Yusuf Dey (c.1560 in Tripoli – 1637 at Tunis ) was Dey of Tunis from 1610 until his death.
60-444: Son of Mustapha El Turki, an Ottoman Turkish soldier stationed at Tripoli, he took up a post in the militia of Tunis. He was recognised by Uthman Dey , who appointed him to several posts and even favoured him over his own sons. Before his death, Uthman managed to convince the divan of Tunis to name Yusuf as his successor. He also married him to his daughter. At the death of Ramadhan Bey, who had been appointed by Uthman Dey to direct
120-983: A West Germanic language spoken in the province of Limburg in the Netherlands , Belgium and neighboring regions of Germany . It is distinct from German and Dutch, but originates from areas near where both are spoken. Roughly 215 million Europeans (primarily in Southern and Western Europe) are native speakers of Romance languages , the largest groups including: French ( c. 72 million), Italian ( c. 65 million), Spanish ( c. 40 million), Romanian ( c. 24 million), Portuguese ( c. 10 million), Catalan ( c. 7 million), Sicilian ( c. 5 million, also subsumed under Italian), Venetian ( c. 4 million), Galician ( c. 2 million), Sardinian ( c. 1 million), Occitan ( c. 500,000), besides numerous smaller communities. The Romance languages evolved from varieties of Vulgar Latin spoken in
180-642: A large subfamily of Indo-European, has a relatively small number of languages in Europe, and a small number of speakers ( Romani , c. 1.5 million). However, a number of Indo-Aryan languages not native to Europe are spoken in Europe today. Of the approximately 45 million Europeans speaking non-Indo-European languages, most speak languages within either the Uralic or Turkic families. Still smaller groups — such as Basque ( language isolate ), Semitic languages ( Maltese , c. 0.5 million), and various languages of
240-578: A lingua franca to peoples in the range of the future nation until the consolidation and unification phases. If the nation becomes internationally influential, its language may become a lingua franca among nations that speak their own national languages. Europe has had no lingua franca ranging over its entire territory spoken by all or most of its populations during any historical period. Some linguae francae of past and present over some of its regions for some of its populations are: Historical attitudes towards linguistic diversity are illustrated by two French laws:
300-800: A network of Turkish souqs built around it, including the Souq Et Trouk, which was reserved for the sale of goods deriving from the activities of the corsairs and which later became the Souq of Turkish-style tailors, the Souq El-Birka, where slaves acquired from the activities of the corsairs in the Mediterranean Sea and people were bought and sold, and the Souq El-Bchamkiya, where cobblers made Turkish-style shoes called bachmaq During his tenure, he gave much attention to
360-551: A small part of central Sweden). English has a long history of contact with Scandinavian languages, given the immigration of Scandinavians early in the history of Britain, and shares various features with the Scandinavian languages. Even so, especially Dutch and Swedish, but also Danish and Norwegian, have strong vocabulary connections to the German language . Limburgish (also called Limburgan, Limburgian, or Limburgic) Is
420-442: A state level, whereas others continue to be actively suppressed. Though "there is a widespread belief—among both Deaf people and sign language linguists—that there are sign language families," the actual relationship between sign languages is difficult to ascertain. Concepts and methods used in historical linguistics to describe language families for written and spoken languages are not easily mapped onto signed languages. Some of
480-562: Is an educational standard defining "the competencies necessary for communication" and related knowledge for the benefit of educators in setting up educational programs. In a 2005 independent survey requested by the EU's Directorate-General for Education and Culture regarding the extent to which major European languages were spoken in member states. The results were published in a 2006 document, "Europeans and Their Languages", or "Eurobarometer 243". In this study, statistically relevant samples of
540-510: Is divided into three subgroups: Uralic language family is native to northern Eurasia. Finnic languages include Finnish ( c. 5 million) and Estonian ( c. 1 million), as well as smaller languages such as Kven ( c. 8,000). Other languages of the Finno-Permic branch of the family include e.g. Mari (c. 400,000), and the Sami languages ( c. 30,000). The Ugric branch of
600-603: Is intended to include any language variety with an ISO 639 code. However, it omits sign languages. Because the ISO-639-2 and ISO-639-3 codes have different definitions, this means that some communities of speakers may be listed more than once. For instance, speakers of Bavarian are listed both under "Bavarian" (ISO-639-3 code bar ) as well as under "German" (ISO-639-2 code de ). There are various definitions of Europe , which may or may not include all or parts of Turkey, Cyprus, Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia. For convenience,
660-518: Is now extinct; the only known surviving East Germanic texts are written in the Gothic language . West Germanic is divided into Anglo-Frisian (including English ), Low German , Low Franconian (including Dutch ) and High German (including Standard German ). The Anglo-Frisian language family is now mostly represented by English (Anglic) , descended from the Old English language spoken by
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#1732783739912720-791: The Italo-Dalmatian languages (sometimes grouped with Eastern Romance), including the Tuscan-derived Italian and numerous local Romance languages in Italy as well as Dalmatian , and the Western Romance languages . The Western Romance languages in turn separate into the Gallo-Romance languages , including Langues d'oïl such as French , the Francoprovencalic languages Arpitan and Faetar ,
780-528: The Anglo-Saxons : The Frisian languages are spoken by about 400,000 (as of 2015 ) Frisians , who live on the southern coast of the North Sea in the Netherlands and Germany . These languages include West Frisian , East Frisian (of which the only surviving dialect is Saterlandic ) and North Frisian . Dutch is spoken throughout the Netherlands , the northern half of Belgium , as well as
840-854: The Castilian languages . Slavic languages are spoken in large areas of Southern, Central and Eastern Europe . An estimated 315 million people speak a Slavic language, the largest groups being Russian ( c. 110 million in European Russia and adjacent parts of Eastern Europe, Russian forming the largest linguistic community in Europe), Polish ( c. 40 million ), Ukrainian ( c. 33 million ), Serbo-Croatian ( c. 18 million ), Czech ( c. 11 million ), Bulgarian ( c. 8 million ), Slovak ( c. 5 million ), Belarusian (c. 3.7 million ), Slovene ( c. 2.3 million ) and Macedonian ( c. 1.6 million ). Phylogenetically, Slavic
900-699: The Council of Europe , founded in 1949, which affirms the right of minority language speakers to use their language fully and freely. The Council of Europe is committed to protecting linguistic diversity. Currently all European countries except France , Andorra and Turkey have signed the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities , while Greece , Iceland and Luxembourg have signed it, but have not ratified it; this framework entered into force in 1998. Another European treaty,
960-546: The European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages , was adopted in 1992 under the auspices of the Council of Europe : it entered into force in 1998, and while it is legally binding for 24 countries, France , Iceland , Italy , North Macedonia , Moldova and Russia have chosen to sign without ratifying the convention. The main scripts used in Europe today are the Latin and Cyrillic . The Greek alphabet
1020-522: The House of Osman alongside the Ottoman Empire; the name " Osman " was altered to "Ottoman" when it was transliterated into some European languages over time. The Ottoman principality, expanding from Söğüt , gradually began incorporating other Turkish-speaking Muslims and non-Turkish Christians into their realm. By the 1350s, they had begun crossing into Europe and eventually came to dominate
1080-778: The Latin alphabet used in Europe: Antiqua and Fraktur . Fraktur was used most for German, Estonian, Latvian, Norwegian and Danish whereas Antiqua was used for Italian, Spanish, French, Polish, Portuguese, English, Romanian, Swedish and Finnish. The Fraktur variant was banned by Hitler in 1941, having been described as " Schwabacher Jewish letters". Other scripts have historically been in use in Europe, including Phoenician, from which modern Latin letters descend, Ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs on Egyptian artefacts traded during Antiquity, various runic systems used in Northern Europe preceding Christianisation, and Arabic during
1140-694: The Mediterranean Sea . In 1453, the fall of Constantinople , which had served as the capital city of the Byzantine Empire , enabled the Ottoman Turks to control all major land routes between Asia and Europe. This development forced Western Europeans to find other ways to trade with Asians. Following the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire , the Ottoman Turkish identity ceased to exist; the Ottoman Turkish language , which
1200-518: The Nord-Pas de Calais region of France . The traditional dialects of the Lower Rhine region of Germany are linguistically more closely related to Dutch than to modern German. In Belgian and French contexts, Dutch is sometimes referred to as Flemish . Dutch dialects are numerous and varied. German is spoken throughout Germany , Austria , Liechtenstein , much of Switzerland (including
1260-753: The Ordonnance de Villers-Cotterêts (1539), which said that every document in France should be written in French (neither in Latin nor in Occitan) and the Loi Toubon (1994), which aimed to eliminate anglicisms from official documents. States and populations within a state have often resorted to war to settle their differences. There have been attempts to prevent such hostilities: two such initiatives were promoted by
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#17327837399121320-607: The Republic of Turkey on October 29, 1923. The movement nullified the Treaty of Sèvres and negotiated the significantly more favorable Treaty of Lausanne (1923) , assuring recognition of modern Turkish national borders, termed Misak-ı Milli (National Pact). Not all Ottoman Empire citizens were Muslims and not all Ottoman Muslims were Turks , but starting from 1924, every citizen of the newly found Turkish Republic became considered as "Turk". Article 88 of 1924 Constitution , which
1380-803: The Rhaeto-Romance languages , and the Gallo-Italic languages ; the Occitano-Romance languages , grouped with either Gallo-Romance or East Iberian, including Occitanic languages such as Occitan and Gardiol , and Catalan ; Aragonese , grouped in with either Occitano-Romance or West Iberian, and finally the West Iberian languages , including the Astur-Leonese languages , the Galician-Portuguese languages , and
1440-634: The national language , and a number of language academies were established: 1582 Accademia della Crusca in Florence, 1617 Fruchtbringende Gesellschaft in Weimar, 1635 Académie française in Paris, 1713 Real Academia Española in Madrid. Language became increasingly linked to nation as opposed to culture, and was also used to promote religious and ethnic identity: e.g. different Bible translations in
1500-637: The Caucasus — account for less than 1% of the European population among them. Immigration has added sizeable communities of speakers of African and Asian languages, amounting to about 4% of the population, with Arabic being the most widely spoken of them. Five languages have more than 50 million native speakers in Europe: Russian , German , French , Italian , and English . Russian is the most-spoken native language in Europe, and English has
1560-519: The Great . His contemporary Sheykhi wrote verses on love and romance. Yaziji-Oglu produced a religious epic on Mohammed's life, drawing from the stylistic advances of the previous generation and Ahmedi's epic forms. By the 14th century, the Ottoman Empire's prosperity made manuscript works available to merchants and craftsmen, and produced a flowering of miniatures that depicted pageantry, daily life, commerce, cities and stories, and chronicled events. By
1620-493: The Indo-European language family in Europe are Romance , Germanic , and Slavic ; they have more than 200 million speakers each, and together account for close to 90% of Europeans. Smaller phyla of Indo-European found in Europe include Hellenic ( Greek , c. 13 million), Baltic ( c. 4.5 million), Albanian ( c. 7.5 million), Celtic ( c. 4 million), and Armenian ( c. 4 million). Indo-Aryan , though
1680-535: The Ottomans was created by Mustafa Râkim (1757–1826) as an extension and reform of Osman's style, placing greater emphasis on technical perfection, which broadened the calligraphic art to encompass the sülüs script as well as the Nesih script. Ottoman poetry included epic-length verse but is better known for shorter forms such as the gazel . For example, the epic poet Ahmedi (-1412) is remembered for his Alexander
1740-465: The armed force which controlled the hinterland, Yusuf selected the lieutenant and mameluke of Ramadhan Bey, an Islamic convert and corsair named Murad who became the founder of the Muradid dynasty of Beys of Tunis . In addition, Yusuf Dey often conferred with his friend and principal lieutenant, Ali Thabet. A keen builder, Yusuf Dey had the first Ottoman style mosque built, in 1616. He also had
1800-571: The basis for Ottoman calligraphy, focusing on the Nesih version of the script, which became the standard for copying the Quran (see Islamic calligraphy ). The next great change in Ottoman calligraphy came from the style of Hâfiz Osman (1642–1698), whose rigorous and simplified style found favour with an empire at its peak of territorial extent and governmental burdens. The late calligraphic style of
1860-522: The chancellery of Meissen in Saxony, Middle German, and the chancellery of Prague in Bohemia ("Common German")). But several other nations also began to develop a standard variety in the 16th century. Europe has had a number of languages that were considered linguae francae over some ranges for some periods according to some historians. Typically in the rise of a national language the new language becomes
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1920-636: The course of several centuries, with an advanced army and navy . The Empire lasted until the end of the First World War, when it was defeated by the Allies and partitioned . Following the successful Turkish War of Independence that ended with the Turkish national movement retaking most of the land lost to the Allies, the movement abolished the Ottoman sultanate on November 1, 1922, and proclaimed
1980-508: The current understandings of sign language relationships, however, provide some reasonable estimates about potential sign language families: In the Middle Ages the two most important defining elements of Europe were Christianitas and Latinitas . The earliest dictionaries were glossaries: more or less structured lists of lexical pairs (in alphabetical order or according to conceptual fields). The Latin-German (Latin-Bavarian) Abrogans
2040-399: The entirety of the six centuries that it existed. Their descendants are the present-day Turkish people , who comprise the majority of the population in the Republic of Turkey , which was established shortly after the end of World War I . Reliable information about the early history of the Ottoman Turks remains scarce, but they take their Turkish name Osmanlı from Osman I , who founded
2100-565: The era of the Ottoman Empire. Hungarian rovás was used by the Hungarian people in the early Middle Ages, but it was gradually replaced with the Latin-based Hungarian alphabet when Hungary became a kingdom, though it was revived in the 20th century and has certain marginal, but growing area of usage since then. The European Union (as of 2021) had 27 member states accounting for a population of 447 million, or about 60% of
2160-686: The language family is represented in Europe by the Hungarian language ( c. 13 million), historically introduced with the Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin of the 9th century. The Samoyedic Nenets language is spoken in Nenets Autonomous Okrug of Russia, located in the far northeastern corner of Europe (as delimited by the Ural Mountains ). Several dozen manual languages exist across Europe, with
2220-437: The languages and associated statistics for all five of these countries are grouped together on this page, as they are usually presented at a national, rather than subnational, level. Recent (post–1945) immigration to Europe introduced substantial communities of speakers of non-European languages. The largest such communities include Arabic speakers (see Arabs in Europe ) and Turkish speakers (beyond European Turkey and
2280-499: The largest number of speakers in total, including some 200 million speakers of English as a second or foreign language . (See English language in Europe .) The Indo-European language family is descended from Proto-Indo-European , which is believed to have been spoken thousands of years ago. Early speakers of Indo-European daughter languages most likely expanded into Europe with the incipient Bronze Age , around 4,000 years ago ( Bell-Beaker culture ). The Germanic languages make up
2340-525: The late 18th century, European influences in painting were clear, with the introduction of oils, perspective, figurative paintings, use of anatomy and composition. Languages of Europe There are over 250 languages indigenous to Europe , and most belong to the Indo-European language family . Out of a total European population of 744 million as of 2018, some 94% are native speakers of an Indo-European language. The three largest phyla of
2400-459: The member state may communicate with the EU in any of the designated languages, and view "EU regulations and other legislative documents" in that language. The European Union and the Council of Europe have been collaborating in education of member populations in languages for "the promotion of plurilingualism" among EU member states. The joint document, " Common European Framework of Reference for Languages : Learning, Teaching, Assessment (CEFR)",
2460-515: The mosque of Yusuf Dey. The divan elected as his successor, a famous Italian renegade, who became the most famous corsair of the regency, Usta Murad . Ottoman Turks The Ottoman Turks ( Turkish : Osmanlı Türkleri ) were a Turkic ethnic group native to Anatolia . Originally from Central Asia , they migrated to Anatolia in the 13th century and founded the Ottoman Empire , in which they remained socio-politically dominant for
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2520-589: The most widespread sign language family being the Francosign languages , with its languages found in countries from Iberia to the Balkans and the Baltics . Accurate historical information of sign and tactile languages is difficult to come by, with folk histories noting the existence signing communities across Europe hundreds of years ago. British Sign Language (BSL) and French Sign Language (LSF) are probably
2580-535: The nomadic Kayı tribe , first established a principality as part of the decaying Seljuk empire. His son Osman expanded the principality; the polity and the people were named "Ottomans" by Europeans after him ("Ottoman" being a corruption of "Osman"). Osman's son Orhan expanded the growing realm into an empire, taking Nicaea (present-day İznik) and crossed the Dardanelles in 1362. All coins unearthed in Söğüt during
2640-994: The northeast areas bordering on Germany and Austria), northern Italy ( South Tyrol ), Luxembourg , the East Cantons of Belgium and the Alsace and Lorraine regions of France . There are several groups of German dialects: Low German is spoken in various regions throughout Northern Germany and the northern and eastern parts of the Netherlands. It is an official language in Germany . It may be separated into West Low German and East Low German . The North Germanic languages are spoken in Nordic countries and include Swedish ( Sweden and parts of Finland ), Danish ( Denmark ), Norwegian ( Norway ), Icelandic ( Iceland ), Faroese ( Faroe Islands ), and Elfdalian (in
2700-479: The oldest confirmed, continuously used sign languages. Alongside German Sign Language (DGS) according to Ethnologue , these three have the most numbers of signers, though very few institutions take appropriate statistics on contemporary signing populations, making legitimate data hard to find. Notably, few European sign languages have overt connections with the local majority/oral languages, aside from standard language contact and borrowing , meaning grammatically
2760-496: The population in each country were asked to fill out a survey form concerning the languages that they spoke with sufficient competency "to be able to have a conversation". The following is a table of European languages. The number of speakers as a first or second language (L1 and L2 speakers) listed are speakers in Europe only; see list of languages by number of native speakers and list of languages by total number of speakers for global estimates on numbers of speakers. The list
2820-425: The population of Europe. The European Union has designated by agreement with the member states 24 languages as "official and working": Bulgarian, Croatian, Czech, Danish, Dutch, English, Estonian, Finnish, French, German, Greek, Hungarian, Irish, Italian, Latvian, Lithuanian, Maltese, Polish, Portuguese, Romanian, Slovak, Slovenian, Spanish and Swedish. This designation provides member states with two "entitlements":
2880-579: The predominant language family in Western, Northern and Central Europe . It is estimated that over 500 million Europeans are speakers of Germanic languages , the largest groups being German ( c. 95 million), English ( c. 400 million) , Dutch ( c. 24 million), Swedish ( c. 10 million), Danish ( c. 6 million), Norwegian ( c. 5 million) and Limburgish (c. 1.3 million). There are two extant major sub-divisions: West Germanic and North Germanic . A third group, East Germanic ,
2940-660: The question of the exact borders with the neighbouring Algeria , which was ruled by the Turkish militia of Algiers and its Dey . An initial treaty fixed the border at the Oued Serrat. Following hostilities, a more northern frontier was fixed on the Mellègue River . According to contemporary chronicles, the Turkish militia of Tunis was the strongest army in the region; it contained 9,000 elite troops (the janissaries ), further regiments of irregular cavalry raised from
3000-416: The regency of Tunis, through diplomatic efforts. To commemorate this achievement, he had a whole souq built in Tunis for merchants from Djerba. There was also a war between the pirates of Tunisia and the Maltese after the Tunisians captured the husband of Agrabah Maltese and ended with the victory of the pirates of Tunisia. At his death in 1637, he was interred in the Tourba which he had had built near
3060-413: The same language for Catholics and Protestants. The first languages whose standardisation was promoted included Italian ( questione della lingua : Modern Tuscan/Florentine vs. Old Tuscan/Florentine vs. Venetian → Modern Florentine + archaic Tuscan + Upper Italian), French (the standard is based on Parisian), English (the standard is based on the London dialect) and (High) German (based on the dialects of
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#17327837399123120-537: The sign languages and the oral languages of Europe are quite distinct from one another. Due to (visual/aural) modality differences, most sign languages are named for the larger ethnic nation in which they are spoken, plus the words "sign language", rendering what is spoken across much of France , Wallonia and Romandy as French Sign Language or LSF for: l angue des s ignes f rançaise . Recognition of non-oral languages varies widely from region to region. Some countries afford legal recognition, even to official on
3180-422: The standard of opulence. Because Islam is a monotheistic religion that focuses heavily on learning the central text of the Quran and Islamic culture has historically tended towards discouraging or prohibiting figurative art , calligraphy became one of the foremost of the arts. The early Yâkût period was supplanted in the late 15th century by a new style pioneered by Şeyh Hamdullah (1429–1520), which became
3240-417: The tribes of the hinterland, and more than 200 galleys commanded by marines and formidable corsairs. However, as Yusuf Dey grew old, he was eclipsed little by little by the powerful personality of Hammuda Pasha Bey , son and successor of Murad I Bey, who gradually took control of the divan and the militia. In spite of this, the elderly Yusuf Dey managed to secure the assignment of the island of Djerba to
3300-453: The two centuries before Orhan bear the names of Illkhanate rulers. The Seljuks were under the suzerainty of the Illkhanates and later the Turco-Mongol conqueror Tamerlane. The Ottoman Empire came into its own when Mehmed II captured the reduced Byzantine Empire 's well-defended capital, Constantinople in 1453. The Ottoman Empire came to rule much of the Balkans , the Caucasus , the Middle East (excluding Iran), and North Africa over
3360-413: The various parts of the Roman Empire in Late Antiquity . Latin was itself part of the (otherwise extinct) Italic branch of Indo-European. Romance languages are divided phylogenetically into Italo-Western , Eastern Romance (including Romanian ) and Sardinian . The Romance-speaking area of Europe is occasionally referred to as Latin Europe . Italo-Western can be further broken down into
3420-434: Was among the first. A new wave of lexicography can be seen from the late 15th century onwards (after the introduction of the printing press, with the growing interest in standardisation of languages). The concept of the nation state began to emerge in the early modern period . Nations adopted particular dialects as their national language. This, together with improved communications, led to official efforts to standardise
3480-542: Was based on the 1921 Constitution , states that the name Turk, as a political term, shall be understood to include all citizens of the Turkish Republic, without distinction of, or reference to race or religion. The conquest of Constantinople began to make the Ottomans the rulers of one of the most profitable empires, connected to the flourishing Islamic cultures of the time, and at the crossroads of trade into Europe. The Ottomans made major developments in calligraphy, writing, law, architecture, and military science, and became
3540-463: Was derived from the Phoenician alphabet , and Latin was derived from the Greek via the Old Italic alphabet . In the Early Middle Ages, Ogham was used in Ireland and runes (derived from Old Italic script) in Scandinavia. Both were replaced in general use by the Latin alphabet by the Late Middle Ages. The Cyrillic script was derived from the Greek with the first texts appearing around 940 AD. Around 1900 there were mainly two typeface variants of
3600-421: Was written using the Perso-Arabic script , developed into the modern Latinized Turkish language. The Ottomans first became known to the West in the 13th century, when they migrated from their homeland in Central Asia westward to the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum in Anatolia . The Ottoman Turks established a beylik in Western Anatolia under Ertugrul , the capital of which was Söğüt . Ertugrul, leader of
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