apuan Alps , about 32 kilometres (20 mi) north of Pisa . The town is located 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) off the coast, where the frazione of Marina di Pietrasanta is located. It is situated on the main road and rail link from Pisa to Genova , just north of Viareggio . The town has Roman origins and part of

1512-518: Is associated with potentially life-threatening conditions about as often as with a diagnosis of P. falciparum infection. P. vivax proportionally is more common outside Africa. Some cases have been documented of human infections with several species of Plasmodium from higher apes , but except for P. knowlesi —a zoonotic species that causes malaria in macaques —these are mostly of limited public health importance. The Anopheles mosquitos initially get infected by Plasmodium by taking

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1584-446: Is caused by six Plasmodium species: P. falciparum , P. malariae , P. ovale curtisi , P. ovale wallikeri , P. vivax and P. knowlesi . Among those infected, P. falciparum is the most common species identified (~75%) followed by P. vivax (~20%). Although P. falciparum traditionally accounts for the majority of deaths, recent evidence suggests that P. vivax malaria

1656-465: Is deemed severe when any of the following criteria are present, otherwise it is considered uncomplicated. Cerebral malaria is defined as a severe P. falciparum -malaria presenting with neurological symptoms, including coma (with a Glasgow coma scale less than 11, or a Blantyre coma scale less than 3), or with a coma that lasts longer than 30 minutes after a seizure. Methods used to prevent malaria include medications, mosquito elimination and

1728-531: Is insufficient evidence that mosquito repellents can prevent malaria infection. Insecticide-treated nets (ITNs) and indoor residual spraying (IRS) are effective, have been commonly used to prevent malaria, and their use has contributed significantly to the decrease in malaria in the 21st century. ITNs and IRS may not be sufficient to eliminate the disease, as these interventions depend on how many people use nets, how many gaps in insecticide there are (low coverage areas), if people are not protected when outside of

1800-451: Is not available. In areas where the disease is common, malaria should be confirmed if possible before treatment is started due to concerns of increasing drug resistance . Resistance among the parasites has developed to several antimalarial medications; for example, chloroquine -resistant P. falciparum has spread to most malarial areas, and resistance to artemisinin has become a problem in some parts of Southeast Asia . The disease

1872-400: Is relatively invisible to immune surveillance. However, circulating infected blood cells are destroyed in the spleen . To avoid this fate, the P. falciparum parasite displays adhesive proteins on the surface of the infected blood cells, causing the blood cells to stick to the walls of small blood vessels, thereby sequestering the parasite from passage through the general circulation and

1944-449: Is sometimes due to malaria. Giving children with anaemia in these areas preventive antimalarial medication improves red blood cell levels slightly but does not affect the risk of death or need for hospitalisation. Vector control refers to methods used to decrease malaria by reducing the levels of transmission by mosquitoes. For individual protection, the most effective insect repellents are based on DEET or picaridin . However, there

2016-408: Is spread exclusively through bites of infected female Anopheles mosquitoes. The mosquito bite introduces the parasites from the mosquito's saliva into a person's blood. The parasites travel to the liver , where they mature and reproduce. Five species of Plasmodium commonly infect humans. The three species associated with more severe cases are P. falciparum (which is responsible for

2088-425: Is typical) to several years. After a period of dormancy, they reactivate and produce merozoites. Hypnozoites are responsible for long incubation and late relapses in P. vivax infections, although their existence in P. ovale is uncertain. The parasite is relatively protected from attack by the body's immune system because for most of its human life cycle it resides within the liver and blood cells and

2160-413: Is typically attributed to treatment failure. People may develop some immunity when exposed to frequent infections. Malaria infection develops via two phases: one that involves the liver (exoerythrocytic phase), and one that involves red blood cells, or erythrocytes (erythrocytic phase). When an infected mosquito pierces a person's skin to take a blood meal, sporozoites in the mosquito's saliva enter

2232-818: Is widely used in Africa, where P. falciparum predominates. However, since HRP2 persists in the blood for up to five weeks after an infection is treated, an HRP2 test sometimes cannot distinguish whether someone currently has malaria or previously had it. Additionally, some P. falciparum parasites in the Amazon region lack the HRP2 gene, complicating detection. RDTs are fast and easily deployed to places without full diagnostic laboratories. However they give considerably less information than microscopy, and sometimes vary in quality from producer to producer and lot to lot. Serological tests to detect antibodies against Plasmodium from

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2304-567: Is widespread in the tropical and subtropical regions that exist in a broad band around the equator . This includes much of sub-Saharan Africa , Asia , and Latin America . In 2022, some 249 million cases of malaria worldwide resulted in an estimated 608,000 deaths, with 80 percent being five years old or less. Around 95% of the cases and deaths occurred in sub-Saharan Africa. Rates of disease decreased from 2010 to 2014, but increased from 2015 to 2021. According to UNICEF, nearly every minute,

2376-411: The bone marrow for 11 days, then return to the blood circulation to await uptake by the bite of another mosquito. Once inside a mosquito, the gametocytes undergo sexual reproduction, and eventually form daughter sporozoites that migrate to the mosquito's salivary glands to be injected into a new host when the mosquito bites. The liver infection causes no symptoms; all symptoms of malaria result from

2448-491: The polymerase chain reaction to detect the parasite's DNA have been developed, but they are not widely used in areas where malaria is common, due to their cost and complexity. The risk of disease can be reduced by preventing mosquito bites through the use of mosquito nets and insect repellents or with mosquito-control measures such as spraying insecticides and draining standing water . Several medications are available to prevent malaria for travellers in areas where

2520-622: The Roman wall still exists. The medieval town was founded in 1255 upon the pre-existing "Rocca di Sala" fortress of the Lombards by Luca Guiscardo da Pietrasanta, from whom it got its name. Pietrasanta was at its height a part of the Republic of Genoa (1316–1328). The town is first mentioned in 1331 in records of Genoa, when it became a part of the Lucca along with the river port of Motrone, and

2592-405: The absence of Duffy antigens on red blood cells. The impact of sickle cell trait on malaria immunity illustrates some evolutionary trade-offs that have occurred because of endemic malaria. Sickle cell trait causes a change in the haemoglobin molecule in the blood. Normally, red blood cells have a very flexible, biconcave shape that allows them to move through narrow capillaries ; however, when

2664-418: The blood have been developed, but are not used for malaria diagnosis due to their relatively poor sensitivity and specificity. Highly sensitive nucleic acid amplification tests have been developed, but are not used clinically due to their relatively high cost, and poor specificity for active infections. Malaria is classified into either "severe" or "uncomplicated" by the World Health Organization (WHO). It

2736-430: The bloodstream and migrate to the liver where they infect hepatocytes, multiplying asexually and asymptomatically for a period of 8–30 days. After a potential dormant period in the liver, these organisms differentiate to yield thousands of merozoites, which, following rupture of their host cells, escape into the blood and infect red blood cells to begin the erythrocytic stage of the life cycle. The parasite escapes from

2808-540: The bloodstream. In the blood, the merozoites rapidly invade individual red blood cells , replicating over 24–72 hours to form 16–32 new merozoites. The infected red blood cell lyses, and the new merozoites infect new red blood cells, resulting in a cycle that continuously amplifies the number of parasites in an infected person. Over rounds of this infection cycle, a small portion of parasites do not replicate, but instead develop into early sexual stage parasites called male and female " gametocytes ". These gametocytes develop in

2880-408: The brain, they contribute to coma . In the placenta they contribute to low birthweight and preterm labor, and increase the risk of abortion and stillbirth. The destruction of red blood cells during infection often results in anemia, exacerbated by reduced production of new red blood cells during infection. Only female mosquitoes feed on blood; male mosquitoes feed on plant nectar and do not transmit

2952-434: The cause, recurrence can be classified as either recrudescence , relapse , or reinfection. Recrudescence is when symptoms return after a symptom-free period due to failure to remove blood-stage parasites by adequate treatment. Relapse is when symptoms reappear after the parasites have been eliminated from the blood but have persisted as dormant hypnozoites in liver cells. Relapse commonly occurs between 8 and 24 weeks after

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3024-521: The development of respiratory distress , which occurs in up to 25% of adults and 40% of children with severe P. falciparum malaria. Possible causes include respiratory compensation of metabolic acidosis , noncardiogenic pulmonary oedema , concomitant pneumonia , and severe anaemia . Although rare in young children with severe malaria, acute respiratory distress syndrome occurs in 5–25% of adults and up to 29% of pregnant women. Coinfection of HIV with malaria increases mortality. Kidney failure

3096-509: The disease in the long run, but the initial costs required are out of reach of many of the world's poorest people. There is a wide difference in the costs of control (i.e. maintenance of low endemicity) and elimination programs between countries. For example, in China—whose government in 2010 announced a strategy to pursue malaria elimination in the Chinese provinces —the required investment is

3168-578: The disease is common. Occasional doses of the combination medication sulfadoxine/pyrimethamine are recommended in infants and after the first trimester of pregnancy in areas with high rates of malaria. As of 2023, two malaria vaccines have been endorsed by the World Health Organization . The recommended treatment for malaria is a combination of antimalarial medications that includes artemisinin . The second medication may be either mefloquine , lumefantrine , or sulfadoxine/pyrimethamine. Quinine , along with doxycycline , may be used if artemisinin

3240-475: The disease months later. In those who have recently survived an infection, reinfection usually causes milder symptoms. This partial resistance disappears over months to years if the person has no continuing exposure to malaria. The mosquito vector is itself harmed by Plasmodium infections, causing reduced lifespan. Human malaria is caused by single-celled microorganisms of the Plasmodium group. It

3312-462: The disease. Females of the mosquito genus Anopheles prefer to feed at night. They usually start searching for a meal at dusk, and continue through the night until they succeed. However, in Africa, due to the extensive use of bed nets, they began to bite earlier, before bed-net time. Malaria parasites can also be transmitted by blood transfusions , although this is rare. Symptoms of malaria can recur after varying symptom-free periods. Depending upon

3384-494: The eyes to turn together in the same direction), opisthotonus , seizures , or coma . Diagnosis based on skin odor profiles Humans emanate a large range of smells. Studies have been conducted on how to detect human malaria infections through volatile compounds from the skin - suggesting that volatile biomarkers may be a reliable source for the detection of infection, including those asymptomatic. Using skin body odor profiles can be efficient in diagnosing global populations, and

3456-442: The frequency with which malaria parasites complete their life cycle in the cell. Individuals who are homozygous (with two copies of the abnormal haemoglobin beta allele ) have sickle-cell anaemia , while those who are heterozygous (with one abnormal allele and one normal allele) experience resistance to malaria without severe anaemia. Although the shorter life expectancy for those with the homozygous condition would tend to disfavour

3528-399: The highest attractiveness to anthropophilic mosquitoes. Some of these studies have included traps that had been baited with nylon socks previously worn by human participants and were deemed efficient in catching adult mosquitos. Foot odors have high numbers of volatile compounds, which in turn elicit an olfactory response from mosquitoes. Malaria has several serious complications , including

3600-852: The historic nomination, The Tuscan Sea. In Roman times the Versilia river was known as Fosse Papiriane and was a large swamp between Pisa and Massa , and between the sea and the Apuan Alps. It was touched by the Via Emilia Scauri and crossed by the Via Aurelia . During the medieval era through the inside, along the South-East North-West, by Via Francigena . The so-called "Historical Versilia" consists exclusively of four common places: Pietrasanta , Forte dei Marmi , Seravezza and Stazzema.. The latter two, because

3672-429: The home, and an increase in mosquitoes that are resistant to insecticides. Modifications to people's houses to prevent mosquito exposure may be an important long term prevention measure. Mosquito nets help keep mosquitoes away from people and reduce infection rates and transmission of malaria. Nets are not a perfect barrier and are often treated with an insecticide designed to kill the mosquito before it has time to find

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3744-423: The infection of red blood cells. Symptoms develop once there are more than around 100,000 parasites per milliliter of blood. Many of the symptoms associated with severe malaria are caused by the tendency of P. falciparum to bind to blood vessel walls, resulting in damage to the affected vessels and surrounding tissue. Parasites sequestered in the blood vessels of the lung contribute to respiratory failure . In

3816-502: The initial symptoms and is often seen in P. vivax and P. ovale infections. P. vivax malaria cases in temperate areas often involve overwintering by hypnozoites, with relapses beginning the year after the mosquito bite. Reinfection means that parasites were eliminated from the entire body but new parasites were then introduced. Reinfection cannot readily be distinguished from relapse and recrudescence, although recurrence of infection within two weeks of treatment ending

3888-458: The land is located mainly on hills and mountains of the Apuan Alps, are the so-called "Alta Versilia” or Upper Versilia. From the geographical point of view the "Historical Versilia" extends from the north Cinquale valley to the south Motrone valley, and coincides with what was the Capitanato di Pietrasanta. A major literary figure who attended the Versilia at the beginning of the 20th century

3960-634: The liver undetected by wrapping itself in the cell membrane of the infected host liver cell. Within the red blood cells, the parasites multiply further, again asexually, periodically breaking out of their host cells to invade fresh red blood cells. Several such amplification cycles occur. Thus, classical descriptions of waves of fever arise from simultaneous waves of merozoites escaping and infecting red blood cells. Some P. vivax sporozoites do not immediately develop into exoerythrocytic-phase merozoites, but instead, produce hypnozoites that remain dormant for periods ranging from several months (7–10 months

4032-440: The main settlements of the historical heart of Versilia. The town suffered a long period of decline during the 17th and 18th centuries, partially due to malaria . In 1841, Grand Duke Leopold II of Tuscany promoted several reconstruction projects (including the building of schools specially created to teach carving skills, and the reopening of the once famous quarries). The area, like most of Tuscany in general, has long enjoyed

4104-431: The metabolism of glycerol, lactic acid, amino acids, and lipids - through the action of bacteria found within the skin. They create a “chemical signature” for the mosquitoes to locate a potential host, humans in particular. Lactic acid Lactic acid, a naturally produced levorotatory isomer, has been titled an attractant of mosquitoes for a long time. Lactic acid is predominantly produced by eccrine-sweat glands, creating

4176-504: The modified haemoglobin S molecules are exposed to low amounts of oxygen, or crowd together due to dehydration, they can stick together forming strands that cause the cell to distort into a curved sickle shape. In these strands, the molecule is not as effective in taking or releasing oxygen, and the cell is not flexible enough to circulate freely. In the early stages of malaria, the parasite can cause infected red cells to sickle, and so they are removed from circulation sooner. This reduces

4248-445: The nearby mountain, bringing abundant rainfall, mostly concentrated in the half-seasons. During the summer, the humidity is very high, with values between 60 and 80%. This encourages the proliferation of mosquitoes, contrasted by the reclamation of marshes, which are finished by the beginning of the season. This Tuscany location article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Pietrasanta Pietrasanta

4320-637: The parasite eventually disappears from that area, as happened in North America, Europe, and parts of the Middle East. However, unless the parasite is eliminated from the whole world, it could re-establish if conditions revert to a combination that favors the parasite's reproduction. Furthermore, the cost per person of eliminating anopheles mosquitoes rises with decreasing population density, making it economically unfeasible in some areas. Prevention of malaria may be more cost-effective than treatment of

4392-415: The patronage of artists. Pietrasanta grew to importance during the 15th century, mainly due to its connection with marble . Michelangelo was the first sculptor to recognize the beauty of the local stone. It has continued to attract many artists including Fernando Botero , Joan Miró , Henry Moore , and Damien Hirst . The town is still home to over 50 marble workshops and bronze foundries. Pietrasanta

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4464-456: The prevention of bites. As of 2023, there are two malaria vaccines , approved for use in children by the WHO: RTS,S and R21 . The presence of malaria in an area requires a combination of high human population density, high Anopheles mosquito population density and high rates of transmission from humans to mosquitoes and from mosquitoes to humans. If any of these is lowered sufficiently,

4536-411: The richest (71%) and the poorest (53%) households. Malaria is usually confirmed by the microscopic examination of blood films or by antigen -based rapid diagnostic tests (RDT). Microscopy—i.e. examining Giemsa -stained blood with a light microscope —is the gold standard for malaria diagnosis. Microscopists typically examine both a "thick film" of blood, allowing them to scan many blood cells in

4608-437: The screening and monitoring of infection to officially eradicate malaria. Research findings have predominantly relied on chemical explanations to explain the differences in attractiveness among humans based on distinct odor profiles. The existence of volatile compounds, like fatty acids, and lactic acid is an essential reason on why some individuals are more appealing to mosquitos than others. Volatile compounds Kanika Khanna,

4680-563: The spleen. The blockage of the microvasculature causes symptoms such as those in placental malaria. Sequestered red blood cells can breach the blood–brain barrier and cause cerebral malaria. Due to the high levels of mortality and morbidity caused by malaria—especially the P. falciparum species—it has placed the greatest selective pressure on the human genome in recent history. Several genetic factors provide some resistance to it including sickle cell trait , thalassaemia traits, glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency , and

4752-612: The trait's survival, the trait is preserved in malaria-prone regions because of the benefits provided by the heterozygous form. Liver dysfunction as a result of malaria is uncommon and usually only occurs in those with another liver condition such as viral hepatitis or chronic liver disease . The syndrome is sometimes called malarial hepatitis . While it has been considered a rare occurrence, malarial hepatopathy has seen an increase, particularly in Southeast Asia and India. Liver compromise in people with malaria correlates with

4824-415: The urine with kidney failure may occur. Complications may include spontaneous bleeding, coagulopathy , and shock . Malaria during pregnancy can cause stillbirths , infant mortality , miscarriage , and low birth weight , particularly in P. falciparum infection, but also with P. vivax . Malaria is caused by infection with parasites in the genus Plasmodium . In humans, malaria

4896-424: The urine , retinal damage , and convulsions . The classic symptom of malaria is paroxysm —a cyclical occurrence of sudden coldness followed by shivering and then fever and sweating, occurring every two days ( tertian fever ) in P. vivax and P. ovale infections, and every three days ( quartan fever ) for P. malariae . P. falciparum infection can cause recurrent fever every 36–48 hours, or

4968-401: The vast majority of malaria deaths), P. vivax , and P. knowlesi (a simian malaria that spills over into thousands of people a year). P. ovale and P. malariae generally cause a milder form of malaria. Malaria is typically diagnosed by the microscopic examination of blood using blood films , or with antigen-based rapid diagnostic tests . Methods that use

5040-427: The world where malaria is common were protected by an ITN. That number increased to 20.3 million (18.5%) African children using ITNs in 2007, leaving 89.6 million children unprotected and to 68% African children using mosquito nets in 2015. The percentage of children sleeping under ITNs in sub-Saharan Africa increased from less than 40% in 2011 to over 50% in 2021. Most nets are impregnated with pyrethroids ,

5112-404: Was Gabriele D'Annunzio , who had built a huge villa in the pine forest around Pietrasanta. The poet spent there the last years of his life, composing the most famous verses of Alcyone and Francesca da Rimini . The climate of the Versilia coast is mild, but all things considered, given the position close to the Apuan Alps , is greatly influenced by the humid Atlantic currents that contrast with

5184-596: Was held until 1430. At that time it passed back to Genoa until 1484, when it was annexed to the Medici held seigniory of Florence . In 1494, Charles VIII of France took control of the town. It remained a Luccan town again until Pope Leo X , a member of the Medici family, gave Pietrasanta back to his family. The town then became the capital of the Capitanato di Pietrasanta (Captaincy of Pietrasanta), which included all

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