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69-562: The Rodovia Anchieta is a major pride of the Brazilian engineering , because it was built with a great number of bridges and tunnels along the steep cliffs of the Serra do Mar ; and the first modern, concrete -paved road built in São Paulo in the 1930s. Its north lane was inaugurated on Tuesday, 22 April 1947, and its south on Thursday, 9 July 1953. The highway is one of the busiest of

138-478: A musculus ("muscle") was simply used as cover for sappers to engineer an offensive ditch or earthworks. Battering rams were also widespread. The Roman Legions first used siege towers c.  200 BC ; in the first century BC, Julius Caesar accomplished a siege at Uxellodunum in Gaul using a ten-story siege tower. Romans were nearly always successful in besieging a city or fort, due to their persistence,

207-698: A broad range of more specialized fields of engineering , each with a more specific emphasis on particular areas of applied mathematics , applied science , and types of application. See glossary of engineering . The term engineering is derived from the Latin ingenium , meaning "cleverness". The American Engineers' Council for Professional Development (ECPD, the predecessor of ABET ) has defined "engineering" as: The creative application of scientific principles to design or develop structures, machines, apparatus, or manufacturing processes, or works utilizing them singly or in combination; or to construct or operate

276-694: A catapult in 399 BC. The first two rulers to make use of siege engines to a large extent were Philip II of Macedonia and Alexander the Great . Their large engines spurred an evolution that led to impressive machines, like the Demetrius Poliorcetes ' Helepolis (or "Taker of Cities") of 304 BC: nine stories high and plated with iron, it stood 40 m (130 ft) tall and 21 m (69 ft) wide, weighing 180 t (400,000 lb). The most used engines were simple battering rams, or tortoises , propelled in several ingenious ways that allowed

345-407: A commercial scale, such as the manufacture of commodity chemicals , specialty chemicals , petroleum refining , microfabrication , fermentation , and biomolecule production . Civil engineering is the design and construction of public and private works, such as infrastructure (airports, roads, railways, water supply, and treatment etc.), bridges, tunnels, dams, and buildings. Civil engineering

414-533: A count of 2,000. There were fewer than 50 engineering graduates in the U.S. before 1865. In 1870 there were a dozen U.S. mechanical engineering graduates, with that number increasing to 43 per year in 1875. In 1890, there were 6,000 engineers in civil, mining , mechanical and electrical. There was no chair of applied mechanism and applied mechanics at Cambridge until 1875, and no chair of engineering at Oxford until 1907. Germany established technical universities earlier. The foundations of electrical engineering in

483-416: A defensive advantage. Other tactics included setting fires against castle walls in an effort to decompose the cement that held together the individual stones so they could be readily knocked over. Another indirect means was the practice of mining , whereby tunnels were dug under the walls to weaken the foundations and destroy them. A third tactic was the catapulting of diseased animals or human corpses over

552-420: A demand for machinery with metal parts, which led to the development of several machine tools . Boring cast iron cylinders with precision was not possible until John Wilkinson invented his boring machine , which is considered the first machine tool . Other machine tools included the screw cutting lathe , milling machine , turret lathe and the metal planer . Precision machining techniques were developed in

621-400: A result, many engineers continue to learn new material throughout their careers. If multiple solutions exist, engineers weigh each design choice based on their merit and choose the solution that best matches the requirements. The task of the engineer is to identify, understand, and interpret the constraints on a design in order to yield a successful result. It is generally insufficient to build

690-411: A technically successful product, rather, it must also meet further requirements. Constraints may include available resources, physical, imaginative or technical limitations, flexibility for future modifications and additions, and other factors, such as requirements for cost, safety , marketability, productivity, and serviceability . By understanding the constraints, engineers derive specifications for

759-643: A testament to the ingenuity and skill of ancient civil and military engineers. Other monuments, no longer standing, such as the Hanging Gardens of Babylon and the Pharos of Alexandria , were important engineering achievements of their time and were considered among the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World . The six classic simple machines were known in the ancient Near East . The wedge and

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828-909: A useful purpose. Examples of bioengineering research include bacteria engineered to produce chemicals, new medical imaging technology, portable and rapid disease diagnostic devices, prosthetics, biopharmaceuticals, and tissue-engineered organs. Interdisciplinary engineering draws from more than one of the principle branches of the practice. Historically, naval engineering and mining engineering were major branches. Other engineering fields are manufacturing engineering , acoustical engineering , corrosion engineering , instrumentation and control , aerospace , automotive , computer , electronic , information engineering , petroleum , environmental , systems , audio , software , architectural , agricultural , biosystems , biomedical , geological , textile , industrial , materials , and nuclear engineering . These and other branches of engineering are represented in

897-644: A way to distinguish between those specializing in the construction of such non-military projects and those involved in the discipline of military engineering . The pyramids in ancient Egypt , ziggurats of Mesopotamia , the Acropolis and Parthenon in Greece, the Roman aqueducts , Via Appia and Colosseum, Teotihuacán , and the Brihadeeswarar Temple of Thanjavur , among many others, stand as

966-523: A wooden tower on wheels that allowed attackers to climb up and over castle walls, while protected somewhat from enemy arrows. A typical military confrontation in medieval times was for one side to lay siege to an opponent's castle . When properly defended, they had the choice whether to assault the castle directly or to starve the people out by blocking food deliveries, or to employ war machines specifically designed to destroy or circumvent castle defenses. Defending soldiers also used trebuchets and catapults as

1035-513: Is a broad discipline that is often broken down into several sub-disciplines. Although an engineer will usually be trained in a specific discipline, he or she may become multi-disciplined through experience. Engineering is often characterized as having four main branches: chemical engineering, civil engineering, electrical engineering, and mechanical engineering. Chemical engineering is the application of physics, chemistry, biology, and engineering principles in order to carry out chemical processes on

1104-734: Is associated with anything constructed on or within the Earth. This discipline applies geological sciences and engineering principles to direct or support the work of other disciplines such as civil engineering , environmental engineering , and mining engineering . Geological engineers are involved with impact studies for facilities and operations that affect surface and subsurface environments, such as rock excavations (e.g. tunnels ), building foundation consolidation, slope and fill stabilization, landslide risk assessment, groundwater monitoring, groundwater remediation , mining excavations, and natural resource exploration. One who practices engineering

1173-497: Is called an engineer , and those licensed to do so may have more formal designations such as Professional Engineer , Chartered Engineer , Incorporated Engineer , Ingenieur , European Engineer , or Designated Engineering Representative . In the engineering design process, engineers apply mathematics and sciences such as physics to find novel solutions to problems or to improve existing solutions. Engineers need proficient knowledge of relevant sciences for their design projects. As

1242-465: Is managed to flow either bidirectionally (uphill on one carriageway and downhill on the other) or unidirectionally (uphill or downhill on both carriageways), depending on demand. In the unidirectional mode, the opposing traffic is diverted to the Rodovia dos Imigrantes . 23°47′22″S 46°31′10″W  /  23.78944°S 46.51944°W  / -23.78944; -46.51944 This article about

1311-428: Is the design and manufacture of physical or mechanical systems, such as power and energy systems, aerospace / aircraft products, weapon systems , transportation products, engines , compressors , powertrains , kinematic chains , vacuum technology, vibration isolation equipment, manufacturing , robotics, turbines, audio equipments, and mechatronics . Bioengineering is the engineering of biological systems for

1380-664: Is traditionally broken into a number of sub-disciplines, including structural engineering , environmental engineering , and surveying . It is traditionally considered to be separate from military engineering . Electrical engineering is the design, study, and manufacture of various electrical and electronic systems, such as broadcast engineering , electrical circuits , generators , motors , electromagnetic / electromechanical devices, electronic devices , electronic circuits , optical fibers , optoelectronic devices , computer systems, telecommunications , instrumentation , control systems , and electronics . Mechanical engineering

1449-864: The Neo-Assyrian period (911–609) BC. The Egyptian pyramids were built using three of the six simple machines, the inclined plane, the wedge, and the lever, to create structures like the Great Pyramid of Giza . The earliest civil engineer known by name is Imhotep . As one of the officials of the Pharaoh , Djosèr , he probably designed and supervised the construction of the Pyramid of Djoser (the Step Pyramid ) at Saqqara in Egypt around 2630–2611 BC. The earliest practical water-powered machines,

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1518-547: The Newcomen steam engine . Smeaton designed the third Eddystone Lighthouse (1755–59) where he pioneered the use of ' hydraulic lime ' (a form of mortar which will set under water) and developed a technique involving dovetailed blocks of granite in the building of the lighthouse. He is important in the history, rediscovery of, and development of modern cement , because he identified the compositional requirements needed to obtain "hydraulicity" in lime; work which led ultimately to

1587-455: The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers . The word "engine" itself is of even older origin, ultimately deriving from the Latin ingenium ( c.  1250 ), meaning "innate quality, especially mental power, hence a clever invention." Later, as the design of civilian structures, such as bridges and buildings, matured as a technical discipline, the term civil engineering entered the lexicon as

1656-515: The ballista , the traction trebuchet (first designed in China in the 3rd century BC and brought over to Europe in the 4th century AD), and the counterweight trebuchet (first described by Mardi bin Ali al-Tarsusi in the 12th century, though of unknown origin). These machines used mechanical energy to fling large projectiles to batter down stone walls. Also used were the battering ram and the siege tower ,

1725-528: The inclined plane (ramp) were known since prehistoric times. The wheel , along with the wheel and axle mechanism, was invented in Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) during the 5th millennium BC. The lever mechanism first appeared around 5,000 years ago in the Near East , where it was used in a simple balance scale , and to move large objects in ancient Egyptian technology . The lever was also used in

1794-566: The shadoof water-lifting device, the first crane machine, which appeared in Mesopotamia c.  3000 BC , and then in ancient Egyptian technology c.  2000 BC . The earliest evidence of pulleys date back to Mesopotamia in the early 2nd millennium BC, and ancient Egypt during the Twelfth Dynasty (1991–1802 BC). The screw , the last of the simple machines to be invented, first appeared in Mesopotamia during

1863-609: The siege of Plataea in 429 BC, but it seems that the Greeks limited their use of siege engines to assault ladders, though Peloponnesian forces used something resembling flamethrowers . The first Mediterranean people to use advanced siege machinery were the Carthaginians , who used siege towers and battering rams against the Greek colonies of Sicily . These engines influenced the ruler of Syracuse , Dionysius I , who developed

1932-639: The water wheel and watermill , first appeared in the Persian Empire , in what are now Iraq and Iran, by the early 4th century BC. Kush developed the Sakia during the 4th century BC, which relied on animal power instead of human energy. Hafirs were developed as a type of reservoir in Kush to store and contain water as well as boost irrigation. Sappers were employed to build causeways during military campaigns. Kushite ancestors built speos during

2001-412: The 14th century when an engine'er (literally, one who builds or operates a siege engine ) referred to "a constructor of military engines". In this context, now obsolete, an "engine" referred to a military machine, i.e. , a mechanical contraption used in war (for example, a catapult ). Notable examples of the obsolete usage which have survived to the present day are military engineering corps, e.g. ,

2070-426: The 1800s included the experiments of Alessandro Volta , Michael Faraday , Georg Ohm and others and the invention of the electric telegraph in 1816 and the electric motor in 1872. The theoretical work of James Maxwell (see: Maxwell's equations ) and Heinrich Hertz in the late 19th century gave rise to the field of electronics . The later inventions of the vacuum tube and the transistor further accelerated

2139-603: The 36 licensed member institutions of the UK Engineering Council . New specialties sometimes combine with the traditional fields and form new branches – for example, Earth systems engineering and management involves a wide range of subject areas including engineering studies , environmental science , engineering ethics and philosophy of engineering . Aerospace engineering covers the design, development, manufacture and operational behaviour of aircraft , satellites and rockets . Marine engineering covers

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2208-576: The 9th century. In 1206, Al-Jazari invented programmable automata / robots . He described four automaton musicians, including drummers operated by a programmable drum machine , where they could be made to play different rhythms and different drum patterns. Before the development of modern engineering, mathematics was used by artisans and craftsmen, such as millwrights , clockmakers , instrument makers and surveyors. Aside from these professions, universities were not believed to have had much practical significance to technology. A standard reference for

2277-546: The Antikythera mechanism, required sophisticated knowledge of differential gearing or epicyclic gearing , two key principles in machine theory that helped design the gear trains of the Industrial Revolution, and are widely used in fields such as robotics and automotive engineering . Ancient Chinese, Greek, Roman and Hunnic armies employed military machines and inventions such as artillery which

2346-484: The Bronze Age between 3700 and 3250 BC. Bloomeries and blast furnaces were also created during the 7th centuries BC in Kush. Ancient Greece developed machines in both civilian and military domains. The Antikythera mechanism , an early known mechanical analog computer , and the mechanical inventions of Archimedes , are examples of Greek mechanical engineering. Some of Archimedes' inventions, as well as

2415-614: The First World War, huge siege guns such as Big Bertha were designed to see use against the modern fortresses of the day. The apex of siege artillery was reached with the German Schwerer Gustav gun, a huge 80 cm (31 in) caliber railway gun , built during early World War II. Schwerer Gustav was initially intended to be used for breaching the French Maginot Line of fortifications, but

2484-654: The United States went to Josiah Willard Gibbs at Yale University in 1863; it was also the second PhD awarded in science in the U.S. Only a decade after the successful flights by the Wright brothers , there was extensive development of aeronautical engineering through development of military aircraft that were used in World War I . Meanwhile, research to provide fundamental background science continued by combining theoretical physics with experiments. Engineering

2553-416: The attackers to reach the walls or ditches with a certain degree of safety. For sea sieges or battles, seesaw-like machines ( sambykē or sambuca ) were used. These were giant ladders, hinged and mounted on a base mechanism and used for transferring marines onto the sea walls of coastal towns. They were normally mounted on two or more ships tied together and some sambykē included shields at the top to protect

2622-409: The aviation pioneers around the start of the 20th century although the work of Sir George Cayley has recently been dated as being from the last decade of the 18th century. Early knowledge of aeronautical engineering was largely empirical with some concepts and skills imported from other branches of engineering. The first PhD in engineering (technically, applied science and engineering ) awarded in

2691-498: The climbers from arrows. Other hinged engines were used to catch enemy equipment or even opposing soldiers with opposable appendices which are probably ancestors to the Roman corvus . Other weapons dropped heavy weights on opposing soldiers. The Romans preferred to assault enemy walls by building earthen ramps ( agger ) or simply scaling the walls, as in the early siege of the Samnite city of Silvium (306 BC). Soldiers working at

2760-452: The country, because of the movement of goods to and from Santos's seaport . Traffic problems are common, mainly if there is bad weather or in long weekends when many families living in São Paulo go to Santos or Guarujá beaches . The Rodovia Anchieta is approximately 60 km long. It is named after the Jesuit priest, Father José de Anchieta , who often called the trail "the worst trail in

2829-555: The defenders' walls in conjunction with scaling ladders , depicted during the Middle Kingdom of Egypt . Advanced siege engines including battering rams were used by Assyrians , followed by the catapult in ancient Greece . In Kush siege towers as well as battering rams were built from the 8th century BC and employed in Kushite siege warfare, such as the siege of Ashmunein in 715 BC. The Spartans used battering rams in

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2898-571: The design, development, manufacture and operational behaviour of watercraft and stationary structures like oil platforms and ports . Computer engineering (CE) is a branch of engineering that integrates several fields of computer science and electronic engineering required to develop computer hardware and software . Computer engineers usually have training in electronic engineering (or electrical engineering ), software design , and hardware-software integration instead of only software engineering or electronic engineering. Geological engineering

2967-407: The development and large scale manufacturing of chemicals in new industrial plants. The role of the chemical engineer was the design of these chemical plants and processes. Aeronautical engineering deals with aircraft design process design while aerospace engineering is a more modern term that expands the reach of the discipline by including spacecraft design. Its origins can be traced back to

3036-418: The development of electronics to such an extent that electrical and electronics engineers currently outnumber their colleagues of any other engineering specialty. Chemical engineering developed in the late nineteenth century. Industrial scale manufacturing demanded new materials and new processes and by 1880 the need for large scale production of chemicals was such that a new industry was created, dedicated to

3105-417: The development of gunpowder and improved metallurgy , bombards and later heavy artillery became the primary siege engines. Collectively, siege engines or artillery together with the necessary soldiers , sappers , ammunition , and transport vehicles to conduct a siege are referred to as a siege train . The earliest siege engines appear to be simple movable roofed towers used for cover to advance to

3174-456: The early Warring States period . Much of what we now know of the siege technology of the time comes from Books 14 and 15 (Chapters 52 to 71) on Siege Warfare from the Mo Jing. Recorded and preserved on bamboo strips, much of the text is now extremely corrupted. However, despite the heavy fragmentation, Mohist diligence and attention to details which set Mo Jing apart from other works ensured that

3243-469: The enemy fortification. There are many distinct types, such as siege towers that allow foot soldiers to scale walls and attack the defenders, battering rams that damage walls or gates, and large ranged weapons (such as ballistas , catapults / trebuchets and other similar constructions) that attack from a distance by launching projectiles . Some complex siege engines were combinations of these types. Siege engines are fairly large constructions – from

3312-421: The first commercial piston steam engine in 1712, was not known to have any scientific training. The application of steam-powered cast iron blowing cylinders for providing pressurized air for blast furnaces lead to a large increase in iron production in the late 18th century. The higher furnace temperatures made possible with steam-powered blast allowed for the use of more lime in blast furnaces , which enabled

3381-409: The first half of the 19th century. These included the use of gigs to guide the machining tool over the work and fixtures to hold the work in the proper position. Machine tools and machining techniques capable of producing interchangeable parts lead to large scale factory production by the late 19th century. The United States Census of 1850 listed the occupation of "engineer" for the first time with

3450-423: The highly descriptive details of the workings of mechanical devices like Cloud Ladders, Rotating Arcuballistas and Levered Catapults, records of siege techniques and usage of siege weaponry can still be found today. Indian , Sri Lankan, Chinese and Southeast Asian kingdoms and empires used war elephants as battering rams. Medieval designs include a large number of catapults such as the mangonel , onager ,

3519-519: The invention of Portland cement . Applied science led to the development of the steam engine. The sequence of events began with the invention of the barometer and the measurement of atmospheric pressure by Evangelista Torricelli in 1643, demonstration of the force of atmospheric pressure by Otto von Guericke using the Magdeburg hemispheres in 1656, laboratory experiments by Denis Papin , who built experimental model steam engines and demonstrated

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3588-399: The limits within which a viable object or system may be produced and operated. Siege engine A siege engine is a device that is designed to break or circumvent heavy castle doors, thick city walls and other fortifications in siege warfare . Some are immobile, constructed in place to attack enemy fortifications from a distance, while others have wheels to enable advancing up to

3657-479: The power to weight ratio of steam engines made practical steamboats and locomotives possible. New steel making processes, such as the Bessemer process and the open hearth furnace, ushered in an area of heavy engineering in the late 19th century. One of the most famous engineers of the mid-19th century was Isambard Kingdom Brunel , who built railroads, dockyards and steamships. The Industrial Revolution created

3726-583: The ramps were protected by shelters called vineae , that were arranged to form a long corridor. Convex wicker shields were used to form a screen ( plutei or plute in English) to protect the front of the corridor during construction of the ramp. Another Roman siege engine sometimes used resembled the Greek ditch-filling tortoise of Diades, this galley (unlike the ram-tortoise of Hegetor the Byzantium) called

3795-434: The rise of engineering as a profession in the 18th century, the term became more narrowly applied to fields in which mathematics and science were applied to these ends. Similarly, in addition to military and civil engineering, the fields then known as the mechanic arts became incorporated into engineering. Canal building was an important engineering work during the early phases of the Industrial Revolution. John Smeaton

3864-538: The roads and road transport of Brazil is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Engineering Engineering is the practice of using natural science , mathematics , and the engineering design process to solve technical problems, increase efficiency and productivity, and improve systems. Modern engineering comprises many subfields which include designing and improving infrastructure , machinery , vehicles , electronics , materials , and energy systems. The discipline of engineering encompasses

3933-426: The same with full cognizance of their design; or to forecast their behavior under specific operating conditions; all as respects an intended function, economics of operation and safety to life and property. Engineering has existed since ancient times, when humans devised inventions such as the wedge, lever, wheel and pulley, etc. The term engineering is derived from the word engineer , which itself dates back to

4002-441: The size of a small house to a large building. From antiquity up to the development of gunpowder , they were made largely of wood, using rope or leather to help bind them, possibly with a few pieces of metal at key stress points. They could launch simple projectiles using natural materials to build up force by tension , torsion , or, in the case of trebuchets, human power or counterweights coupled with mechanical advantage . With

4071-470: The state of mechanical arts during the Renaissance is given in the mining engineering treatise De re metallica (1556), which also contains sections on geology, mining, and chemistry. De re metallica was the standard chemistry reference for the next 180 years. The science of classical mechanics , sometimes called Newtonian mechanics, formed the scientific basis of much of modern engineering. With

4140-507: The strength of their forces, their tactics, and their siege engines. The first documented occurrence of ancient siege engine pieces in Europe was the gastraphetes ("belly-bow"), a kind of large crossbow. These were mounted on wooden frames. Greater machines forced the introduction of pulley system for loading the projectiles, which had extended to include stones also. Later torsion siege engines appeared, based on sinew springs. The onager

4209-414: The transition from charcoal to coke . These innovations lowered the cost of iron, making horse railways and iron bridges practical. The puddling process , patented by Henry Cort in 1784 produced large scale quantities of wrought iron. Hot blast , patented by James Beaumont Neilson in 1828, greatly lowered the amount of fuel needed to smelt iron. With the development of the high pressure steam engine,

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4278-587: The use of a piston, which he published in 1707. Edward Somerset, 2nd Marquess of Worcester published a book of 100 inventions containing a method for raising waters similar to a coffee percolator . Samuel Morland , a mathematician and inventor who worked on pumps, left notes at the Vauxhall Ordinance Office on a steam pump design that Thomas Savery read. In 1698 Savery built a steam pump called "The Miner's Friend". It employed both vacuum and pressure. Iron merchant Thomas Newcomen , who built

4347-561: The walls in order to promote disease which would force the defenders to surrender, an early form of biological warfare . With the advent of gunpowder , firearms such as the arquebus and cannon —eventually the petard , mortar and artillery —were developed. These weapons proved so effective that fortifications , such as city walls , had to be low and thick, as exemplified by the designs of Vauban . The development of specialized siege artillery, as distinct from field artillery , culminated during World War I and World War II . During

4416-520: The world" it was given this nickname because it badly hurt his feet when he would walk the trail. It connected to the city of São Vicente by the sea with the village he helped to found in the high plateau, São Paulo dos Campos de Piratininga , in 1554. The highway is managed by a state concession to the private company Ecovias , and therefore is a toll road . The two carriageways of the Rodovia Anchieta are both fully reversible . Traffic

4485-644: Was a steam jack driven by a steam turbine , described in 1551 by Taqi al-Din Muhammad ibn Ma'ruf in Ottoman Egypt . The cotton gin was invented in India by the 6th century AD, and the spinning wheel was invented in the Islamic world by the early 11th century, both of which were fundamental to the growth of the cotton industry . The spinning wheel was also a precursor to the spinning jenny , which

4554-522: Was a key development during the early Industrial Revolution in the 18th century. The earliest programmable machines were developed in the Muslim world. A music sequencer , a programmable musical instrument , was the earliest type of programmable machine. The first music sequencer was an automated flute player invented by the Banu Musa brothers, described in their Book of Ingenious Devices , in

4623-611: Was developed by the Greeks around the 4th century BC, the trireme , the ballista and the catapult . In the Middle Ages, the trebuchet was developed. The earliest practical wind-powered machines, the windmill and wind pump , first appeared in the Muslim world during the Islamic Golden Age , in what are now Iran, Afghanistan, and Pakistan, by the 9th century AD. The earliest practical steam-powered machine

4692-505: Was the first self-proclaimed civil engineer and is often regarded as the "father" of civil engineering. He was an English civil engineer responsible for the design of bridges, canals, harbors, and lighthouses. He was also a capable mechanical engineer and an eminent physicist . Using a model water wheel, Smeaton conducted experiments for seven years, determining ways to increase efficiency. Smeaton introduced iron axles and gears to water wheels. Smeaton also made mechanical improvements to

4761-565: Was the main Roman invention in the field. The earliest documented occurrence of ancient siege-artillery pieces in China was the levered principled traction catapult and an 8 ft (2.4 m) high siege crossbow from the Mozi (Mo Jing), a Mohist text written at about the 4th – 3rd century BC by followers of Mozi who founded the Mohist school of thought during the late Spring and Autumn period and

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