Young Turks victory
129-858: The Young Turk Revolution (July 1908; Turkish : Jön Türk Devrimi ) was a constitutionalist revolution in the Ottoman Empire . Revolutionaries belonging to the Internal Committee of Union and Progress , an organization of the Young Turks movement, forced Sultan Abdul Hamid II to restore the Constitution , recall the parliament , and schedule an election . Thus began the Second Constitutional Era . The revolution took place in Ottoman Rumeli in
258-656: A League of Nation's mandate . Grand vizier Damat Ferid Pasha eventually outmaneuvered him, taking away his position. He defected to Mustafa Kemal (Atatürk) Pasha 's movement and went to Paris on 22 June 1919. He was instrumental in the negotiations between France and the Grand National Assembly government which led to the end of the Franco-Turkish War . He returned to the Turkish Republic in 1926. After retiring from public life at
387-484: A parliament . However, with the unsuccessful war with Russia which ended in 1878, he suspended enforcement of the constitution and prorogued parliament. After further consolidating his rule he governed as an absolutist monarch for the next three decades. This left a very small group of individuals able to partake in politics in the Ottoman Empire. Countering the conservative politics of Abdul Hamid II 's reign
516-586: A consolidation of itself in order to define its ideology. Those intellectual Unionists that spent years in exile, such as Ahmed Rıza, would be sidelined in favor of the new professional organizers, Mehmed Talât , Doctor Nazım , and Bahaeddin Şakir . The organization's home being Rumeli, delegations were sent to local chapters in Asia and Tripolitania to more firmly attach them to the organizations new headquarters in Salonica . The CUP would dominate Ottoman politics for
645-511: A degree in agricultural engineering. While in Paris he discovered the positivist ideas of Auguste Comte and Jean-François Robinet . Returning to the Ottoman Empire, Ahmed Rıza tried to use his degree and the latest technology to establish an enterprise. However it failed, and he blamed its demise on the backward peasants. He worked in the Ministry of Education with the intention of educating
774-470: A final embrace of love between the simple peoples of Turkey before they should be led to exterminate each other for the political advantage of foreign powers or their own leaders Halide Edip Two European powers took advantage of the chaos by decreasing Ottoman sovereignty in the Balkans. Bulgaria , de jure an Ottoman vassal but de facto all but formally independent, declared its independence on
903-475: A form of consonant mutation whereby a voiced obstruent, such as /b d dʒ ɡ/ , is devoiced to [p t tʃ k] at the end of a word or before a consonant, but retains its voicing before a vowel. In loan words, the voiced equivalent of /k/ is /g/; in native words, it is /ğ/. This is analogous to languages such as German and Russian , but in the case of Turkish it only applies, as the above examples demonstrate, to stops and affricates, not to fricatives. The spelling
1032-634: A government, they imposed their ideas on the Ottoman Empire. The CUP had Said Pasha removed from the premiership in less than two weeks for Kâmil Pasha . His quest to revive the Sublime Porte of the Tanzimat proved fruitless when CUP soon censored him with a no-confidence vote in parliament, thus he was replaced by Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha who was more in-line with the committee's ways. Abdul Hamid maintained his throne by conceding its existence as
1161-516: A large collection of loanwords from Arabic and Persian . Turkish literature during the Ottoman period, particularly Divan poetry , was heavily influenced by Persian, including the adoption of poetic meters and a great quantity of imported words. The literary and official language during the Ottoman Empire period ( c. 1299 –1922) is termed Ottoman Turkish , which was a mixture of Turkish, Persian, and Arabic that differed considerably and
1290-469: A leading intellectual, voicing his concern that Turkish language has "already started to take over the national and natural dialects of Azerbaijan". However, the presence of Turkish as foreign language is not as high as Russian. In Uzbekistan, the second most populated Turkic country, a new TV channel Foreign Languages TV was established in 2022. This channel has been broadcasting Turkish lessons along with English, French, German and Russian lessons. Turkish
1419-584: A multitude of Turkish companies and authorities investing there, while the influence of Turkey in the country is very high. The rising presence of this very similar language in Azerbaijan and the fact that many children use Turkish words instead of Azerbaijani words due to satellite TV has caused concern that the distinctive features of the language will be eroded. Many bookstores sell books in Turkish language along Azerbaijani language ones, with Agalar Mahmadov,
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#17327652829631548-415: A negative suffix -me to the verb (the suffix comes after the stem but before the tense): Necla okula gitmedi ('Necla did not go to school'). In the case of a verbal sentence, an interrogative clitic mi is added after the verb and stands alone, for example Necla okula gitti mi? ('Did Necla go to school?'). In the case of a nominal sentence, then mi comes after the predicate but before
1677-595: A new found faith in Ottomanism was found in the various millets . Violence in Macedonia ceased as rebels turned in their arms and celebrated with citizens. An area from Scutari to Basra was now acquainted with political parties, nationalist clubs, elections, constitutional rights, and civil rights. The revolution and CUP's work greatly impacted Muslims in other countries. The Persian community in Istanbul founded
1806-671: A relationship with the Bashkimi Society . The CUP always held a close relationship with the non-Muslim groups of the Vlachs , their Christianity being an important propaganda asset, and the Jews . According to Ismail Enver the CUP set the date for their revolution to be sometime in August 1908, though a spontaneous one happened before August anyway. The event that triggered the revolution
1935-648: A rift with the conservative Young Turks which united around Mizancı Murat . Most frustrating of all for the Unionists was Rıza staunch opposition to revolution. In a congress held in December 1896, Murad Bey was elected as the head of the CUP, replacing Ahmed Rıza Bey. During the Greco-Turkish War , Ahmed Rıza was expelled from the CUP after he refused to pull an article he published in Meşveret in support of
2064-725: A statesman and Senator . Ahmet's grandfather was the Minister of Agriculture and Mint, also named Ali Rıza. Ahmet's great-grandfather was Kemankeş Efendi, Sultan Selim III 's Sır Kâtibi (Secret Secretary); His father was Sıddık Molla, a kadı that served in Egypt . Ahmet's father was nicknamed İngiliz ("Englishman") because of his command of the English language and admiration of the British Empire . His mother, Fräulein Turban,
2193-613: A strong T–V distinction which distinguishes varying levels of politeness, social distance , age, courtesy or familiarity toward the addressee. The plural second-person pronoun and verb forms are used referring to a single person out of respect. Turkish is a member of the Oghuz group of the Turkic family. Other members include Azerbaijani , spoken in Azerbaijan and north-west Iran , Gagauz of Gagauzia , Qashqai of south Iran and
2322-626: A symbolic position, but in April 1909 attempted to seize power (see 31 March Incident ) by stirring populist sentiment throughout the Empire. The Sultan's bid for a return to power gained traction when he promised to restore the caliphate , eliminate secular policies, and restore the Sharia -based legal system. On 13 April 1909, army units revolted, joined by masses of theological students and turbaned clerics shouting, "We want Sharia", and moving to restore
2451-472: A translator in the French judicial system. At Sorbonne University , he continued taking courses on positivism, as taught by the mathematician Pierre Laffitte . He was influenced by Laffitte's thoughts about Islam and Eastern civilization in particular. Laffitte believed that Islam was the most advanced religion, so it was easy for Muslims to embrace positivism. Ahmet Rıza became one of the most active members of
2580-654: A vast geographical region stretching from Siberia all the way to Europe and the Mediterranean . The Seljuqs of the Oghuz Turks , in particular, brought their language, Oghuz —the direct ancestor of today's Turkish language—into Anatolia during the 11th century. Also during the 11th century, an early linguist of the Turkic languages, Mahmud al-Kashgari from the Kara-Khanid Khanate , published
2709-407: A verb in the form of the copula ol or y (variants of "be"). Examples of both are given below: The two groups of sentences have different ways of forming negation. A nominal sentence can be negated with the addition of the word değil . For example, the sentence above would become Necla öğretmen değil ('Necla is not a teacher'). However, the verbal sentence requires the addition of
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#17327652829632838-575: Is also not legal to classify the goods mentioned by the law as abandoned goods because the Armenian owners of these goods did not abandon them willingly, they were exiled, expelled forcefully." Noting that such confiscation was contrary to the Ottoman Constitution , he added: "Strong-arm me, expel me from my village, then sell my property: this is never lawful. No Ottoman conscience or law can ever accept this." As an educator, he enacted
2967-531: Is based on the dialect of Istanbul . This Istanbul Turkish ( İstanbul Türkçesi ) constitutes the model of written and spoken Turkish, as recommended by Ziya Gökalp , Ömer Seyfettin and others. Dialectal variation persists, in spite of the levelling influence of the standard used in mass media and in the Turkish education system since the 1930s. Academic researchers from Turkey often refer to Turkish dialects as ağız or şive , leading to an ambiguity with
3096-468: Is now used to mean " script " in computer science . Some examples of modern Turkish words and the old loanwords are: Turkish is natively spoken by the Turkish people in Turkey and by the Turkish diaspora in some 30 other countries. The Turkish language is mutually intelligible with Azerbaijani . In particular, Turkish-speaking minorities exist in countries that formerly (in whole or part) belonged to
3225-696: Is the official language of Turkey and is one of the official languages of Cyprus . Turkish has official status in 38 municipalities in Kosovo , including Mamusha, , two in the Republic of North Macedonia and in Kirkuk Governorate in Iraq. Cyprus has requested the European Union to add Turkish as an official language, as it is one of the two official languages of the country. In Turkey,
3354-642: Is usually made to match the sound. However, in a few cases, such as ad 'name' (dative ada ), the underlying form is retained in the spelling (cf. at 'horse', dative ata ). Other exceptions are od 'fire' vs. ot 'herb', sac 'sheet metal', saç 'hair'. Most loanwords, such as kitap above, are spelled as pronounced, but a few such as hac 'hajj', şad 'happy', and yad 'strange' or 'stranger' also show their underlying forms. Native nouns of two or more syllables that end in /k/ in dictionary form are nearly all /ğ/ in underlying form. However, most verbs and monosyllabic nouns are underlyingly /k/. The vowels of
3483-431: Is usually referred to as yumuşak g ("soft g"), written ⟨ğ⟩ in Turkish orthography , represents a vowel sequence or a rather weak bilabial approximant between rounded vowels, a weak palatal approximant between unrounded front vowels, and a vowel sequence elsewhere. It never occurs at the beginning of a word or a syllable, but always follows a vowel. When word-final or preceding another consonant, it lengthens
3612-524: The Meşveret , the first official publication of the society, where he was exiled. In addition to his work as an opposition leader, Rıza was doubled as a positivist ideologue. Following the 1908 revolution he was proclaimed as the "Father of Liberty" and became the first President of the revived Chamber of Deputies , the lower house of the Ottoman Parliament . By 1910 he distanced himself from
3741-415: The 31 March incident in favor of Abdul Hamid the following year, he was deposed and his half-brother Mehmed V ascended the throne. Sultan Abdul Hamid II was brought to the throne in August 1876 after a series of palace coups by constitutionalist ministers overthrew first his uncle Abdul Aziz , and then his half-brother Murad V . Under duress, he promulgated a constitution and held elections for
3870-713: The Aegean region, with its usage extending to Antalya . The nomadic Yörüks of the Mediterranean Region of Turkey also have their own dialect of Turkish. This group is not to be confused with the Yuruk nomads of Macedonia, Greece, and European Turkey, who speak Balkan Gagauz Turkish . The Meskhetian Turks who live in Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan and Russia as well as in several Central Asian countries, also speak an Eastern Anatolian dialect of Turkish, originating in
3999-480: The Committee of Ottoman Union in 1892. It is thought that he made suggestions to the first draft program of the society. When the leading members of Ottoman Union were arrested and released a short time later that year, many of them fled to Paris. In 1894, these émigrés , especially Mehmet Nazım , suggested that he join the society, Rıza accepted but suggested that the name of the society be changed. His suggestion
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4128-804: The Cretan Rebellion . Rıza had to relocate again when the Belgian government banned Meşveret and deported him in 1898, much to the Belgian Parliament 's dismay. Ahmed Rıza gave up publishing the paper in Turkish, instead continuing its existence in French. He was accused of atheism by conservative Young Turks and supporters of Abdul Hamid II. By 1899, the Ottoman government clamped opposition even tighter. More Unionists were arrested in Istanbul and Mizancı Murad and his friends returned to Istanbul for amnesty. What consoled Rıza during this time
4257-540: The Goudi Coup , bringing Eleftherios Venizelos to power. In the 2010 alternate history novel Behemoth by Scott Westerfeld , the Young Turk Revolution in 1908 fails, igniting a new revolution at the start of World War I. Historian Ronald Grigor Suny states that the revolution had no popular support and was actually "a coup d'état by a small group of military officers and civilian activists in
4386-641: The Ilinden–Preobrazhenie Uprising in 1903, the Ottoman Empire capitulated to international pressure to implement reforms in Macedonia under Great Power supervision, offending Muslims living in Macedonia and especially army officers. In 1905, another intervention by the Great Powers for reform in Macedonia was greeted with dread amongst the Muslim population. Throughout this period, the Ottoman Empire's weak economy and Abdul Hamid's distrust of
4515-576: The Iranian Union and Progress Committee . The leaders of the Young Bukhara movement were deeply influenced by the Young Turk Revolution and saw it as an example to emulate. Indian Muslims imitated the CUP oath administered to recruits of the organization. Discontent in the Greek military saw a secret revolutionary organization explicitly modeled from the CUP which overthrew the government in
4644-816: The Jewish Social Democratic Labour Party in Palestine (Poale Zion) , Al-Fatat , and Armenians organized under the Armenakan , the Hunchaks and the Dashnaks . The 1908 Ottoman general election took place during November and December 1908. Due to its leading role in the revolution, the CUP won almost every seat in the Chamber of Deputies . The large parliamentary group and the then lax laws on party affiliation eventually whittled
4773-623: The Laz language ). Kastamonu is spoken in Kastamonu and its surrounding areas. Karamanli Turkish is spoken in Greece, where it is called Kαραμανλήδικα . It is the literary standard for the Karamanlides . At least one source claims Turkish consonants are laryngeally-specified three-way fortis-lenis (aspirated/neutral/voiced) like Armenian, although only syllable-finally. The phoneme that
4902-773: The Ottoman Empire , such as Iraq, Bulgaria, Cyprus , Greece (primarily in Western Thrace ), the Republic of North Macedonia , Romania, and Serbia. More than two million Turkish speakers live in Germany; and there are significant Turkish-speaking communities in the United States, France, the Netherlands, Austria, Belgium, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom. Due to the cultural assimilation of Turkish immigrants in host countries, not all ethnic members of
5031-526: The Senate and prosecuted his former Unionist comrades. After a falling out with Damat Ferid Pasha he once again went to France, where he supported Mustafa Kemal Pasha (Atatürk) 's Nationalists. He returned to Turkey after the signing of the Treaty of Lausanne . Ahmet Rıza was born in Istanbul in 1858 to a family that was in public service for generations. He was the son of Ali Rıza Bey [ tr ]
5160-538: The Serbian Chetniks , but did reach out to the Greek bands for support. Using more sticks than carrots, the CUP walked away with a tenuous declaration of neutrality from the Greeks. The most resources were invested in attaining Albanian support. Albanian feudal lords and notables enjoyed CUP patronage. While the Unionists were less successful in recruiting bourgeois nationalists to their cause they did cultivate
5289-556: The Société Positiviste , and in 1905 he appeared as a "representative of Muslim communities" in the Comité Positif Occidental , an organization established to spread positivism internationally. During his first years in Paris, he attempted to respond to various newspapers and magazines which were writing unfavorably about the Ottoman Empire. In 1891, the Ottoman government ordered Rıza to return to
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5418-464: The South Caucasus , and some parts of Central Asia , Iraq , and Syria . Turkish is the 18th most spoken language in the world. To the west, the influence of Ottoman Turkish —the variety of the Turkish language that was used as the administrative and literary language of the Ottoman Empire —spread as the Ottoman Empire expanded. In 1928, as one of Atatürk's reforms in the early years of
5547-558: The Sublime Porte's Translation Office for a while. With the dissolution of the Ottoman Parliament , Ahmet's father was exiled to Konya . While accompanying his father to his exile, he saw the poor conditions of the peasants. The journey made Rıza concerned of their well being and he wished to introduce them to modern cultivation methods, which led him to study agriculture in France. In 1884 he graduated from Grignon University with
5676-417: The Third Army based in Salonika were motivated by the fear of a partition of Ottoman Macedonia. A desire to preserve the state, not destroy it, motivated the revolutionaries. Following the 1902 Congress of Ottoman Opposition, Ahmed Rıza's Unionists abandoned political evolution and formed a coalition with the Activists, which were political revolutionaries. With the fall of Prince Sabahaddin, Rıza's coalition
5805-422: The Trabzon region of northeastern Turkey follows the reduced vowel harmony of Old Anatolian Turkish , with the additional complication of two missing vowels (ü and ı), thus there is no palatal harmony . It is likely that elün meant "your hand" in Old Anatolian. While the 2nd person singular possessive would vary between back and front vowel, -ün or -un, as in elün for "your hand" and kitabun for "your book",
5934-424: The Turkmen of Turkmenistan . Historically the Turkic family was seen as a branch of the larger Altaic family, including Japanese , Korean , Mongolian and Tungusic , with various other language families proposed for inclusion by linguists. Altaic theory has fallen out of favour since the 1960s, and a majority of linguists now consider Turkic languages to be unrelated to any other language family, though
6063-407: The 5th of October. The day after, Austria-Hungary officially annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina which used to be de jure Ottoman territory but de facto occupied by Austria-Hungary. The fall of Abdul Hamid II foiled the rapprochement between Serbia and Montenegro and the Ottoman Empire which set the stage for their alliance with Bulgaria and Greece in the Balkan Wars . Following the revolution
6192-466: The Altaic hypothesis still has a small degree of support from individual linguists. The nineteenth-century Ural-Altaic theory, which grouped Turkish with Finnish , Hungarian and Altaic languages, is considered even less plausible in light of Altaic's rejection. The theory was based mostly on the fact these languages share three features: agglutination , vowel harmony and lack of grammatical gender. The earliest known Old Turkic inscriptions are
6321-400: The Armenian delegates, and the "non-interventionists", who were supporters of Ahmed Rıza, who remained in the minority. Rıza was also opposed to any autonomous status for the Armenian-populated eastern provinces . After the congress, Rıza and his supporters founded the Committee of Progress and Union, while Prince Sabahattin founded the Ottoman Freedom-Lover's Committee. The CPU soon established
6450-622: The Balkans". Hanioğlu states the revolution a watershed moment in the late Ottoman Emire but it was not a popular constitutional movement. Turkish language Turkish ( Türkçe [ˈtyɾctʃe] , Türk dili ; also known as Türkiye Türkçesi 'Turkish of Turkey' ) is the most widely spoken of the Turkic languages , with around 90 million speakers. It is the national language of Turkey and one of two official languages of Cyprus . Significant smaller groups of Turkish speakers also exist in Germany , Austria , Bulgaria , North Macedonia , Greece , other parts of Europe ,
6579-423: The CUP as it turned more radical and authoritarian. In 1912, he was appointed as a Senator . He was the leading negotiator during the failed talks for a military alliance between the Ottoman Empire, France , and Britain for World War I . During the war, he was one of the only politicians who opposed and condemned the Armenian genocide while it was ongoing. In the Armistice Era he was appointed as president of
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#17327652829636708-402: The CUP. In the CUP's December 1907 Congress, Rıza, Sabahaddin, and Khachatur Malumian of the Dashnak Committee pledged to overthrow the regime by all means necessary. In practice, this was a tactile alliance between the CUP and Dashnaks which was unpopular in both camps, and the Dashnaks did not play a significant role in the coming revolution. In the lead up to the revolution the CUP courted
6837-535: The Empire) and Afghanistan . It was rumored that in this latest meeting another reform package would be imposed on the Ottoman Empire which would formally partition Macedonia. With the newspaper reports of the meeting, the CUP's Monastir ( Bitola ) branch decided to act. A memorandum was drawn up by Unionists that was distributed to the European consuls which rejected foreign intervention and nationalist activism. They also called for constitutional government and equality amongst Ottoman citizens. With no action taken by
6966-488: The Empire, with attendants shouting Egalité! Liberté! Justice! Fraternité! Vive la constitution! and Padişahım çok yaşa! (Long live my emperor). Armed bands of Serbian, Bulgarian, and Greek chetas , one time enemies of each other and the government, took part in celebrations before ceremoniously turning in their firearms to the government. Niyazi, Enver, and the other Unionist revolutionaries were celebrated as "heroes of liberty", and Ahmed Rıza, returning from his exile
7095-455: The Empire. Most of the Young Turks were exiled intelligentsia, however by 1906–1908 many officers and bureaucrats in the Balkans were inducted into the Committee of Union and Progress , the preeminent Young Turk organization. While the Young Turks were in consensus that some reform was necessary for Ottomanism , the idea of national unity among the ethnic groups of the Ottoman Empire, they disagreed how far reform should go. The anti-Hamidians in
7224-514: The Great Powers or the government, the revolt began in earnest in the first week of July 1908. On July 3 Major Ahmed Niyazi began the revolution by raiding the Resne ( Resen ) garrison cache of money, arms, and ammunition and assembled a force of 160 volunteers to the mountains surrounding the city. From there he visited many villages around the predominantly Muslim Albanian area to recruit for his band and warn of impending European intervention and Christian supremacy in Macedonia. Niyazi would highlight
7353-505: The Hamidian system. The Dashnaks , previously leading a guerilla resistance in the Eastern Anatolian countryside, became the main representatives of the Armenian community in the Ottoman Empire, replacing the urban centered pre-1908 Armenian amira class, which had been composed of merchants, artisans, and clerics. The Armenian National Assembly used the moment to oust Patriarch Malachia Ormanian for Matthew II Izmirlian . This served to elevate younger Armenian nationalists, overthrowing
7482-409: The Latin alphabet for speakers of eastern dialects. Some immigrants to Turkey from Rumelia speak Rumelian Turkish , which includes the distinct dialects of Ludogorie , Dinler, and Adakale, which show the influence of the theorized Balkan sprachbund . Kıbrıs Türkçesi is the name for Cypriot Turkish and is spoken by the Turkish Cypriots . Edirne is the dialect of Edirne . Ege is spoken in
7611-567: The Latin script, encoded for many of the dialectal variations between Turkish dialects, the modern Latin script fails to do this. Examples of this are the presence of the nasal velar sound [ŋ] in certain eastern dialects of Turkish which was represented by the Ottoman letter /ڭ/ but that was merged into /n/ in the Latin script. Additionally are letters such as /خ/, /ق/, /غ/ which make the sounds [ɣ], [q], and [x], respectively in certain eastern dialects but that are merged into [g], [k], and [h] in western dialects and are therefore defectively represented in
7740-413: The Ottoman Empire that joined the CUP were conservative liberal, imperialist, technocratists. To what extent they could have achieved praxis was dubious, as Ahmet Rıza , the exiled CUP leader, initially denounced revolution. Some Young Turks wished for a federation of nations under an Ottoman monarch, as exemplified in Prince Sabahaddin 's movement, though after his failed coup attempt in 1903 his faction
7869-399: The Ottoman Empire: they believed in liberalism and decentralization. At the invitation of Prince Sabahattin and his brother, the First Congress of Ottoman Opposition was convened in Paris in February 1902. At the congress, two groups emerged which were divided on the question of foreign intervention to assist in overthrowing the regime: the "interventionists", consisting of Prince Sabahattin and
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#17327652829637998-452: The Ottoman military, but the terrible conditions of their service deeply affected morale for the worse. Mektebli officers, graduates of the modern military schools, were bottlenecked for promotion, as senior alaylı officers didn't trust their loyalties. Those stationed in Macedonia were outraged against the sultan, and believed the only way to save Ottoman presence in the region to join revolutionary secret societies. Many Unionist officers of
8127-440: The Ottoman-Islamic philosophic tradition. Rıza also published a series of articles advocating for constitutionalism for the Ottoman Empire, which he justified through the Islamic tradition of consultation . He also contributed for Ali Şefkati's [ tr ] İstikbal during this time. Rıza was horrified by the Hamidian massacres , which he blamed on the sultan and condemned as contrary to "the traditions of Islam and
8256-417: The Republic of Turkey, the Perso-Arabic script -based Ottoman Turkish alphabet was replaced with the Latin script -based Turkish alphabet . Some distinctive characteristics of the Turkish language are vowel harmony and extensive agglutination . The basic word order of Turkish is subject–object–verb . Turkish has no noun classes or grammatical gender . The language makes usage of honorifics and has
8385-438: The SOV structure has diminished relevance and may vary. The SOV structure may thus be considered a "pragmatic word order" of language, one that does not rely on word order for grammatical purposes. Consider the following simple sentence which demonstrates that the focus in Turkish is on the element that immediately precedes the verb: Ahmet Ahmet yumurta-yı Ahmet R%C4%B1za Ahmed Rıza (1858 – 26 February 1930)
8514-405: The Sultan's absolute power. The CUP once again assembled a force in Macedonia to march on the capital and restored parliamentary rule after crushing the uprising on 24 April 1909. The deposition of Abdul Hamid II in favor of Mehmed V followed, and the palace ceased to be a significant player in Ottoman politics. These developments caused the gradual creation of a new governing elite. No longer
8643-412: The TDK is occasionally criticized for coining words which sound contrived and artificial. Some earlier changes—such as bölem to replace fırka , "political party"—also failed to meet with popular approval ( fırka has been replaced by the French loanword parti ). Some words restored from Old Turkic have taken on specialized meanings; for example betik (originally meaning "book")
8772-539: The Turkish language are, in their alphabetical order, ⟨a⟩ , ⟨e⟩ , ⟨ı⟩ , ⟨i⟩ , ⟨o⟩ , ⟨ö⟩ , ⟨u⟩ , ⟨ü⟩ . The Turkish vowel system can be considered as being three-dimensional, where vowels are characterised by how and where they are articulated focusing on three key features: front and back , rounded and unrounded and vowel height . Vowels are classified [±back], [±round] and [±high]. The only diphthongs in
8901-551: The Unionist's organization, intrigues within the military, discontent with Abdul Hamid's autocratic rule, and a desire for the Constitution meant the sultan and his ministers were compelled to capitulate. Under pressure of being deposed, on the night of 23–24 July 1908, Abdul Hamid II issued the İrade-i Hürriyet , reinstating the Constitution and calling an election to great jubilation. Celebrations were held intercommunally, as Muslims and Christians attended celebrations together in both churches and mosques. Parades were held throughout
9030-418: The Young Turks lead to disagreements on what liberty meant. Among these the CUP and the Liberty Party and later on Freedom and Accord Party , were the major ones. There were smaller parties such as Ottoman Socialist Party and the Democratic Party . On the other end of the spectrum were the ethnic parties which included the People's Federative Party (Bulgarian Section) , the Bulgarian Constitutional Clubs ,
9159-437: The adoption of the new Turkish alphabet in 1928, shaped the modern Turkish language spoken today. The TDK became an independent body in 1951, with the lifting of the requirement that it should be presided over by the Minister of Education. This status continued until August 1983, when it was again made into a governmental body in the constitution of 1982 , following the military coup d'état of 1980 . Modern standard Turkish
9288-538: The areas of Kars, Ardahan, and Artvin and sharing similarities with Azerbaijani , the language of Azerbaijan. The Central Anatolia Region speaks Orta Anadolu . Karadeniz , spoken in the Eastern Black Sea Region and represented primarily by the Trabzon dialect, exhibits substratum influence from Greek in phonology and syntax ; it is also known as Laz dialect (not to be confused with
9417-458: The benefits of a constitutional regime. Discouraged after his sixth petition, he began writing articles in the French newsletter La Jeune Turquie published by Khalil Ghanim , and also published the reform program he had previously presented to Abdul Hamid in the form of a pamphlet under the name Lâyiha ve Mektub ( Petition and Letter ) in London. Rıza started corresponding with the members of
9546-579: The burgeoning world of party politics. Political clubs, committees, and parties were now the main actors in politics. Though these non-Turkish nationalists cooperated with the Young Turks against the sultan, they would turn on each other during the Second Constitutional Era over the question of Ottomanism, and ultimately autonomy and separatism. The memory is so intense that to this day, I cannot think of it unmoved. I think of it as
9675-714: The citizens. That day Grand Vizier Mehmed Ferid Pasha was sacked for Said Pasha . Elsewhere, Hayri Pasha, field marshal of the Third Army , was threatened by the committee into a passive cooperation. At this point, the mutiny which originated in the Third Army in Salonica took hold of the Second Army based in Adrianople ( Edirne ) as well as Anatolian troops sent from Smyrna ( Izmir ). The rapid momentum of
9804-528: The congress, supporters of revolution managed to sway Rıza, and the delegates pledged to insight a revolution by all means necessary, including terrorism. In Paris, he played no significant role in the events of the Young Turk Revolution . After the declaration of the Constitution , Rıza returned to Istanbul on September 25, 1908 where he was welcomed with the "Father of Liberty" ( ebü-l ahrar , hürriyetçilerin babası ). He held an audience with
9933-702: The constitution would bring about equality between Christians and Muslims, and was able to recruit Bulgarians into his force. Other Unionists, following Niyazi's example, took to the mountains of Macedonia: Ismail Enver Bey in Tikveş , Eyub Sabri in Ohri ( Ohrid ), Bekir Fikri in Grebene ( Grevena ), and Salahaddin Bey and Hasan Bey in Kırçova ( Kičevo ). In each post office the rebels came across, they transmitted their demands to
10062-499: The constitutional regime established after the revolution eventually succumbed to Unionist dictatorship by 1913, the Ottoman sultanate ceased to be the base of power of the empire after 1908. Immediately after the revolution, Bulgaria declared independence from the Ottoman Empire and Austria-Hungary's annexation of nominal Ottoman territory sparked the Bosnian Crisis . After an attempted monarchist counterrevolution known as
10191-677: The context of the Macedonian Struggle and the increasing instability of the Hamidian regime. It began with CUP member Ahmed Niyazi 's flight into the Albanian highlands. He was soon joined by İsmail Enver , Eyub Sabri , and other Unionist officers. They networked with local Albanians and utilized their connections within the Salonica based Third Army to instigate a large revolt. A string of assassinations by Unionist Fedai also contributed to Abdul Hamid's capitulation. Though
10320-572: The delegation into a smaller and more cohesive group of 60 MPs. The Senate of the Ottoman Empire reconvened for the first time in over 30 years on 17 December 1908 with the living members like Hasan Fehmi Pasha from the First Constitutional Era . While the Young Turk Revolution had promised organizational improvement, once instituted, the government at first proved itself rather disorganized and ineffectual. Although these working-class citizens had little knowledge of how to control
10449-506: The diaspora speak the language with native fluency. In 2005, 93% of the population of Turkey were native speakers of Turkish, about 67 million at the time, with Kurdish languages making up most of the remainder. Azerbaijani language , official in Azerbaijan, is mutually intelligible with Turkish and speakers of both languages can understand them without noticeable difficulty, especially when discussion comes on ordinary, daily language. Turkey has very good relations with Azerbaijan, with
10578-532: The dissolution of the parliament in January 1912, and was appointed as a Senator by the sultan on 18 April 1912. During this period, he harshly criticized the Unionists. After the 1913 coup by the CUP, he completely fell out with the Unionists. In 1915, Rıza was one of the only Ottoman politicians who condemned the Armenian genocide . About a law to confiscate Armenian property , he stated in parliament: "It
10707-543: The empire due to the "liberal" language he used in a conference about Ottoman women, but he did not comply. He wrote a letter to the Ministry of Post and Telegraphs in Istanbul, stating that he was not a member of a secret society and that when it was necessary to defend the interests and rights of the country and nation, he could do so through articles he published in Parisian newspapers. In 1893, Ahmed Rıza sent multiple petitions to Sultan Abdul Hamid II where he outlined
10836-618: The events, Minister of Justice Mustafa Nazım Pasha was mistaken for the president and lynched. Rıza resigned upon the request of the Grand Vizier in the atmosphere of rebellion and escaped from the parliament as rebels stormed the building while in session. He hid under German protection in a Baghdad Railway Company building in the city. Rıza returned to his job when the Action Army arrived in Ayastefanos to restore order. He
10965-574: The first comprehensive Turkic language dictionary and map of the geographical distribution of Turkic speakers in the Dīwān Lughāt al-Turk ( ديوان لغات الترك ). Following the adoption of Islam around the year 950 by the Kara-Khanid Khanate and the Seljuq Turks , who are both regarded as the ethnic and cultural ancestors of the Ottomans , the administrative language of these states acquired
11094-412: The formal style of Ottoman Turkish that had been common at the time amongst statesmen and the educated strata of society in the setting of formal speeches and documents. After the language reform, the Turkish education system discontinued the teaching of literary form of Ottoman Turkish and the speaking and writing ability of society atrophied to the point that, in later years, Turkish society would perceive
11223-494: The foundation of the modern state of Turkey and the script reform , the Turkish Language Association (TDK) was established in 1932 under the patronage of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk , with the aim of conducting research on Turkish. One of the tasks of the newly established association was to initiate a language reform to replace loanwords of Arabic and Persian origin with Turkish equivalents. By banning
11352-475: The government in Constantinople ( Istanbul ): reinstate the constitution and reconvene the parliament otherwise the rebels would march on the capital. On 7 July, Şemsi Pasha arrived at Monastir. Abdul Hamid II dispatched him from Mitroviçe ( Mitrovica ) with two battalions to suppress the revolt in Macedonia. An ethnic Albanian, he also recruited a pro-government band of Albanians on the way. He informed
11481-408: The government's (not the sultan) weakness and corruption as the reason for this crisis, and that a constitutional framework would deliver the systematic reform necessary to negate Western intervention. Niyazi's Muslim Albanian heritage worked to his advantage in this propaganda campaign which also involved settling clan rivalries. When touring Christian Bulgarian and Serbian villages, he highlighted that
11610-682: The inauguration of the second high school for girls in Turkey, the Kandilli High School for Girls in 1916 in Istanbul (it was intended to be the first, but the outbreak of World War I delayed the execution of the project). During the armistice period, Sultan Mehmed VI Vahdettin appointed Ahmed Rıza as president of the Ottoman Senate, during which he informed the American diplomats of the Ottoman government 's opposition to
11739-473: The lack of ü vowel in the Trabzon dialect means -un would be used in both of these cases — elun and kitabun . With the exceptions stated below, Turkish words are oxytone (accented on the last syllable). Turkish has two groups of sentences: verbal and nominal sentences. In the case of a verbal sentence, the predicate is a finite verb, while the predicate in nominal sentence will have either no overt verb or
11868-466: The language are found in loanwords and may be categorised as falling diphthongs usually analyzed as a sequence of /j/ and a vowel. The principle of vowel harmony, which permeates Turkish word-formation and suffixation, is due to the natural human tendency towards economy of muscular effort. This principle is expressed in Turkish through three rules: The second and third rules minimize muscular effort during speech. More specifically, they are related to
11997-515: The language on the inscriptions was the Old Turkic language written using the Old Turkic alphabet , which has also been referred to as "Turkic runes" or "runiform" due to a superficial similarity to the Germanic runic alphabets . With the Turkic expansion during Early Middle Ages ( c. 6th –11th centuries), peoples speaking Turkic languages spread across Central Asia , covering
12126-525: The linguistic concept of accent , which is also covered with these words. Several universities, as well as a dedicated work-group of the Turkish Language Association, carry out projects investigating Turkish dialects. As of 2002 work continued on the compilation and publication of their research as a comprehensive dialect- atlas of the Turkish language. Although the Ottoman alphabet, being slightly more phonetically ambiguous than
12255-590: The magazine Şûrâ-yı Ümmet , based in Cairo, which Rıza contributed to. Rıza's CPU was strengthened with a new circle of sympathizers inside the Ottoman Empire which organized around the Ottoman Freedom Society . Founded by a group of officers and civil servants from Salonica in 1906, the group merged with the CPU in 1907. That year, a Second Congress of Ottoman Opposition was held in on 29 December. At
12384-589: The many ethnic committee of the volatile melting pot that was Macedonia. With the conclusion of the IMRO 's left-wing congress in May–June 1908, the CUP reached a deal for the left's support and neutrality from their right, but the Macedonian-Bulgarian committee's disunity and their late decision also meant no joint operations between the two groups during the revolution. The Unionists did not seriously court
12513-463: The military meant the army was in constant pay arrears. The Sultan was weary of having the army train with live ammunition anyway, lest an uprising against the order occurred. This sentiment especially applied to the Ottoman navy ; once the third largest fleet in 19th century Europe, it was rotting away locked inside the Golden Horn . The defense of their empire was a matter of great honor within
12642-422: The next ten years, save for brief interruption from 1912 to 1913. 5 of these years would be a dictatorship established in the aftermath of the 1913 coup and Mahmud Shevket Pasha 's assassination, during which they drove the empire to fight alongside Germany during World War I and commit genocide against Ottoman Christians . The revolution also served as a downfall for the non-Muslim elites which benefited from
12771-623: The next year . In 1908, workers began to strike in the capital, which kept the authorities on edge. There were also rumors that the Sultan was in poor health on the eve of the revolution. Starting in the 1890s, chronic intercommunal violence took hold of Ottoman Macedonia in what came known as the Macedonian struggle , as well as in Eastern Anatolia. Terrorist attacks by national liberation groups were regular occurrences. In response to
12900-410: The palace of his arrival in the city at the local telegraph station, and as he walked out of the building he was assassinated by a Unionist fedai , Âtıf Kamçıl . His Albanian bodyguards and the pasha's aide de camp , who was his son, were also CUP members. Tatar Osman Pasha, Şemsi's replacement, was captured soon after. On July 22, Monastir fell to the rebels, and Niyazi proclaimed the constitution to
13029-565: The peasants. In 1887 he resigned as director of education in Bursa . Being pessimistic about reform he decided to go back to France. In 1889 Rıza returned to Paris. Two theories explain Rıza's flight: one was that he gave a pretext of participating in the exhibition organized for the centenary of the French Revolution , another indicated he simply escaped to Paris. In Paris, Rıza worked as
13158-489: The personal ending, so for example Necla, siz öğretmen misiniz ? ('Necla, are you [formal, plural] a teacher?'). Word order in simple Turkish sentences is generally subject–object–verb , as in Korean and Latin , but unlike English, for verbal sentences and subject-predicate for nominal sentences. However, as Turkish possesses a case-marking system, and most grammatical relations are shown using morphological markers, often
13287-435: The phenomenon of labial assimilation: if the lips are rounded (a process that requires muscular effort) for the first vowel they may stay rounded for subsequent vowels. If they are unrounded for the first vowel, the speaker does not make the additional muscular effort to round them subsequently. Grammatical affixes have "a chameleon-like quality", and obey one of the following patterns of vowel harmony: Practically,
13416-638: The preceding vowel. In native Turkic words, the sounds [c] , [ɟ] , and [l] are mainly in complementary distribution with [k] , [ɡ] , and [ɫ] ; the former set occurs adjacent to front vowels and the latter adjacent to back vowels. The distribution of these phonemes is often unpredictable, however, in foreign borrowings and proper nouns. In such words, [c] , [ɟ] , and [l] often occur with back vowels: some examples are given below. However, there are minimal pairs that distinguish between these sounds, such as kar [kɑɾ] "snow" vs kâr [cɑɾ] "profit". Turkish orthography reflects final-obstruent devoicing ,
13545-654: The precepts of the Quran ". Throughout his exile he was constantly approached by Constantinople agents with generous offers of amnesty for his defection, which he always refused. As a result of pressure from Yıldız Palace , the French government banned the Meşveret on April 11, 1896. Rıza took his newspaper to Switzerland in May, before settling in Belgium in September 1897. Meanwhile, Ahmed Rıza's secularism and positivism caused
13674-512: The previous communal domination by pro-imperialist Armenians. The elite Bulgarian community of Istanbul were similarly displaced by a youthful nationalist-intellectual class involved with IMRO , as was the Albanian Hamidian elite. Arab and Albanian elites, which were favored under the Hamidian regime, found many privileges lost under the CUP. The revolution continued to destabilize the subservient Sharifate of Mecca as several claimed
13803-440: The principles of i-type vowel harmony in practice: Türkiye' dir ("it is Turkey"), kapı dır ("it is the door"), but gün dür ("it is the day"), palto dur ("it is the coat"). These are four word-classes that are exceptions to the rules of vowel harmony: The road sign in the photograph above illustrates several of these features: The rules of vowel harmony may vary by regional dialect. The dialect of Turkish spoken in
13932-543: The regulatory body for Turkish is the Turkish Language Association ( Türk Dil Kurumu or TDK), which was founded in 1932 under the name Türk Dili Tetkik Cemiyeti ("Society for Research on the Turkish Language"). The Turkish Language Association was influenced by the ideology of linguistic purism : indeed one of its primary tasks was the replacement of loanwords and of foreign grammatical constructions with equivalents of Turkish origin. These changes, together with
14061-428: The results of the language reform. Owing to this sudden change in the language, older and younger people in Turkey started to differ in their vocabularies. While the generations born before the 1940s tend to use the older terms of Arabic or Persian origin, the younger generations favor new expressions. It is considered particularly ironic that Atatürk himself, in his lengthy speech to the new Parliament in 1927, used
14190-507: The revolution and the 31 March Incident , the CUP's emerged victorious in a power struggle between the palace (Abdul Hamid II) and the liberated Sublime Porte . Until the December election , the CUP dominated the empire in what Şükrü Hanioğlu deemed a Comité de salut public . Following the revolution, many organizations, some of them previously underground, established political parties . The several political currents expressed amongst
14319-503: The speech to be so alien to listeners that it had to be "translated" three times into modern Turkish: first in 1963, again in 1986, and most recently in 1995. The past few decades have seen the continuing work of the TDK to coin new Turkish words to express new concepts and technologies as they enter the language, mostly from English. Many of these new words, particularly information technology terms, have received widespread acceptance. However,
14448-559: The sultan on 16 October 1908. Ahmed Rıza was inducted into the CUP's Central Committee and after being elected to the Chamber of Deputies as an MP from Istanbul, he was unanimously elected as the President of the Chamber. He was criticized by conservatives for his values. Due to his alleged atheism he was top of the hit list of rioters during the 31 March Incident . On the first day of
14577-568: The three monumental Orkhon inscriptions found in modern Mongolia . Erected in honour of the prince Kul Tigin and his brother Emperor Bilge Khagan , these date back to the Second Turkic Khaganate (dated 682–744 CE). After the discovery and excavation of these monuments and associated stone slabs by Russian archaeologists in the wider area surrounding the Orkhon Valley between 1889 and 1893, it became established that
14706-524: The title until November 1908, when the CUP recognized Hussein bin Ali Pasha as Emir. In some communities, such as the Jews (cf. Jews in Islamic Europe and North Africa and Jews in Turkey ), reformist groups emulating the Young Turks ousted the conservative ruling elite and replaced them with a new reformist one. Social institutions like notable families and houses of worship lost influence to
14835-432: The twofold pattern (also referred to as the e-type vowel harmony) means that in the environment where the vowel in the word stem is formed in the front of the mouth, the suffix will take the e-form, while if it is formed in the back it will take the a-form. The fourfold pattern (also called the i-type) accounts for rounding as well as for front/back. The following examples, based on the copula -dir ("[it] is"), illustrate
14964-410: The usage of imported words in the press, the association succeeded in removing several hundred foreign words from the language. While most of the words introduced to the language by the TDK were newly derived from Turkic roots, it also opted for reviving Old Turkish words which had not been used for centuries. In 1935, the TDK published a bilingual Ottoman-Turkish /Pure Turkish dictionary that documents
15093-618: Was a meeting in the Baltic port of Reval between Edward VII of the United Kingdom and Nicholas II of Russia on 9–12 June 1908. While " the Great Game ", had created a rivalry between the two powers, a resolution to their relationship was sought after. The Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907 brought shaky British-Russian relations to the forefront by solidifying boundaries that identified their respective control in Persia (eastern border of
15222-490: Was an Ottoman educator, activist, revolutionary, intellectual, politician, polymath, and a prominent member of the Young Turks . He was also a key early leader of the Committee of Union and Progress . During the nearly twenty years he lived in Paris, he led the Paris branch of the Committee of Ottoman Union, which would later be named the Committee of Union and Progress , and together with Doctor Nâzım Bey he founded
15351-482: Was an illegitimate sultan for giving away territories in the Berlin Treaty and for not being confrontational enough to the Great Powers. In addition to a return to rule of law instead of royal arbitrary rule, they believed that a constitution would negate any motivation for non-Muslim subjects to join nationalist separatist organizations, and therefore negate any justification by the Great Powers to intervene in
15480-701: Was born in Munich but was of Hungarian origin. She moved to Vienna, where she met İngiliz while he was on a diplomatic mission, and converted to Islam to marry him, taking the name Naile Sabıka Hanım . Ahmet's sister was Selma Rıza . Ahmet Rıza received a Western style education, having attended the Beylerbeyi Rüşdiye , thereafter the Mahrec-i Aklâm and then the Mekteb-i Sultânî (modern Galatasaray High School ). After graduation, he worked at
15609-434: Was declared "father of liberty". 24 July 1908 started the Ottoman Empire's Second Constitution Era . There after, a number of decrees are issued, which defined freedom of speech, press and organizations, the dismantlement of intelligence agencies, and a general amnesty to political prisoners. Importantly, the CUP did not overthrow the government and nominally committed itself to democratic ideals and constitutionalism. Between
15738-629: Was discredited. By the 20th century, the Hamidian system seemed bankrupt. Crop failures caused a famine in 1905, and wage hikes could not keep up with inflation. This led to civil unrest in Eastern Anatolia, which the CUP and the Dashnak Committee took advantage of. In December 1907 the government put down the Erzurum Revolt . Constitutionalist revolutions occurred in neighbors of the Ottoman Empire, in Russia in 1905 , and in Persia
15867-483: Was largely unintelligible to the period's everyday Turkish. The everyday Turkish, known as kaba Türkçe or "vulgar Turkish", spoken by the less-educated lower and also rural members of society, contained a higher percentage of native vocabulary and served as basis for the modern Turkish language. While visiting the region between Adıyaman and Adana , Evliya Çelebi recorded the "Turkman language" and compared it with his own Turkish: Reforms Kemalism After
15996-650: Was once again the leading Young Turk current. In 1907 a new anti-Hamidian secret society was founded in Salonica known as the Ottoman Freedom Committee , founded by figures which achieved prominence post-revolution: Mehmed Talaat , Bahaeddin Şakir , and Doctor Nazım . Following its merger with the CUP, the former became the Internal Headquarters of the CUP, while Rıza's Paris branch became the External Headquarters of
16125-433: Was power exercised by a small governing elite surrounding the Sultan, the Sublime Porte's independence was restored and a new young clique of bureaucrats and officers gradually took control of politics for the CUP. The parliament confirmed through popular sovereignty both old elites as well as new ones. In 1909 a purge in the army demoted many "Old Turks" while elevating "Young Turk" officers. The post-revolution CUP undertook
16254-555: Was re-elected as the parliament's president in late 1910. That year he nominated the CUP as an organization deserving of the Nobel Peace Prize for its efforts in advocating for peace in the Ottoman Empire. However, Rıza became increasingly disillusioned with the CUP for their assassinations of journalists such as Hasan Fehmi and Ahmet Samim , and he resigned from the CUP's Central Committee. He gave up his parliamentary presidency in 1911. He did not run for reelection with
16383-523: Was that the Young Turks that remained in Europe began to gather around him again. His sister Selma also joined him in Paris, making her the first female member of the society. At the end of 1899, the Young Turk movement was revived with the defections of Ismail Qemali , Damat Mahmut Pasha and his sons Prince Sabahattin and Lütfullah. However these new defectors had different ideas for the future of
16512-434: Was that the society should be called Order and Progress ( Nizam ve Terakki) , Comte's positivist motto; The society compromised by adopting the name "Union and Progress" instead. This made him leader of the Paris branch of the Committee of Union and Progress , a group that was centered around the newspaper Meşveret , a journal that he started publishing with Ghanim. There he tried to synthesize positivist doctrine within
16641-529: Was the amount of social reform that occurred during this time period. The development of educational institutions in the Ottoman Empire also established the background for political opposition. Abdul Hamid's political circle was close-knit and ever-changing. The origins of the revolution lie within the Young Turk movement , an opposition movement which wished to see Abdul Hamid II's authoritarianism regime dismantled. Being imperialists, they believed Abdul Hamid
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