131-483: Villa Escudero Plantations and Resort ( Tagalog: [ˈbɪlja ʔɛskʊˈdero] ) is an 800 hectares (2,000 acres) of working coconut plantation and hacienda in Tiaong , Quezon , 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) south of the city of San Pablo , Laguna on the border with Quezon . Since 1981, the plantation has opened its doors as a resort offering village tours, a museum tour, food and accommodations. It has developed
262-430: A fiber , called coir , which has many traditional and commercial uses. Both the exocarp and the mesocarp make up the "husk" of the coconut, while the endocarp makes up the hard coconut "shell". The endocarp is around 4 millimetres ( 1 ⁄ 8 inch) thick and has three distinctive germination pores ( micropyles ) on the distal end. Two of the pores are plugged (the "eyes"), while one is functional. The interior of
393-423: A mutation–selection balance . It is predicted that a viral quasispecies at a low but evolutionarily neutral and highly connected (that is, flat) region in the fitness landscape will outcompete a quasispecies located at a higher but narrower fitness peak in which the surrounding mutants are unfit, "the quasispecies effect" or the "survival of the flattest". There is no suggestion that a viral quasispecies resembles
524-405: A ring species . Also, among organisms that reproduce only asexually , the concept of a reproductive species breaks down, and each clone is potentially a microspecies. Although none of these are entirely satisfactory definitions, and while the concept of species may not be a perfect model of life, it is still a useful tool to scientists and conservationists for studying life on Earth, regardless of
655-400: A "classical" method of determining species, such as with Linnaeus, early in evolutionary theory. However, different phenotypes are not necessarily different species (e.g. a four-winged Drosophila born to a two-winged mother is not a different species). Species named in this manner are called morphospecies . In the 1970s, Robert R. Sokal , Theodore J. Crovello and Peter Sneath proposed
786-424: A 'smallest clade' idea" (a phylogenetic species concept). Mishler and Wilkins and others concur with this approach, even though this would raise difficulties in biological nomenclature. Wilkins cited the ichthyologist Charles Tate Regan 's early 20th century remark that "a species is whatever a suitably qualified biologist chooses to call a species". Wilkins noted that the philosopher Philip Kitcher called this
917-428: A connected series of neighbouring populations, each of which can sexually interbreed with adjacent related populations, but for which there exist at least two "end" populations in the series, which are too distantly related to interbreed, though there is a potential gene flow between each "linked" population. Such non-breeding, though genetically connected, "end" populations may co-exist in the same region thus closing
1048-432: A different species from its ancestors. Viruses have enormous populations, are doubtfully living since they consist of little more than a string of DNA or RNA in a protein coat, and mutate rapidly. All of these factors make conventional species concepts largely inapplicable. A viral quasispecies is a group of genotypes related by similar mutations, competing within a highly mutagenic environment, and hence governed by
1179-508: A genetic boundary suitable for defining a species concept is present. DNA barcoding has been proposed as a way to distinguish species suitable even for non-specialists to use. One of the barcodes is a region of mitochondrial DNA within the gene for cytochrome c oxidase . A database, Barcode of Life Data System , contains DNA barcode sequences from over 190,000 species. However, scientists such as Rob DeSalle have expressed concern that classical taxonomy and DNA barcoding, which they consider
1310-492: A misnomer, need to be reconciled, as they delimit species differently. Genetic introgression mediated by endosymbionts and other vectors can further make barcodes ineffective in the identification of species. A phylogenetic or cladistic species is "the smallest aggregation of populations (sexual) or lineages (asexual) diagnosable by a unique combination of character states in comparable individuals (semaphoronts)". The empirical basis – observed character states – provides
1441-449: A particular species, including which genus (and higher taxa) it is placed in, is a hypothesis about the evolutionary relationships and distinguishability of that group of organisms. As further information comes to hand, the hypothesis may be corroborated or refuted. Sometimes, especially in the past when communication was more difficult, taxonomists working in isolation have given two distinct names to individual organisms later identified as
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#17327867475171572-400: A short way of saying that something applies to many species within a genus, but not to all. If scientists mean that something applies to all species within a genus, they use the genus name without the specific name or epithet. The names of genera and species are usually printed in italics . However, abbreviations such as "sp." should not be italicised. When a species' identity is not clear,
1703-500: A shorter postharvest storage life of around two to three weeks at temperatures of 12 to 15 °C (54 to 59 °F) or up to 2 months at 0 to 1.5 °C (32.0 to 34.7 °F). In comparison, mature coconuts with the husk intact can be stored for three to five months at normal room temperature . Unlike some other plants, the palm tree has neither a taproot nor root hairs , but has a fibrous root system . The root system consists of an abundance of thin roots that grow outward from
1834-409: A single domesticated population. Philippine and Malayan dwarf coconuts diverged early into two distinct types. They usually remain genetically isolated when introduced to new regions, making it possible to trace their origins. Numerous other dwarf cultivars also developed as the initial dwarf cultivar was introduced to other regions and hybridized with various tall cultivars. The origin of dwarf varieties
1965-404: A specialist may use "cf." before the epithet to indicate that confirmation is required. The abbreviations "nr." (near) or "aff." (affine) may be used when the identity is unclear but when the species appears to be similar to the species mentioned after. With the rise of online databases, codes have been devised to provide identifiers for species that are already defined, including: The naming of
2096-523: A species as groups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations, which are reproductively isolated from other such groups. It has been argued that this definition is a natural consequence of the effect of sexual reproduction on the dynamics of natural selection. Mayr's use of the adjective "potentially" has been a point of debate; some interpretations exclude unusual or artificial matings that occur only in captivity, or that involve animals capable of mating but that do not normally do so in
2227-400: A species as determined by a taxonomist. A typological species is a group of organisms in which individuals conform to certain fixed properties (a type), so that even pre-literate people often recognise the same taxon as do modern taxonomists. The clusters of variations or phenotypes within specimens (such as longer or shorter tails) would differentiate the species. This method was used as
2358-663: A species that had started to be dispersed by humans and grown in plantations. Niu vai endocarp fragments have been recovered in archaeological sites in the St. Matthias Islands of the Bismarck Archipelago . The fragments are dated to approximately 1000 BCE, suggesting that cultivation and artificial selection of coconuts were already practiced by the Austronesian Lapita people . Coconuts can also be broadly divided into two general types based on habit:
2489-491: A species. All species definitions assume that an organism acquires its genes from one or two parents very like the "daughter" organism, but that is not what happens in HGT. There is strong evidence of HGT between very dissimilar groups of prokaryotes , and at least occasionally between dissimilar groups of eukaryotes , including some crustaceans and echinoderms . The evolutionary biologist James Mallet concludes that there
2620-685: A species. Generally the term includes the unknown element of a distinct act of creation. Many authors have argued that a simple textbook definition, following Mayr's concept, works well for most multi-celled organisms , but breaks down in several situations: Species identification is made difficult by discordance between molecular and morphological investigations; these can be categorised as two types: (i) one morphology, multiple lineages (e.g. morphological convergence , cryptic species ) and (ii) one lineage, multiple morphologies (e.g. phenotypic plasticity , multiple life-cycle stages). In addition, horizontal gene transfer (HGT) makes it difficult to define
2751-528: A taxonomic decision at the discretion of cognizant specialists, is not governed by the Codes of Zoological or Botanical Nomenclature, in contrast to the PhyloCode , and contrary to what is done in several other fields, in which the definitions of technical terms, like geochronological units and geopolitical entities, are explicitly delimited. The nomenclatural codes that guide the naming of species, including
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#17327867475172882-695: A thinner husk and a larger amount of endosperm. Domesticated coconuts also contain more coconut water . These two forms are referred to by the Samoan terms niu kafa for the elongated wild coconuts, and niu vai for the rounded domesticated Pacific coconuts. A full-sized coconut fruit weighs about 1.4 kilograms (3 pounds 1 ounce). Coconuts sold domestically in coconut-producing countries are typically not de-husked. Especially immature coconuts (6 to 8 months from flowering) are sold for coconut water and softer jelly-like coconut meat (known as "green coconuts", "young coconuts", or "water coconuts"), where
3013-517: A traditional biological species. The International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses has since 1962 developed a universal taxonomic scheme for viruses; this has stabilised viral taxonomy. Most modern textbooks make use of Ernst Mayr 's 1942 definition, known as the Biological Species Concept as a basis for further discussion on the definition of species. It is also called a reproductive or isolation concept. This defines
3144-447: A variation on the morphological species concept, a phenetic species, defined as a set of organisms with a similar phenotype to each other, but a different phenotype from other sets of organisms. It differs from the morphological species concept in including a numerical measure of distance or similarity to cluster entities based on multivariate comparisons of a reasonably large number of phenotypic traits. A mate-recognition species
3275-691: A variety of products for furnishing and decoration. The coconut has cultural and religious significance in certain societies, particularly in the Austronesian cultures of the Western Pacific where it is featured in their mythologies, songs, and oral traditions. The fall of its mature fruit has led to a preoccupation with death by coconut . It also had ceremonial importance in pre-colonial animistic religions. It has also acquired religious significance in South Asian cultures, where it
3406-515: A variety of reasons. Viruses are a special case, driven by a balance of mutation and selection , and can be treated as quasispecies . Biologists and taxonomists have made many attempts to define species, beginning from morphology and moving towards genetics . Early taxonomists such as Linnaeus had no option but to describe what they saw: this was later formalised as the typological or morphological species concept. Ernst Mayr emphasised reproductive isolation, but this, like other species concepts,
3537-455: A well-known family in Quezon since the late 1800s. The museum contains the private collections of the family from their local travels and from around the world. It was started by Arsenio and Rosario Escudero and passed on to the living generations of the family. The assorted collections include, among others, religious artifacts, Chinese porcelain, antique furniture, ethnic clothing, relics from
3668-519: A worldwide reputation as a focal point to experience Philippine culture and history in a beautiful rural setting. The plantation spreads across three municipalities located in two provinces: San Pablo in Laguna and the towns of Tiaong and Dolores in Quezon Province. The entrance to the resort is located just a few feet from the Laguna and Quezon boundary arch. Villa Escudero Plantations
3799-425: Is Southeast Asia , which contain the tall cultivars that are genetically closest to dwarf coconuts. Sequencing of the genome of the tall and dwarf varieties revealed that they diverged 2 to 8 million years ago and that the dwarf variety arose through alterations in genes involved in the metabolism of the plant hormone gibberellin . Another ancestral variety is the niu leka of Polynesia (sometimes called
3930-438: Is "an entity composed of organisms which maintains its identity from other such entities through time and over space, and which has its own independent evolutionary fate and historical tendencies". This differs from the biological species concept in embodying persistence over time. Wiley and Mayden stated that they see the evolutionary species concept as "identical" to Willi Hennig 's species-as-lineages concept, and asserted that
4061-400: Is a group of sexually reproducing organisms that recognise one another as potential mates. Expanding on this to allow for post-mating isolation, a cohesion species is the most inclusive population of individuals having the potential for phenotypic cohesion through intrinsic cohesion mechanisms; no matter whether populations can hybridise successfully, they are still distinct cohesion species if
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4192-494: Is a member of the palm tree family ( Arecaceae ) and the only living species of the genus Cocos . The term " coconut " (or the archaic " cocoanut ") can refer to the whole coconut palm , the seed , or the fruit , which botanically is a drupe , not a nut . They are ubiquitous in coastal tropical regions and are a cultural icon of the tropics . The coconut tree provides food, fuel, cosmetics, folk medicine and building materials, among many other uses. The inner flesh of
4323-458: Is a set of organisms adapted to a particular set of resources, called a niche, in the environment. According to this concept, populations form the discrete phenetic clusters that we recognise as species because the ecological and evolutionary processes controlling how resources are divided up tend to produce those clusters. A genetic species as defined by Robert Baker and Robert Bradley is a set of genetically isolated interbreeding populations. This
4454-509: Is also cited as evidence that the plant originated in the region. For example, the Polynesian and Melanesian term niu ; Tagalog and Chamorro term niyog ; and the Malay word nyiur or nyior . Other evidence for a Central Indo-Pacific origin is the native range of the coconut crab ; and the higher amounts of C. nucifera -specific insect pests in the region (90%) in comparison to
4585-562: Is also often stated that coconuts can travel 110 days, or 5,000 km (3,000 mi), by sea and still be able to germinate. This figure has been questioned based on the extremely small sample size that forms the basis of the paper that makes this claim. Thor Heyerdahl provides an alternative, and much shorter, estimate based on his first-hand experience crossing the Pacific Ocean on the raft Kon-Tiki : The nuts we had in baskets on deck remained edible and capable of germinating
4716-414: Is between 8 and 8.7 million. About 14% of these had been described by 2011. All species (except viruses ) are given a two-part name , called a "binomial". The first part of a binomial is the genus to which the species belongs. The second part is called the specific name or the specific epithet (in botanical nomenclature , also sometimes in zoological nomenclature ). For example, Boa constrictor
4847-414: Is called speciation . Charles Darwin was the first to describe the role of natural selection in speciation in his 1859 book The Origin of Species . Speciation depends on a measure of reproductive isolation , a reduced gene flow. This occurs most easily in allopatric speciation, where populations are separated geographically and can diverge gradually as mutations accumulate. Reproductive isolation
4978-421: Is consistently warm and humid. Coconut palms require warm conditions for successful growth, and are intolerant of cold weather. Some seasonal variation is tolerated, with good growth where mean summer temperatures are between 28 and 37 °C (82 and 99 °F), and survival as long as winter temperatures are above 4–12 °C (39–54 °F); they will survive brief drops to 0 °C (32 °F). Severe frost
5109-403: Is described formally, in a publication that assigns it a unique scientific name. The description typically provides means for identifying the new species, which may not be based solely on morphology (see cryptic species ), differentiating it from other previously described and related or confusable species and provides a validly published name (in botany) or an available name (in zoology) when
5240-632: Is further strengthened by other similar botanical evidence of contact, like the pre-colonial presence of sweet potato in Oceanian cultures. During the colonial era , Pacific coconuts were further introduced to Mexico from the Spanish East Indies via the Manila galleons . In contrast to the Pacific coconuts, Indo-Atlantic coconuts were largely spread by Arab and Persian traders into
5371-671: Is further weakened by the existence of microspecies , groups of organisms, including many plants, with very little genetic variability, usually forming species aggregates . For example, the dandelion Taraxacum officinale and the blackberry Rubus fruticosus are aggregates with many microspecies—perhaps 400 in the case of the blackberry and over 200 in the dandelion, complicated by hybridisation , apomixis and polyploidy , making gene flow between populations difficult to determine, and their taxonomy debatable. Species complexes occur in insects such as Heliconius butterflies, vertebrates such as Hypsiboas treefrogs, and fungi such as
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5502-726: Is hard or even impossible to test. Later biologists have tried to refine Mayr's definition with the recognition and cohesion concepts, among others. Many of the concepts are quite similar or overlap, so they are not easy to count: the biologist R. L. Mayden recorded about 24 concepts, and the philosopher of science John Wilkins counted 26. Wilkins further grouped the species concepts into seven basic kinds of concepts: (1) agamospecies for asexual organisms (2) biospecies for reproductively isolated sexual organisms (3) ecospecies based on ecological niches (4) evolutionary species based on lineage (5) genetic species based on gene pool (6) morphospecies based on form or phenotype and (7) taxonomic species,
5633-617: Is highly tolerant of salinity . It prefers areas with abundant sunlight and regular rainfall (1,500–2,500 mm [59–98 in] annually), which makes colonizing shorelines of the tropics relatively straightforward. Coconuts also need high humidity (at least 70–80%) for optimum growth, which is why they are rarely seen in areas with low humidity. However, they can be found in humid areas with low annual precipitation such as in Karachi , Pakistan , which receives only about 250 mm ( 9 + 3 ⁄ 4 in) of rainfall per year, but
5764-587: Is more typical. Plants are intolerant to cold and prefer copious precipitation and full sunlight. Many insect pests and diseases affect the species and are a nuisance for commercial production. In 2022, about 73% of the world's supply of coconuts was produced by Indonesia , India , and the Philippines . Cocos nucifera is a large palm, growing up to 30 metres (100 feet) tall, with pinnate leaves 4–6 m (13–20 ft) long, and pinnae 60–90 centimetres (2–3 ft) long; old leaves break away cleanly, leaving
5895-403: Is no easy way to tell whether related geographic or temporal forms belong to the same or different species. Species gaps can be verified only locally and at a point of time. One is forced to admit that Darwin's insight is correct: any local reality or integrity of species is greatly reduced over large geographic ranges and time periods. The botanist Brent Mishler argued that the species concept
6026-467: Is not thought to be indigenous to South America, and the highest genetic diversity is present in Asian Cocos , indicating that at least the modern species Cocos nucifera is native to there . In addition, fossils of potential Cocos ancestors have been recovered from both Colombia and India. In order to resolve this enigma, a 2014 study proposed that the ancestors of Cocos had likely originated on
6157-478: Is not valid, notably because gene flux decreases gradually rather than in discrete steps, which hampers objective delimitation of species. Indeed, complex and unstable patterns of gene flux have been observed in cichlid teleosts of the East African Great Lakes . Wilkins argued that "if we were being true to evolution and the consequent phylogenetic approach to taxa, we should replace it with
6288-400: Is one of the species of the genus Boa , with constrictor being the species' epithet. While the definitions given above may seem adequate at first glance, when looked at more closely they represent problematic species concepts. For example, the boundaries between closely related species become unclear with hybridisation , in a species complex of hundreds of similar microspecies , and in
6419-586: Is similar to Mayr's Biological Species Concept, but stresses genetic rather than reproductive isolation. In the 21st century, a genetic species could be established by comparing DNA sequences. Earlier, other methods were available, such as comparing karyotypes (sets of chromosomes ) and allozymes ( enzyme variants). An evolutionarily significant unit (ESU) or "wildlife species" is a population of organisms considered distinct for purposes of conservation. In palaeontology , with only comparative anatomy (morphology) and histology from fossils as evidence,
6550-700: Is the Pacific coconut from the Philippines. This, together with their use of the South American sweet potato , suggests that Austronesian peoples may have sailed as far east as the Americas. In the Hawaiian Islands , the coconut is regarded as a Polynesian introduction , first brought to the islands by early Polynesian voyagers (also Austronesians) from their homelands in the southern islands of Polynesia. Specimens have been collected from
6681-434: Is the basic unit of classification and a taxonomic rank of an organism, as well as a unit of biodiversity . Other ways of defining species include their karyotype , DNA sequence, morphology , behaviour, or ecological niche . In addition, paleontologists use the concept of the chronospecies since fossil reproduction cannot be examined. The most recent rigorous estimate for the total number of species of eukaryotes
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#17327867475176812-594: Is threatened by hybridisation, but this can be selected against once a pair of populations have incompatible alleles of the same gene, as described in the Bateson–Dobzhansky–Muller model . A different mechanism, phyletic speciation, involves one lineage gradually changing over time into a new and distinct form (a chronospecies ), without increasing the number of resultant species. Horizontal gene transfer between organisms of different species, either through hybridisation , antigenic shift , or reassortment ,
6943-790: Is used in rituals of Hinduism . It forms the basis of wedding and worship rituals in Hinduism. It also plays a central role in the Coconut Religion founded in 1963 in Vietnam . Coconuts were first domesticated by the Austronesian peoples in Island Southeast Asia and were spread during the Neolithic via their seaborne migrations as far east as the Pacific Islands , and as far west as Madagascar and
7074-465: Is usually fatal, although they have been known to recover from temperatures of −4 °C (25 °F). Due to this, there are not many coconut palms in California . They may grow but not fruit properly in areas with insufficient warmth or sunlight, such as Bermuda . The conditions required for coconut trees to grow without any care are: The main limiting factor for most locations which satisfy
7205-612: The Americas during the colonial era in the Columbian exchange , but there is evidence of a possible pre-Columbian introduction of Pacific coconuts to Panama by Austronesian sailors. The evolutionary origin of the coconut is under dispute, with theories stating that it may have evolved in Asia , South America, or Pacific islands. Trees can grow up to 30 metres (100 feet) tall and can yield up to 75 fruits per year, though fewer than 30
7336-689: The Caribbean coast of what is now Colombia, and during the Eocene the ancestral Cocos performed a long-distance dispersal across the Atlantic Ocean to North Africa . From here, island-hopping via coral atolls lining the Tethys Sea , potentially boosted by ocean currents at the time, would have proved crucial to dispersal, eventually allowing ancestral coconuts to reach India. The study contended that an adaptation to coral atolls would explain
7467-657: The Comoros . They played a critical role in the long sea voyages of Austronesians by providing a portable source of food and water, as well as providing building materials for Austronesian outrigger boats . Coconuts were also later spread in historic times along the coasts of the Indian and Atlantic Oceans by South Asian , Arab , and European sailors. Based on these separate introductions, coconut populations can still be divided into Pacific coconuts and Indo-Atlantic coconuts, respectively. Coconuts were introduced by Europeans to
7598-518: The East African coast. Indo-Atlantic coconuts were also introduced into the Atlantic Ocean by Portuguese ships from their colonies in coastal India and Sri Lanka ; first introduced to coastal West Africa , then onwards into the Caribbean and the east coast of Brazil . All of these introductions are within the last few centuries, relatively recent in comparison to the spread of Pacific coconuts. The coconut palm thrives on sandy soils and
7729-535: The Holocene . But research on them is still ongoing to determine their phylogenetic affinities. Endt & Hayward (1997) have noted their resemblance to members of the South American genus Parajubaea , rather than Cocos , and propose a South American origin. Conran et al. (2015), however, suggests that their diversity in New Zealand indicate that they evolved endemically, rather than being introduced to
7860-530: The ICZN for animals and the ICN for plants, do not make rules for defining the boundaries of the species. Research can change the boundaries, also known as circumscription, based on new evidence. Species may then need to be distinguished by the boundary definitions used, and in such cases the names may be qualified with sensu stricto ("in the narrow sense") to denote usage in the exact meaning given by an author such as
7991-512: The Indian Ocean basin, resulting in limited admixture with Pacific coconuts introduced earlier to Madagascar and the Comoros via the ancient Austronesian maritime trade network . Coconuts can be broadly divided into two fruit types – the ancestral niu kafa form with a thick-husked, angular fruit, and the niu vai form with a thin-husked, spherical fruit with a higher proportion of endosperm . The terms are derived from
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#17327867475178122-553: The Maastrichtian – Danian of the early Tertiary (70 to 62 million years ago). C. binoriensis has been claimed by their authors to be the earliest known fossil of Cocos nucifera . Outside of New Zealand and India, only two other regions have reported Cocos -like fossils, namely Australia and Colombia . In Australia, a Cocos -like fossil fruit, measuring 10 cm × 9.5 cm ( 3 + 7 ⁄ 8 in × 3 + 3 ⁄ 4 in), were recovered from
8253-459: The Maypan , King , and Macapuno . These vary by the taste of the coconut water and color of the fruit, as well as other genetic factors. Botanically , the coconut fruit is a drupe , not a true nut . Like other fruits, it has three layers : the exocarp , mesocarp , and endocarp . The exocarp is the glossy outer skin, usually yellow-green to yellow-brown in color. The mesocarp is composed of
8384-564: The Pacific Region . Konan et al. , 2007 explains much resistance with a few alleles at a few microsatellites . They find that ' Vanuatu Tall ' and ' Sri-Lanka Green Dwarf ' are the most resistant while ' West African Tall ' breeds are especially susceptible. Species A species ( pl. : species) is a population of organisms in which any two individuals of the appropriate sexes or mating types can produce fertile offspring , typically by sexual reproduction . It
8515-410: The Samoan language and was adopted into scientific usage by Harries (1978). The niu kafa form is the wild ancestral type, with thick husks to protect the seed, an angular, highly ridged shape to promote buoyancy during ocean dispersal, and a pointed base that allowed fruits to dig into the sand, preventing them from being washed away during germination on a new island. It is the dominant form in
8646-399: The fly agaric . Natural hybridisation presents a challenge to the concept of a reproductively isolated species, as fertile hybrids permit gene flow between two populations. For example, the carrion crow Corvus corone and the hooded crow Corvus cornix appear and are classified as separate species, yet they can hybridise where their geographical ranges overlap. A ring species is
8777-507: The jaguar ( Panthera onca ) of Latin America or the leopard ( Panthera pardus ) of Africa and Asia. In contrast, the scientific names of species are chosen to be unique and universal (except for some inter-code homonyms ); they are in two parts used together : the genus as in Puma , and the specific epithet as in concolor . A species is given a taxonomic name when a type specimen
8908-572: The trunk smooth. On fertile soil, a tall coconut palm tree can yield up to 75 fruits per year, but more often yields less than 30. Given proper care and growing conditions, coconut palms produce their first fruit in six to ten years, taking 15 to 20 years to reach peak production. True-to-type dwarf varieties of Pacific coconuts have been cultivated by the Austronesian peoples since ancient times. These varieties were selected for slower growth, sweeter coconut water, and often brightly colored fruits. Many modern varieties are also grown, including
9039-469: The "Compact Dwarfs"). Although it shares similar characteristics to dwarf coconuts (including slow growth), it is genetically distinct and is thus believed to be independently domesticated, likely in Tonga . Other cultivars of niu leka may also exist in other islands of the Pacific, and some are probably descendants of advanced crosses between Compact Dwarfs and Southeast Asian Dwarf types. Coconut fruit in
9170-751: The "Tall" (var. typica ) and "Dwarf" (var. nana ) varieties. The two groups are genetically distinct, with the dwarf variety showing a greater degree of artificial selection for ornamental traits and for early germination and fruiting. The tall variety is outcrossing while dwarf palms are self-pollinating , which has led to a much greater degree of genetic diversity within the tall group. The dwarf coconut cultivars are fully domesticated, in contrast to tall cultivars which display greater diversity in terms of domestication (and lack thereof). The fact that all dwarf coconuts share three genetic markers out of thirteen (which are only present at low frequencies in tall cultivars) makes it likely that they all originate from
9301-406: The "cynical species concept", and arguing that far from being cynical, it usefully leads to an empirical taxonomy for any given group, based on taxonomists' experience. Other biologists have gone further and argued that we should abandon species entirely, and refer to the "Least Inclusive Taxonomic Units" (LITUs), a view that would be coherent with current evolutionary theory. The species concept
9432-531: The 17th century use the name as well. He consulted the catalogue Herbarium Amboinense by Georg Eberhard Rumphius where Rumphius said that coccus was a homonym of coccum and coccus from Greek κόκκος kokkos meaning "grain" or "berry", but Romans identified coccus with " kermes insects "; Rumphius preferred the word cocus as a replacement. However, the word cocus could also mean "cook" like coquus in Latin, so Linnaeus chose Cocos directly from
9563-516: The Americas (20%), and Africa (4%). A study in 2011 identified two highly genetically differentiated subpopulations of coconuts, one originating from Island Southeast Asia (the Pacific group) and the other from the southern margins of the Indian subcontinent (the Indo-Atlantic group). The Pacific group is the only one to display clear genetic and phenotypic indications that they were domesticated; including dwarf habit, self-pollination, and
9694-421: The Americas. They are now almost ubiquitous between 26° N and 26° S except for the interiors of Africa and South America. The 2014 coral atoll origin hypothesis proposed that the coconut had dispersed in an island hopping fashion using the small, sometimes transient, coral atolls. It noted that by using these small atolls, the species could easily island-hop. Over the course of evolutionary time-scales
9825-517: The Chinchilla Sand Formation dated to the latest Pliocene or basal Pleistocene . Rigby (1995) assigned them to modern Cocos nucifera based on its size. In Colombia, a single Cocos -like fruit was recovered from the middle to late Paleocene Cerrejón Formation . The fruit, however, was compacted in the fossilization process and it was not possible to determine if it had the diagnostic three pores that characterize members of
9956-678: The Indo-Atlantic coconuts. However, they may have also been partially selected for thicker husks for coir production, which was also important in Austronesian material culture as a source for cordage in building houses and boats. The niu vai form is the domesticated form dominant in Pacific coconuts. They were selected for by the Austronesian peoples for their larger endosperm-to-husk ratio as well as higher coconut water content, making them more useful as food and water reserves for sea voyages. The decreased buoyancy and increased fragility of this spherical, thin-husked fruit would not matter for
10087-445: The Pacific Ocean and that they could not have dispersed worldwide without human agency. More recently, genomic analysis of cultivated coconut ( C. nucifera L.) has shed light on the movement. However, admixture , the transfer of genetic material, evidently occurred between the two populations. Given that coconuts are ideally suited for inter-island group ocean dispersal, obviously some natural distribution did take place. However,
10218-549: The Pacific unaided. If they were naturally distributed and had been in the Pacific for a thousand years or so, then we would expect the eastern shore of Australia, with its own islands sheltered by the Great Barrier Reef , to have been thick with coconut palms: the currents were directly into, and down along this coast. However, both James Cook and William Bligh (put adrift after the Bounty mutiny ) found no sign of
10349-604: The Portuguese word coco instead. The specific name nucifera is derived from the Latin words nux (nut) and fera (bearing), for 'nut-bearing'. Coconuts have a nearly cosmopolitan distribution due to human cultivation and dispersal. However, their original distribution was in the Central Indo-Pacific , in the regions of Maritime Southeast Asia and Melanesia . Modern genetic studies have identified
10480-590: The Second World War, clothes of Philippine presidents, butterfly collections, up to Jose Rizal 's letters in his slumbook. In 1987, the extensive collection was moved and showcased in the church of the plantation. A trip to the museum is a must for Philippine history enthusiasts and is included with the admission. Labasin Lake is the narrow lake or reservoir created by the Labasin hydroelectric dam. One of
10611-623: The Taiwanese Austronesian languages makes it likely that the Austronesian coconut culture developed only after Austronesians started colonizing the Philippine islands . The importance of the coconut in Austronesian cultures is evidenced by shared terminology of even very specific parts and uses of coconuts, which were carried outwards from the Philippines during the Austronesian migrations. Indo-Atlantic type coconuts were also later spread by Arab and South Asian traders along
10742-405: The abbreviation "sp." in the singular or "spp." (standing for species pluralis , Latin for "multiple species") in the plural in place of the specific name or epithet (e.g. Canis sp.). This commonly occurs when authors are confident that some individuals belong to a particular genus but are not sure to which exact species they belong, as is common in paleontology . Authors may also use "spp." as
10873-417: The amenities provided by the resort to visitors is rafting and native bamboo rafts are available and are included with the day tour. Some accommodations made with native materials are beautifully set protruding by the lake. 13°59′42.48″N 121°20′31.53″E / 13.9951333°N 121.3420917°E / 13.9951333; 121.3420917 Coconut The coconut tree ( Cocos nucifera )
11004-570: The amount of hybridisation is insufficient to completely mix their respective gene pools . A further development of the recognition concept is provided by the biosemiotic concept of species. In microbiology , genes can move freely even between distantly related bacteria, possibly extending to the whole bacterial domain. As a rule of thumb, microbiologists have assumed that members of Bacteria or Archaea with 16S ribosomal RNA gene sequences more similar than 97% to each other need to be checked by DNA–DNA hybridisation to decide if they belong to
11135-399: The ancestral traits of tall habits and elongated triangular fruits. The coconut played a critical role in the migrations of the Austronesian peoples. They provided a portable source of both food and water, allowing Austronesians to survive long sea voyages to colonize new islands as well as establish long-range trade routes. Based on linguistic evidence, the absence of words for coconut in
11266-474: The biological species concept, "the several versions" of the phylogenetic species concept, and the idea that species are of the same kind as higher taxa are not suitable for biodiversity studies (with the intention of estimating the number of species accurately). They further suggested that the concept works for both asexual and sexually-reproducing species. A version of the concept is Kevin de Queiroz 's "General Lineage Concept of Species". An ecological species
11397-505: The biological species concept, a cladistic species does not rely on reproductive isolation – its criteria are independent of processes that are integral in other concepts. Therefore, it applies to asexual lineages. However, it does not always provide clear cut and intuitively satisfying boundaries between taxa, and may require multiple sources of evidence, such as more than one polymorphic locus, to give plausible results. An evolutionary species, suggested by George Gaylord Simpson in 1951,
11528-414: The center of origin of coconuts as being the Central Indo-Pacific , the region between western Southeast Asia and Melanesia , where it shows greatest genetic diversity. Their cultivation and spread was closely tied to the early migrations of the Austronesian peoples who carried coconuts as canoe plants to the islands they settled. The similarities of the local names in the Austronesian region
11659-514: The coconut shell that resemble facial features. Coco and coconut apparently came from 1521 encounters by Portuguese and Spanish explorers with Pacific Islanders , with the coconut shell reminding them of a ghost or witch in Portuguese folklore called coco (also côca ). In the West it was originally called nux indica , a name used by Marco Polo in 1280 while in Sumatra . He took
11790-490: The coconuts in the Americas are genetically closest related to the coconuts in the Philippines , and not to any other nearby coconut populations (including Polynesia ). Such an origin indicates that the coconuts were not introduced naturally, such as by sea currents. The researchers concluded that it was brought by early Austronesian sailors to the Americas from at least 2,250 BP, and may be proof of pre-Columbian contact between Austronesian cultures and South American cultures. It
11921-433: The concept of a chronospecies can be applied. During anagenesis (evolution, not necessarily involving branching), some palaeontologists seek to identify a sequence of species, each one derived from the phyletically extinct one before through continuous, slow and more or less uniform change. In such a time sequence, some palaeontologists assess how much change is required for a morphologically distinct form to be considered
12052-568: The early domestication of Pacific coconuts by the Austronesian peoples in maritime Southeast Asia during the Austronesian expansion (c. 3000 to 1500 BCE). Although archaeological remains dating to 1000 to 500 BCE also suggest that the Indo-Atlantic coconuts were also later independently cultivated by the Dravidian peoples , only Pacific coconuts show clear signs of domestication traits like dwarf habits, self-pollination, and rounded fruits. Indo-Atlantic coconuts, in contrast, all have
12183-404: The edible solid endosperm (the "coconut meat" or "coconut flesh") which hardens over time. The small cylindrical embryo is embedded in the solid endosperm directly below the functional pore of the endosperm. During germination, the embryo pushes out of the functional pore and forms a haustorium (the coconut sprout ) inside the central cavity. The haustorium absorbs the solid endosperm to nourish
12314-412: The endocarp is hollow and is lined with a thin brown seed coat around 0.2 mm ( 1 ⁄ 64 in) thick. The endocarp is initially filled with a multinucleate liquid endosperm (the coconut water ). As development continues, cellular layers of endosperm deposit along the walls of the endocarp up to 11 mm ( 3 ⁄ 8 in) thick, starting at the distal end. They eventually form
12445-435: The evidence to support hypotheses about evolutionarily divergent lineages that have maintained their hereditary integrity through time and space. Molecular markers may be used to determine diagnostic genetic differences in the nuclear or mitochondrial DNA of various species. For example, in a study done on fungi , studying the nucleotide characters using cladistic species produced the most accurate results in recognising
12576-460: The flesh, charcoal from the hard shell, and coir from the fibrous husk . Dried coconut flesh is called copra , and the oil and milk derived from it are commonly used in cooking – frying in particular – as well as in soaps and cosmetics . Sweet coconut sap can be made into drinks or fermented into palm wine or coconut vinegar . The hard shells, fibrous husks and long pinnate leaves can be used as material to make
12707-470: The flowing calf-deep water. Later attractions include an authentic live cultural dance show choreographed by National Artist Ramon Obusan , performed with live music. The resort has since expanded, offering accommodations, more restaurants, sports facilities, and a conference center. In 2008, 415 hectares (1,030 acres), more than half of the estate, was converted into an exclusive residential development called Hacienda Escudero . The Escuderos have been
12838-660: The islands by long-distance dispersal. In west-central India, numerous fossils of Cocos -like fruits, leaves, and stems have been recovered from the Deccan Traps . They include morphotaxa like Palmoxylon sundaran , Palmoxylon insignae , and Palmocarpon cocoides . Cocos -like fossils of fruits include Cocos intertrappeansis , Cocos pantii , and Cocos sahnii . They also include fossil fruits that have been tentatively identified as modern Cocos nucifera . These include two specimens named Cocos palaeonucifera and Cocos binoriensis , both dated by their authors to
12969-458: The locations of the admixture events are limited to Madagascar and coastal east Africa, and exclude the Seychelles . This pattern coincides with the known trade routes of Austronesian sailors. Additionally, a genetically distinct subpopulation of coconut on the Pacific coast of Latin America has undergone a genetic bottleneck resulting from a founder effect ; however, its ancestral population
13100-407: The mature seed, as well as the coconut milk extracted from it, forms a regular part of the diets of many people in the tropics and subtropics . Coconuts are distinct from other fruits because their endosperm contains a large quantity of an almost clear liquid, called " coconut water " or "coconut juice". Mature, ripe coconuts can be used as edible seeds, or processed for oil and plant milk from
13231-483: The numerous fungi species of all the concepts studied. Versions of the phylogenetic species concept that emphasise monophyly or diagnosability may lead to splitting of existing species, for example in Bovidae , by recognising old subspecies as species, despite the fact that there are no reproductive barriers, and populations may intergrade morphologically. Others have called this approach taxonomic inflation , diluting
13362-562: The nuts along this 2,000 km (1,200 mi) stretch when he needed water for his crew. Nor were there coconuts on the east side of the African coast until Vasco da Gama , nor in the Caribbean when first visited by Christopher Columbus . They were commonly carried by Spanish ships as a source of fresh water. These provide substantial circumstantial evidence that deliberate Austronesian voyagers were involved in carrying coconuts across
13493-528: The original coloration of the fruit is more aesthetically pleasing. Whole mature coconuts (11 to 13 months from flowering) sold for export, however, typically have the husk removed to reduce weight and volume for transport. This results in the naked coconut "shell" with three pores more familiar in countries where coconuts are not grown locally. De-husked coconuts typically weigh around 750 to 850 grams (1 lb 10 oz to 1 lb 14 oz). De-husked coconuts are also easier for consumers to open, but have
13624-536: The palm (vivipary) was important. Coconuts today can be grouped into two highly genetically distinct subpopulations: the Indo-Atlantic group originating from southern India and nearby regions (including Sri Lanka , the Laccadives , and the Maldives ); and the Pacific group originating from the region between maritime Southeast Asia and Melanesia . Linguistic, archaeological, and genetic evidence all point to
13755-593: The paper is accepted for publication. The type material is usually held in a permanent repository, often the research collection of a major museum or university, that allows independent verification and the means to compare specimens. Describers of new species are asked to choose names that, in the words of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature , are "appropriate, compact, euphonious, memorable, and do not cause offence". Books and articles sometimes intentionally do not identify species fully, using
13886-674: The person who named the species, while the antonym sensu lato ("in the broad sense") denotes a wider usage, for instance including other subspecies. Other abbreviations such as "auct." ("author"), and qualifiers such as "non" ("not") may be used to further clarify the sense in which the specified authors delineated or described the species. Species are subject to change, whether by evolving into new species, exchanging genes with other species, merging with other species or by becoming extinct. The evolutionary process by which biological populations of sexually-reproducing organisms evolve to become distinct or reproductively isolated as species
14017-455: The plant near the surface. Only a few of the roots penetrate deep into the soil for stability. This type of root system is known as fibrous or adventitious, and is a characteristic of grass species. Other types of large trees produce a single downward-growing tap root with a number of feeder roots growing from it. 2,000–4,000 adventitious roots may grow, each about 1 cm ( 1 ⁄ 2 in) large. Decayed roots are replaced regularly as
14148-420: The prehistoric and modern distributions of Cocos , would have provided the necessary evolutionary pressures, and would account for morphological factors such as a thick husk to protect against ocean degradation and provide a moist medium in which to germinate on sparse atolls. The name coconut is derived from the 16th-century Portuguese word coco , meaning 'head' or 'skull' after the three indentations on
14279-434: The rainfall and temperature requirements is canopy growth, except those locations near coastlines, where the sandy soil and salt spray limit the growth of most other trees. Wild coconuts are naturally restricted to coastal areas in sandy, saline soils. The fruit is adapted for ocean dispersal. Coconuts could not reach inland locations without human intervention (to carry seednuts, plant seedlings, etc.) and early germination on
14410-487: The result of misclassification leading to questions on whether there really are any ring species. The commonly used names for kinds of organisms are often ambiguous: "cat" could mean the domestic cat, Felis catus , or the cat family, Felidae . Another problem with common names is that they often vary from place to place, so that puma, cougar, catamount, panther, painter and mountain lion all mean Puma concolor in various parts of America, while "panther" may also mean
14541-586: The ring. Ring species thus present a difficulty for any species concept that relies on reproductive isolation. However, ring species are at best rare. Proposed examples include the herring gull – lesser black-backed gull complex around the North pole, the Ensatina eschscholtzii group of 19 populations of salamanders in America, and the greenish warbler in Asia, but many so-called ring species have turned out to be
14672-493: The round " niu vai " fruit morphology with larger endosperm-to-husk ratios. The distribution of the Pacific coconuts correspond to regions settled by Austronesian voyagers indicating that its spread was largely the result of human introductions. It is most strikingly displayed in Madagascar , an island settled by Austronesian sailors at around 2000 to 1500 BP . The coconut populations on the island show genetic admixture between
14803-508: The same species. This concept was narrowed in 2006 to a similarity of 98.7%. The average nucleotide identity (ANI) method quantifies genetic distance between entire genomes , using regions of about 10,000 base pairs . With enough data from genomes of one genus, algorithms can be used to categorize species, as for Pseudomonas avellanae in 2013, and for all sequenced bacteria and archaea since 2020. Observed ANI values among sequences appear to have an "ANI gap" at 85–95%, suggesting that
14934-529: The same species. When two species names are discovered to apply to the same species, the older species name is given priority and usually retained, and the newer name considered as a junior synonym, a process called synonymy . Dividing a taxon into multiple, often new, taxa is called splitting . Taxonomists are often referred to as "lumpers" or "splitters" by their colleagues, depending on their personal approach to recognising differences or commonalities between organisms. The circumscription of taxa, considered
15065-457: The sea as far north as Norway (but it is not known where they entered the water). They have been found in the Caribbean and the Atlantic coasts of Africa and South America for less than 500 years (the Caribbean native inhabitants do not have a dialect term for them, but use the Portuguese name), but evidence of their presence on the Pacific coast of South America antedates Columbus's arrival in
15196-431: The seedling. Coconut fruits have two distinctive forms depending on § domestication . Wild coconuts feature an elongated triangular fruit with a thicker husk and a smaller amount of endosperm. These allow the fruits to be more buoyant and make it easier for them to lodge into sandy shorelines, making their shape ideal for ocean dispersal. Domesticated Pacific coconuts, on the other hand, are rounded in shape with
15327-458: The shifting atolls would have shortened the paths of colonization, meaning that any one coconut would not have to travel very far to find new land. Coconuts are susceptible to the phytoplasma disease, lethal yellowing . One recently selected cultivar , the 'Maypan' , has been bred for resistance to this disease. Yellowing diseases affect plantations in Africa, India, Mexico, the Caribbean and
15458-506: The species concept and making taxonomy unstable. Yet others defend this approach, considering "taxonomic inflation" pejorative and labelling the opposing view as "taxonomic conservatism"; claiming it is politically expedient to split species and recognise smaller populations at the species level, because this means they can more easily be included as endangered in the IUCN red list and can attract conservation legislation and funding. Unlike
15589-576: The term from the Arabs, who called it جوز هندي jawz hindī , translating to 'Indian nut'. Thenga , its Tamil / Malayalam name, was used in the detailed description of coconut found in Itinerario by Ludovico di Varthema published in 1510 and also in the later Hortus Indicus Malabaricus . Carl Linnaeus first wanted to name the coconut genus Coccus from latinizing the Portuguese word coco , because he saw works by other botanists in middle of
15720-485: The theoretical difficulties. If species were fixed and clearly distinct from one another, there would be no problem, but evolutionary processes cause species to change. This obliges taxonomists to decide, for example, when enough change has occurred to declare that a lineage should be divided into multiple chronospecies , or when populations have diverged to have enough distinct character states to be described as cladistic species. Species and higher taxa were seen from
15851-877: The time of Aristotle until the 18th century as categories that could be arranged in a hierarchy, the great chain of being . In the 19th century, biologists grasped that species could evolve given sufficient time. Charles Darwin 's 1859 book On the Origin of Species explained how species could arise by natural selection . That understanding was greatly extended in the 20th century through genetics and population ecology . Genetic variability arises from mutations and recombination , while organisms themselves are mobile, leading to geographical isolation and genetic drift with varying selection pressures . Genes can sometimes be exchanged between species by horizontal gene transfer ; new species can arise rapidly through hybridisation and polyploidy ; and species may become extinct for
15982-551: The tree grows new ones. The palm produces both the female and male flowers on the same inflorescence ; thus, the palm is monoecious . However, there is some evidence that it may be polygamomonoecious and may occasionally have bisexual flowers. The female flower is much larger than the male flower. Flowering occurs continuously. Coconut palms are believed to be largely cross- pollinated , although most dwarf varieties are self-pollinating. The evolutionary history and fossil distribution of Cocos nucifera and other members of
16113-716: The tribe Cocoseae is more ambiguous than modern-day dispersal and distribution, with its ultimate origin and pre-human dispersal still unclear. There are currently two major viewpoints on the origins of the genus Cocos , one in the Indo-Pacific, and another in South America. The vast majority of Cocos -like fossils have been recovered generally from only two regions in the world: New Zealand and west-central India . However, like most palm fossils, Cocos -like fossils are still putative, as they are usually difficult to identify. The earliest Cocos -like fossil to be found
16244-484: The tribe Cocoseae . Nevertheless, Gomez-Navarro et al. (2009), assigned it to Cocos based on the size and the ridged shape of the fruit. Further complicating measures to determine the evolutionary history of Cocos is the genetic diversity present within C. nucifera as well as its relatedness to other palms. Phylogenetic evidence supports the closest relatives of Cocos being either Syagrus or Attalea , both of which are found in South America. However, Cocos
16375-476: The two subpopulations indicating that Pacific coconuts were first brought by the Austronesian settlers, which then interbred with the later Indo-Atlantic coconuts brought by Europeans from India. Genetic studies of coconuts have also confirmed pre-Columbian populations of coconuts in Panama . However, it is not native and displays a genetic bottleneck resulting from a founder effect . A study in 2008 showed that
16506-545: The whole way to Polynesia . But we had laid about half among the special provisions below deck, with the waves washing around them. Every single one of these was ruined by the sea water. And no coconut can float over the sea faster than a balsa raft moves with the wind behind it. He also notes that several of the nuts began to germinate by the time they had been ten weeks at sea, precluding an unassisted journey of 100 days or more. Drift models based on wind and ocean currents have shown that coconuts could not have drifted across
16637-422: The wild is light, buoyant, and highly water resistant. It is claimed that they evolved to disperse significant distances via marine currents . However, it can also be argued that the placement of the vulnerable eye of the nut (down when floating), and the site of the coir cushion are better positioned to ensure that the water-filled nut does not fracture when dropping on rocky ground, rather than for flotation. It
16768-540: The wild. It is difficult to define a species in a way that applies to all organisms. The debate about species concepts is called the species problem. The problem was recognised even in 1859, when Darwin wrote in On the Origin of Species : I was much struck how entirely vague and arbitrary is the distinction between species and varieties. He went on to write: No one definition has satisfied all naturalists; yet every naturalist knows vaguely what he means when he speaks of
16899-460: Was Cocos zeylandica , a fossil species described as small fruits, around 3.5 cm ( 1 + 1 ⁄ 2 in) × 1.3 to 2.5 cm ( 1 ⁄ 2 to 1 in) in size, recovered from the Miocene (~23 to 5.3 million years ago) of New Zealand in 1926. Since then, numerous other fossils of similar fruits were recovered throughout New Zealand from the Eocene , Oligocene , and possibly
17030-602: Was founded in 1872 by Don Plácido Escudero and his wife, Doña Claudia Marasigan. Originally a sugar cane plantation, the crop was converted to coconut by their son, Don Arsenio Escudero, in the early 1900s. A pioneering agriculture industrialist , he built the country’s first working hydroelectric plant Labasin Dam to supply his desiccated coconut factory and the Escudero Plantation house, which he and his wife, Doña Rosario Adap, built in 1929. The plantation
17161-479: Was opened to the public in 1981 as a tourist attraction offering glimpses of plantation life. The family's eclectic private collection formed a museum. Carabao cart ride takes visitors to the resort area, surrounded by a park-like setting while being serenaded by locals. Dining is offered in a unique al fresco restaurant where the dining tables are situated below the spillway of the hydroelectric dam (the Labasin waterfalls) while diners enjoy their lunch dipped in
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