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103-584: Of all works consisting of sacrifices, or rituals, or control of conduct, or harmlessness, or liberality, or the study of the Vedas; this alone is the highest Dharma (duty) that one should see the Self by yoga. — Yoga Yajnavalkya Like Patanjali 's Yogasutras , the Yoga Yajnavalkya describes the eight components of yoga; however, it has different goals. The text contains additional material that

206-472: A cosmic principle and appears in verses independent of deities . It evolves into a concept, claims Paul Horsch, that has a dynamic functional sense in Atharvaveda for example, where it becomes the cosmic law that links cause and effect through a subject. Dharma, in these ancient texts, also takes a ritual meaning. The ritual is connected to the cosmic, and "dharmani" is equated to ceremonial devotion to

309-657: A "rein, curb", the act of checking or curbing, restraining such as by a charioteer or a driver. The term evolves into a moral restraint and ethical duty in the Jain Agamas . The yamas were explained in detail by Patañjali in the Yoga Sūtras of Patanjali as the first step of the eight-fold path of yogic philosophy and practice for attaining enlightenment and union of the mind, body and soul. Yamas means "restraint", particularly "from actions, words, or thoughts that may cause harm". The number of Yamas varies with

412-470: A fisherman must injure a fish, but he must attempt to do this with least trauma to fish and the fisherman must try to injure no other creature as he fishes. The five niyamas (observances) are cleanliness by eating pure food and removing impure thoughts (such as arrogance or jealousy or pride), contentment in one's means, meditation and silent reflection regardless of circumstances one faces, study and pursuit of historic knowledge, and devotion of all actions to

515-575: A long and varied history and straddles a complex set of meanings and interpretations. There is no equivalent single-word synonym for dharma in western languages. There have been numerous, conflicting attempts to translate ancient Sanskrit literature with the word dharma into German , English and French. The concept, claims Paul Horsch, has caused exceptional difficulties for modern commentators and translators. For example, while Grassmann's translation of Rig-Veda identifies seven different meanings of dharma, Karl Friedrich Geldner in his translation of

618-400: A period of three to four years. The text dedicates the largest number of verses to the discussion of breath and breath exercises. The essential nature of breath control is the union of Prana and Apana . — Yoga Yajnavalkya 6.1 Yajnavalkya dedicates significant amount of text to explain the art of mastering each stage of breathing, that is inhalation, exhalation and stoppage between

721-530: A proper posture is achieved when one can combine relaxed steadiness with deep breathing exercises. Such comfortable and stable asanas are necessary for cleansing of the Nadi (Astral Tubes which are around seventy two thousand running throughout the human body) through the Pranayama stage of yoga. This view is shared by other yoga texts, such as in verse 5.2 of Gheranda Samhita . The Padmasana ( lotus position )

824-845: A revered Vedic sage in Hinduism . He is estimated to have lived in around the 8th century BCE, and is associated with several other major ancient texts in Sanskrit, namely the Shukla Yajurveda , the Shatapatha Brahmana , the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad , the Dharmasastra named Yājñavalkya Smṛti , Vriddha Yajnavalkya , and Brihad Yajnavalkya . He is also mentioned in the Mahabharata and

927-413: A yogi, with 70 verses in the first chapter dedicated primarily to Yamas and 19 in second dedicated to Niyamas . The yoga postures with breathing and cleansing exercises are described in 149 verses of the third through seventh chapters, wherein the text asserts that these yoga exercises help the yogi master his senses and achieve awareness of his body. Meditation discussions start in the eighth chapter of

1030-417: Is adharma . The concept of dharma was in use in the historical Vedic religion (1500–500 BCE), and its meaning and conceptual scope has evolved over several millennia. In Hinduism , dharma denotes behaviours that are considered to be in accord with Ṛta —the "order and custom" that makes life and universe possible. This includes duties, rights, laws, conduct, virtues and "right way of living". Dharma

1133-641: Is a corrupted and more modern edition of the original text. According to Dominik Wujastyk, two of its manuscripts – MS Kathmandu NAK 5-696 (now preserved in Nepal), MS London BL Or. 3568 (preserved in the British Library )– are amongst the oldest surviving Sanskrit manuscripts found on the Indian subcontinent. The first is dated to the early 10th-century or late 9th-century, while the one discovered in Nepal

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1236-645: Is a manifestation of Ṛta, but suggests Ṛta may have been subsumed into a more complex concept of dharma , as the idea developed in ancient India over time in a nonlinear manner. The following verse from the Rigveda is an example where rta and dharma are linked: O Indra, lead us on the path of Rta, on the right path over all evils... Traditional Dharma is an organising principle in Hinduism that applies to human beings in solitude, in their interaction with human beings and nature, as well as between inanimate objects, to all of cosmos and its parts. It refers to

1339-601: Is believed to have a transtemporal validity, and is one of the Puruṣārtha . In Buddhism , dharma ( Pali : dhamma ) refers to the teachings of the Buddha . In Buddhist philosophy , dhamma/dharma is also the term for " phenomena ". Dharma in Jainism refers to the teachings of Tirthankara (Jina) and the body of doctrine pertaining to the purification and moral transformation of humans. In Sikhism , dharma indicates

1442-579: Is called the Yogiyājñavalkyasmṛti or the Sārasamuccaya of the Yogayājñavalkya in manuscripts. The Yoga Yajnavalkya (or Yogayajnavalkya ) text is structured as a conversation between a man (Yajnavalkya) and a woman (Gargi), in the presence of an audience. It is organized into twelve chapters, and cumulatively contains 504 verses. The text opens with a discussion of virtues and lifestyle of

1545-424: Is contrary to reality, laws and rules that establish order, predictability and harmony. Paul Horsch suggests Ṛta and dharma are parallel concepts, the former being a cosmic principle, the latter being of moral social sphere; while Māyā and dharma are also correlative concepts, the former being that which corrupts law and moral life, the later being that which strengthens law and moral life. Day proposes dharma

1648-495: Is dated to 1024 CE from its colophon. The original text is likely much older than these palm leaf manuscript copies. Several versions of the Yoga Yajnavalkya manuscripts are known. The earliest published manuscript of Yoga Yajnavalkya was discovered in Bengal in 1893. Since then, other manuscripts have been discovered with differing numbers of verses. The text published by Divanji in 1954, for example, has over 500 verses, while

1751-496: Is dependent on poverty and prosperity in a society, according to Hindu dharma scriptures. For example, according to Adam Bowles, Shatapatha Brahmana 11.1.6.24 links social prosperity and dharma through water. Waters come from rains, it claims; when rains are abundant there is prosperity on the earth, and this prosperity enables people to follow Dharma – moral and lawful life. In times of distress, of drought, of poverty, everything suffers including relations between human beings and

1854-544: Is driven by desire and a craving for rewards, forms his will, and then uses his knowledge to act out his free will. The second path is Nivritti-karma , wherein a person is not driven by desire and does not crave for rewards, but he uses his knowledge in his works in a detached way. The Pravritti-karma path is the cause for suffering and rebirth, while the Nivritti-karma is liberating and practiced by those who want to end suffering and rebirth. The essence of knowledge

1957-424: Is esteemed for both cleansing and meditative contemplation. Gargi inquires in chapter 4 about the nature of Nadis , the human body and how vital airs function in it. Yajnavalkya begins his reply by asserting that the height of every adult human being is about 96 times the width of his or her Angula (thumb). The Prana (breath, vital air) of the body is dispersed within and outside the body. The first aim of yoga

2060-594: Is extensive discussion of dharma at the individual level in the Epics of Hinduism; for example, on free will versus destiny, when and why human beings believe in either, the strong and prosperous naturally uphold free will, while those facing grief or frustration naturally lean towards destiny. The Epics of Hinduism illustrate various aspects of dharma with metaphors. According to Klaus Klostermaier , 4th-century CE Hindu scholar Vātsyāyana explained dharma by contrasting it with adharma. Vātsyāyana suggested that dharma

2163-456: Is incomplete, while the combination of these translations does not convey the total sense of the word. In common parlance, dharma means "right way of living" and "path of rightness". Dharma also has connotations of order, and when combined with the word sanatana , it can also be described as eternal truth. The meaning of the word dharma depends on the context, and its meaning has evolved as ideas of Hinduism have developed through history. In

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2266-723: Is longer than the list of five found in Patanjali's Yogasutras , but similar to those found in the Shandilya and Varaha Upanishads , the Hatha Yoga Pradipika , and verses 552 to 557 in Book 3 of the Tirumandhiram of Tirumular, in the sense of positive duties, desirable behaviors and discipline. The list of the ten niyamas are: Richard Rosen, yoga teacher and a contributing editor at Yoga Journal , states that

2369-633: Is non-covetousness – thus say the sages who have realized the ultimate truth. – Yoga Yajnavalkya 1.52–1.54 , The Yoga Yajnavalkya starts its description of yoga practice with a statement of virtuous self-restraints that a yogi or yogini needs to adhere to. This list is longer than the five yamas listed by Patañjali in Yogasūtra , but similar to those found in other Hindu texts such as the Shandilya Upanishad and other ancient and medieval-era Yoga texts. Verses 1.50–51 of Yoga Yajnavalkya list

2472-515: Is not found in Yogasutras , such as the concept of kundalini . The Yoga Yajnavalkya contains one of the most comprehensive discussion of yoga components such as the Pranayama , Pratyahara , Dhyana , and Dharana . The text was influential in the development and practice of the yoga traditions of India before the 12th century. The text is traditionally attributed to Yajnavalkya,

2575-1066: Is not merely in one's actions, but also in words one speaks or writes, and in thought. According to Vātsyāyana: In the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali the dharma is real; in the Vedanta it is unreal. Dharma is part of yoga , suggests Patanjali ; the elements of Hindu dharma are the attributes, qualities and aspects of yoga. Patanjali explained dharma in two categories: yamas (restraints) and niyamas (observances). The five yamas, according to Patanjali, are: abstain from injury to all living creatures, abstain from falsehood (satya), abstain from unauthorised appropriation of things-of-value from another (acastrapurvaka), abstain from coveting or sexually cheating on your partner, and abstain from expecting or accepting gifts from others. The five yama apply in action, speech and mind. In explaining yama, Patanjali clarifies that certain professions and situations may require qualification in conduct. For example,

2678-647: Is related to Sanskrit "dharma". Ideas in parts overlapping to Dharma are found in other ancient cultures: such as Chinese Tao , Egyptian Maat , Sumerian Me . In the mid-20th century, an inscription of the Indian Emperor Asoka from the year 258 BCE was discovered in Afghanistan, the Kandahar Bilingual Rock Inscription . This rock inscription contains Greek and Aramaic text. According to Paul Hacker , on

2781-447: Is the essence of this knowledge, and it has eight components: Yama , Niyama , Asana , Pranayama , Pratyahara , Dharana , Dhyana and Samadhi . To never cause suffering to other beings by thought, word or deed. That is non-harmfulness. To always say what is, and by that create good for all living beings: that is the practice of truthfulness. Relinquishing the desire for the possessions of others, in deed, word and thought: that

2884-416: Is the need for, the effect of and essence of service and interconnectedness of all life. This includes duties, rights, laws , conduct, virtues and "right way of living". In its true essence, dharma means for a Hindu to "expand the mind". Furthermore, it represents the direct connection between the individual and the societal phenomena that bind the society together. In the way societal phenomena affect

2987-571: Is to become aware and control this vital air, to be equal to or lower than the inner fire within one's body. This inner fire resides in the middle part of the body, and he calls it the Nabhi (center) and a Chakra . This is the residence of the Jiva , and the vital air nourishes it from below while one is alive. Just above this Nabhi is the kundalini which normally is dormant. Yoga awakens her, by bringing vital air and heat to her. Verses 4.26–35 state that

3090-419: Is unclear. Prahlad Divanji, an Indologist and Sanskrit scholar, states that the text was composed between the second century BCE and fourth century CE, because Yoga Upanishads and Hatha Yoga texts contain verses from Yoga Yajnavalkya . Divanji cites Tantra texts, Ayurveda tradition texts, and literature of Advaita Vedanta from the 4th century CE, which mention the Yoga Yajnavalkya , thereafter concluding that

3193-502: Is yoga, which has eight Anga (parts, accessories). — Yoga Yajnavalkya 1.44–1.47 Verses 1.27–40 are a non-yoga commentary on the duties of four social classes – this section is missing in manuscripts of Yoga Yajnavalkya that contain 460 verses. The commentary presents two theories on the duties of the four classes in terms of ashrama dharmas of student, householder, hermit and mendicant.. According to Bhattacharya's translation it adds that all four varnas are required to "pay off

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3296-555: The Ida and Pingala vessels, the former connected to the moon and the latter to the sun. These three drive the three Guṇas (forces behind the innate character) of a being, with Sushumna driving Sattva (goodness), Pingala driving the Rajas (action), and Ida driving the Tamas (destructiveness). These primary vessels are connected to numerous channels inside the human body, which pervade

3399-579: The Kandahar Greek Edicts . In the Kandahar Bilingual Rock Inscription he used the Aramaic word קשיטא ( qšyṭ’ ; truth, rectitude). Dharma is a concept of central importance in Indian philosophy and Indian religions . It has multiple meanings in Hinduism , Buddhism , Sikhism and Jainism . It is difficult to provide a single concise definition for dharma , as the word has

3502-477: The Mahabharata , dharma is central, and it is presented through symbolism and metaphors. Near the end of the epic, Yama referred to as dharma in the text, is portrayed as taking the form of a dog to test the compassion of Yudhishthira , who is told he may not enter paradise with such an animal. Yudhishthira refuses to abandon his companion, for which he is then praised by dharma . The value and appeal of

3605-573: The Puranas , as well as in ancient Jainism texts such as the Isibhasiyaim . These references to Yajnavalkya in other texts, in addition to the eponymous Yoga Yajnavalkya , may be to different sages with the same name. The actual author of Yoga Yajnavalkya text was probably someone who lived many centuries after the Vedic sage Yajnavalkya, and is unknown. Ian Whicher, a professor of Religion at

3708-665: The Rechaka is highest lasting thirty-six moments. The text then describes various combinations of Puraka , Kumbhaka and Rechaka in various asanas for the purposes of energizing the Nadis and cleansing the body, asserting that, when mastered, Prana, Apana, Samana, Udana, Vyana and other vital airs help gain endurance, calmness, measured speed, ascension and inner healing. The text says that Pranayama exercises have therapeutic powers. Yajnavalkya describes Sanmukhi mudra , Kevaka kumbhaka and Sahita kumbhaka in chapter 6, asserting that

3811-519: The Rigveda , the word appears as an n -stem, dhárman- , with a range of meanings encompassing "something established or firm" (in the literal sense of prods or poles). Figuratively, it means "sustainer" and "supporter" (of deities ). It is semantically similar to the Greek themis ("fixed decree, statute, law"). In Classical Sanskrit , and in the Vedic Sanskrit of the Atharvaveda ,

3914-461: The Sanskrit root √ dhṛ- which means to hold or to support , combined with the man-suffix, and is related to Latin firmus (firm, stable). From this, it takes the meaning of "what is established or firm", and hence "law". It is derived from an older Vedic Sanskrit n -stem dharman- , with a literal meaning of "bearer, supporter", in a religious sense conceived as an aspect of Rta . In

4017-607: The University of Manitoba , writes that the author of Yoga Yajnavalkya may be an ancient Yajnavalkya, but this Yajnavalkya is not to be confused with the Vedic-era Yajnavalkya "who is revered in Hinduism for Brihadaranyaka Upanishad ". David White, a professor of Comparative Religion at the University of California , suggests that the author – a 9th- to 12th-century South Indian with the name of Yajnavalkya –

4120-543: The Upanishads and later ancient scripts of Hinduism. In Upanishads, the concept of dharma continues as universal principle of law, order, harmony, and truth. It acts as the regulatory moral principle of the Universe. It is explained as law of righteousness and equated to satya ( Sanskrit : सत्यं , truth), in hymn 1.4.14 of Brhadaranyaka Upanishad , as follows: Nothing is higher than dharma. The weak overcomes

4223-712: The Yoga Sutras as moral imperatives, commandments, rules or goals. The yamas are a "don't"s list of self-restraints, typically representing commitments that affect one's relations with others and self. The complementary niyamas represent the "do"s. Together yamas and niyamas are personal obligations to live well. The earliest mention of yamas is in the Rigveda . More than fifty texts of Hinduism, from its various traditions, discuss yamas . Patañjali lists five yamas in his Yoga Sūtras . Ten yamas are codified as "the restraints" in numerous Hindu texts, including Yajnavalkya Smriti in verse 3.313,

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4326-475: The Epics and other Sanskrit literature with the help of one's teacher. Second, observing the behaviour and example of good people. The third source applies when neither one's education nor example exemplary conduct is known. In this case, " atmatusti " is the source of dharma in Hinduism, that is the good person reflects and follows what satisfies his heart, his own inner feeling, what he feels driven to. Some texts of Hinduism outline dharma for society and at

4429-567: The Epics; the word dharma also plays a central role in the literature of other Indian religions founded later, such as Buddhism and Jainism. According to Brereton, Dharman occurs 63 times in Rig-veda ; in addition, words related to Dharman also appear in Rig-veda, for example once as dharmakrt, 6 times as satyadharman , and once as dharmavant , 4 times as dharman and twice as dhariman . Indo-European parallels for "dharma" are known, but

4532-406: The Indian subcontinent. The original text is likely many centuries older. The variations between the manuscripts suggest that this text was compiled and revised by multiple authors. संयोगो योग इत्युक्तो जीवात्मपरमात्मनोः॥ Yoga is the union of the individual self ( jivātma ) with the supreme self ( paramātma , brahman ). — Yoga Yajnavalkya 1.43 The composition date of Yoga Yajnavalkya

4635-565: The Mahabharata, according to Ingalls, is not as much in its complex and rushed presentation of metaphysics in the 12th book. Indian metaphysics, he argues, is more eloquently presented in other Sanskrit scriptures. Instead, the appeal of Mahabharata, like Ramayana , lies in its presentation of a series of moral problems and life situations, where there are usually three answers: one answer is of Bhima , which represents brute force, an individual angle representing materialism, egoism, and self;

4738-413: The Patanjali's five plus five additional ones. A. G. Mohan , an author and yoga teacher, states that the text was likely completed before the 4th century CE. David White, in contrast, suggests the date of composition to be much later, between the 10th and 12th centuries. White states that the 13th-century Dattatreya Yoga-shastra acknowledges Yajnavalkya, and describes its teachings as "supplementary to

4841-531: The Rig-Veda employs 20 different translations for dharma, including meanings such as " law ", "order", " duty ", "custom", "quality", and "model", among others. However, the word dharma has become a widely accepted loanword in English, and is included in all modern unabridged English dictionaries. The root of the word dharma is √ dhṛ- , which means "to support, hold, or bear". It is the thing that regulates

4944-502: The Sanskrit epics, this concern is omnipresent. In Hindu Epics, the good, morally upright, law-abiding king is referred to as "dharmaraja". Dharma is at the centre of all major events in the life of Dasharatha, Rama , Sita , and Lakshman in Ramayana. In the Ramayana, Dasharatha upholds his dharma by honoring a promise to Kaikeyi, resulting in his beloved son Rama's exile, even though it brings him immense personal suffering. In

5047-639: The Supreme Teacher to achieve perfection of concentration. Dharma is an empirical and experiential inquiry for every man and woman, according to some texts of Hinduism. For example, Apastamba Dharmasutra states: Dharma and Adharma do not go around saying, "That is us." Neither do gods, nor gandharvas, nor ancestors declare what is Dharma and what is Adharma . In other texts, three sources and means to discover dharma in Hinduism are described. These, according to Paul Hacker , are: First, learning historical knowledge such as Vedas, Upanishads,

5150-458: The balance of organs within the body is, depends on food one takes in and how well inhalation and exhalation are able to deliver the vital airs to various body parts. The body interacts with nature, and removes liquids and excretes waste through nine holes. The aim of pranayama (breath control) is to purify the channels and nourish the inner body with vital airs. This benefits a yogi and yogini in preventing and curing diseases, as well as preparing

5253-485: The best exercises are those that make one feel lightness in the body and relaxation in the mind. Chapter 7 discusses the fifth limb of yoga, Pratyahara , which it says is of five forms. This stage is one where the focus of the mind shifts from external stimuli received by sensory organs to various levels of internal awareness. The theory of Marma (joints) is presented, and 18 vital points inside one's body are listed that can be used as focal points to help initial stages of

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5356-441: The best venues for yoga. A matha (hut) in a forest is ideal, but any private place that is free from distractions, high winds or intense sunshine is a good location for yoga. Either a pad made of kusha grass or a solid ground with deer skin mat on it, is desirable. Yoga can be learned, with the help of a teacher, within three to four months if practiced six times a day. If frequent practice is not possible, yoga can be mastered over

5459-503: The breath exercises mastered in the previous step. Dharma Dharma ( Sanskrit : धर्म , pronounced [dʱɐrmɐ] ) is a key concept with multiple meanings in the Indian religions , among others. The term dharma is held as an untranslatable into English (or other European languages); it is understood to refer to behaviours which are in harmony with the "order and custom" that sustains life ; "virtue", or "religious and moral duties". The antonym of dharma

5562-463: The central concern, defining dharma as what connects a person with the highest good, always yet to be realized. While some schools associate dharma with post-mortem existence, Mimamsakas focus on the continual renewal and realization of a ritual world through adherence to Vedic injunctions. They assert that the ultimate good is essentially inaccessible to perception and can only be understood through language, reflecting confidence in Vedic injunctions and

5665-518: The conscience of the individual, similarly may the actions of an individual alter the course of the society, for better or for worse. This has been subtly echoed by the credo धर्मो धारयति प्रजा: meaning dharma is that which holds and provides support to the social construct. In Hinduism, dharma generally includes various aspects: The history section of this article discusses the development of dharma concept in Vedas . This development continued in

5768-545: The course of change by not participating in change, but that principle which remains constant. Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary , the widely cited resource for definitions and explanation of Sanskrit words and concepts of Hinduism, offers numerous definitions of the word dharma , such as that which is established or firm, steadfast decree, statute, law, practice, custom, duty, right, justice, virtue, morality, ethics, religion, religious merit, good works, nature, character, quality, property. Yet, each of these definitions

5871-400: The debts owed to the sages, men and gods" by practicing Brahmacharya , procreating offspring and performing karma . All four social classes should strive for Nivritti-karma (work without craving for rewards). According to Desikachar's translation, yoga is open to all, without restrictions to varna or gender. Verses 1.41–49 state that "karma with knowledge is the means to liberation". Yoga

5974-457: The earliest texts and ancient myths of Hinduism, dharma meant cosmic law, the rules that created the universe from chaos, as well as rituals; in later Vedas , Upanishads , Puranas and the Epics , the meaning became refined, richer, and more complex, and the word was applied to diverse contexts. In certain contexts, dharma designates human behaviours considered necessary for order of things in

6077-483: The earth and sun and stars apart, they support (dhar-) the sky away and distinct from earth, and they stabilise (dhar-) the quaking mountains and plains. The Deities , mainly Indra , then deliver and hold order from disorder, harmony from chaos, stability from instability – actions recited in the Veda with the root of word dharma. In hymns composed after the mythological verses, the word dharma takes expanded meaning as

6180-688: The eight asanas , the text discusses two variations each for the Swastikasana and the Mukta Sirsasana in verses 3.3–5 and 3.13–14 respectively, with claims that each asana helps cleanse the body when these are practiced with Yamas and Niyamas. Cleansing asanas are those that when practiced for short periods of time help the body prevent or correct internal imbalances and tone inner organs; while meditative asanas are those postures, either sitting or standing, that one can maintain steadily and comfortably for extended periods of time. In both,

6283-504: The eight part practice as taught by Yajnavalkya", which means that the text was already established and accepted by then. Other manuscripts with devotional, "non-mental" and "mental" yoga texts in the Hindu tradition also refer to teachings of the text, suggesting the text originated before many other yoga texts. Ram Shankar Bhattacharya, an Indologist, dates the Pune version of a manuscript of

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6386-470: The first two chapters provide the moral foundations of its yoga teachings, and are more detailed than many other yoga texts in the Indian traditions. Chapter 3 opens with a list of eight asanas (postures), followed by the description of each one. The asanas are of two types: one set is for meditative contemplation, and the other for cleansing the body. Both are said to be important in the journey of yoga. Different asanas focus on different organ groups. Of

6489-475: The following ten Yamas (the restraints), while verses 1.52–70 explain what these virtues mean and why they are necessary: Verse 1.69 asserts that in a cleansed body resides a peaceful mind, and when this mind achieves purity, Atmavidya (knowledge of soul) becomes feasible. Chapter 2 begins with a list of ten Niyamas (the Observances), followed by an explanation of each in the rest of the chapter. The list

6592-399: The human ability to live according to dharma . In Rajadharmaparvan 91.34-8, the relationship between poverty and dharma reaches a full circle. A land with less moral and lawful life suffers distress, and as distress rises it causes more immoral and unlawful life, which further increases distress. Those in power must follow the raja dharma (that is, dharma of rulers), because this enables

6695-470: The human body has fourteen nadis (Astral Tubes which are around seventy two thousand running throughout the human body), of which three are primary. Sushumna (Sanskrit: सुषुम्णा) is the most important, as it extends all along the spinal cord and reaches into the head, sustaining the whole body. Vishnu is the deity whose power propels Sushumna according to verse 4.31. On both sides of the Sushumna reside

6798-416: The individual level. Of these, the most cited one is Manusmriti , which describes the four Varnas , their rights and duties. Most texts of Hinduism, however, discuss dharma with no mention of Varna ( caste ). Other dharma texts and Smritis differ from Manusmriti on the nature and structure of Varnas. Yet, other texts question the very existence of varna. Bhrigu , in the Epics, for example, presents

6901-516: The life of a single individual" and the vanaprastha stage was added before renunciation over time, thus forming life stages. The four stages of life complete the four human strivings in life, according to Hinduism. Dharma enables the individual to satisfy the striving for stability and order, a life that is lawful and harmonious, the striving to do the right thing, be good, be virtuous, earn religious merit, be helpful to others, interact successfully with society. The other three strivings are Artha –

7004-467: The life of preparation as a student, (2) gṛhastha , the life of the householder with family and other social roles, (3) vānprastha or aranyaka, the life of the forest-dweller, transitioning from worldly occupations to reflection and renunciation, and (4) sannyāsa , the life of giving away all property, becoming a recluse and devotion to moksa, spiritual matters. Patrick Olivelle suggests that "ashramas represented life choices rather than sequential steps in

7107-482: The manuscript translated by Krishnamacharya and Desikachar, writers and teachers of yoga books, has 460 verses. A study of the manuscripts reveals that there are two quite different works that are often both called " Yogayājñavalkya ." The work discussed in this Misplaced Pages page is often called the Yogayājñavalkyagītā in the manuscripts. A much older, and quite different work that does not discuss yoga postures,

7210-408: The meditative exercises. Verses 1–10 of chapter 8 elaborate on the practice of Dharana or meditation to train the mind in the consciousness of the self. The five elements in the universe correspond to five body functional systems, and that systems are gods residing within the human body. The next level of meditation is to fix one's undistracted attention to these five, while simultaneously performing

7313-514: The mind for meditation. Chapters 5 and 6 discuss the means of cleansing the body and mind. The first ten verses of chapter 5 summarize and restate the need for always practicing virtuous self-restraints (Yamas), observances (Niyamas), avoiding anger against anyone or anything, truthfully following Dharma, respecting and learning from the Guru (teacher), and pursuing the proper goals of life without craving for rewards of one's action. Solitary places are

7416-400: The nature of yoga". In verses 10 to 19, Gargi remarks that yoga has been called the best karma , and asks Yajnavalkya to explain yoga to her. Yajnavalkya agrees, but first attributes his knowledge to the Hindu god Brahma who taught him this jnana (knowledge) and karma (works). Yajnavalkya states that there are two paths to attain knowledge. One path is Pravritti-karma , wherein a person

7519-568: The only Iranian equivalent is Old Persian darmān , meaning "remedy". This meaning is different from the Indo-Aryan dhárman , suggesting that the word "dharma" did not play a major role in the Indo-Iranian period. Instead, it was primarily developed more recently under the Vedic tradition. It is thought that the Daena of Zoroastrianism , also meaning the "eternal Law" or "religion",

7622-448: The order and customs which make life and universe possible, and includes behaviours, rituals, rules that govern society, and ethics. Hindu dharma includes the religious duties, moral rights and duties of each individual, as well as behaviours that enable social order, right conduct, and those that are virtuous. Dharma , according to Van Buitenen, is that which all existing beings must accept and respect to sustain harmony and order in

7725-547: The path of righteousness, proper religious practices, and performing one's own moral duties. As with the other components of the Puruṣārtha, the concept of dharma is pan-Indian. The ancient Tamil text Tirukkuṟaḷ , despite being a collection of aphoristic teachings on dharma ( aram ), artha ( porul ), and kama ( inpam ), is completely and exclusively based on aṟam —the Tamil term for dharma . The word dharma has roots in

7828-481: The principles that deities used to create order from disorder, the world from chaos. Past the ritual and cosmic sense of dharma that link the current world to mythical universe, the concept extends to an ethical-social sense that links human beings to each other and to other life forms. It is here that dharma as a concept of law emerges in Hinduism. Dharma and related words are found in the oldest Vedic literature of Hinduism , in later Vedas, Upanishads, Puranas, and

7931-492: The reality of language as a means of knowing. Mimamsa addresses the delayed results of actions (like wealth or heaven) through the concept of apurva or adrsta, an unseen force that preserves the connection between actions and their outcomes. This ensures that Vedic sacrifices, though their results are delayed, are effective and reliable in guiding toward dharma. The Hindu religion and philosophy, claims Daniel Ingalls , places major emphasis on individual practical morality. In

8034-404: The relative emphasis vary between the texts. Some texts use the reverse of niyamas in other texts, as yamas ; for example, vairagya (dispassion from hedonism, somewhat reverse of the niyama tapas ) is described in verse 33 of Trishikhi Brahmana Upanishad in its list of yamas . Many texts substitute one or more different concepts in their list of yamas . For example, in

8137-590: The rock appears a Greek rendering for the Sanskrit word dharma: the word eusebeia . Scholars of Hellenistic Greece explain eusebeia as a complex concept. Eusebia means not only to venerate deities , but also spiritual maturity, a reverential attitude toward life, and includes the right conduct toward one's parents, siblings and children, the right conduct between husband and wife, and the conduct between biologically unrelated people. This rock inscription, concludes Paul Hacker, suggests dharma in India, about 2300 years ago,

8240-405: The second answer is of Yudhishthira , which appeals to piety, deities , social virtue, and tradition; the third answer is of introspective Arjuna , which falls between the two extremes, and who, claims Ingalls, symbolically reveals the finest moral qualities of man. The Epics of Hinduism are a symbolic treatise about life, virtues, customs, morals, ethics, law, and other aspects of dharma . There

8343-459: The society and the individual to follow dharma and achieve prosperity. Yamas Traditional The yamas ( Sanskrit : यम , romanized :  yama ), and their complement, the niyamas , represent a series of "right living" or ethical rules within Yoga philosophy. The word yama means "reining in" or "control". They are restraints for proper conduct given in the Vedas and

8446-440: The source: At least sixty ancient and medieval era Indian texts are known that discuss yamas . Most are in Sanskrit, but some are in regional Indian languages. Of the sixty, the lists in eleven of these texts are similar, but not the same, as that of Patanjali's. Other texts list between one and ten yamas ; however, ten is the most common. The order of listed yamas , the names and nature of each yama , as well as

8549-408: The stage of life one is in. The concept of Dharma is believed to have a transtemporal validity. The antonym of dharma is adharma (Sanskrit: अधर्म), meaning that which is "not dharma". As with dharma , the word adharma includes and implies many ideas; in common parlance, adharma means that which is against nature, immoral, unethical, wrong or unlawful. In Buddhism, dharma incorporates

8652-511: The stem is thematic: dhárma- ( Devanagari : धर्म). In Prakrit and Pali , it is rendered dhamma . In some contemporary Indian languages and dialects it alternatively occurs as dharm . In the 3rd century BCE the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka translated dharma into Greek and Aramaic and he used the Greek word eusebeia (εὐσέβεια, piety, spiritual maturity, or godliness) in the Kandahar Bilingual Rock Inscription and

8755-455: The striving for means of life such as food, shelter, power, security, material wealth, and so forth; Kama – the striving for sex, desire, pleasure, love, emotional fulfilment, and so forth; and Moksa – the striving for spiritual meaning, liberation from life-rebirth cycle, self-realisation in this life, and so forth. The four stages are neither independent nor exclusionary in Hindu dharma . Dharma being necessary for individual and society,

8858-573: The stronger by dharma, as over a king. Truly that dharma is the Truth ( Satya ); Therefore, when a man speaks the Truth, they say, "He speaks the Dharma"; and if he speaks Dharma, they say, "He speaks the Truth!" For both are one. Mimamsa , developed through commentaries on its foundational texts, particularly the Mimamsa Sutras attributed to Jaimini , emphasizes "the desire to know dharma" as

8961-491: The teachings and doctrines of the founder of Buddhism, the Buddha . According to Pandurang Vaman Kane , author of History of Dharmaśāstra , the word dharma appears at least fifty-six times in the hymns of the Rigveda , as an adjective or noun. According to Paul Horsch, the word dharma has its origin in Vedic Hinduism. The hymns of the Rigveda claim Brahman created the universe from chaos, they hold (dhar-)

9064-432: The ten yamas listed by Yatidharma Sangraha, akrodha (non-anger) is included as a yama . Ahirbudhnya Samhita in verse 31.19 and Darshana Upanishad in verses 1.14-15 include dayā as a yama , and explain it as the ethical restraint of not jumping to conclusions, being compassionate to every being, and considering suffering of others as one's own. In verse 31.21, Ahirbudhnya Samhita includes kṣamā as

9167-402: The text discuss the need for a Guru (teacher) along with the duties of a yogin, and what to do when one realizes one has made a mistake. The last chapter briefly discusses the kundalini, the benefits of yoga and the nature of calmness, contentedness in one's mind and consciousness. The text opens with reverence and introduction for Yajnavalkya and Gargi, and then gives its purpose: "to disclose

9270-455: The text or some version of the Yoga Yajnavalkya text must have been in existence by the 4th century CE. However, adds Divanji, the text is likely to have been composed after Patanjali's Yogasutra , which itself is variously estimated to have composed sometime between 500 BCE and 400 CE. Divanji premises his dating proposal from the observation that Yoga Yajnavalkya expands on ideas in Patanjali's text, such as its list of Yamas , which includes

9373-459: The text to about the 13th or 14th century CE, and notes that this version of the Yoga Yajnavalkya quotes verses from Hatha Yoga texts. He also points out that Gargi is mentioned as the wife of Yajnavalkya in the manuscript. However, no other text affirms that Gargi was the wife of Yajnavalkya; rather, Maitreyi and Katyayani are listed as his two wives, leading to the theory that the Pune manuscript

9476-488: The text, where 40 verses discuss how to start and develop meditative practices with the help of Om and resonating sounds, followed by 44 verses in the ninth chapter for advanced meditation that is reflective on one's mind, Vedana (feelings) and nature of one's Atman (self, soul). The text dedicates 23 verses in the tenth chapter on samadhi (concentration) to become aware of the equality of one's Atman and Brahman (Universal Ultimate Reality, God). The final sections of

9579-436: The theory that dharma does not require any varnas. In practice, medieval India is widely believed to be a socially stratified society, with each social strata inheriting a profession and being endogamous. Varna was not absolute in Hindu dharma; individuals had the right to renounce and leave their Varna, as well as their asramas of life, in search of moksa. While neither Manusmriti nor succeeding Smritis of Hinduism ever use

9682-402: The two. Each stage is discussed in terms of its nature, speed, duration, depth on its own and relative to the other stage of breathing, regulating these at will during asanas meant for cleansing body or mind. In order to keep time for each stage without distraction, he recommends silently reciting time-measured mantras or sound beats to help measure each stage and thus establish progress during

9785-432: The universe, principles that prevent chaos, behaviours and action necessary to all life in nature, society, family as well as at the individual level. Dharma encompasses ideas such as duty, rights, character, vocation, religion, customs and all behaviour considered appropriate, correct or morally upright. For further context, the word varnasramdharma is often used in its place, defined as dharma specifically related to

9888-412: The virtue of forgiveness and restraint from continued agitation from wrong others have done. Mahakala Samhita in verses II.11.723 through II.11.738 lists many of the ten yamas above, but explains why it is a virtue in a different way. For example, the text explains dayā is an ethical precept and the restraint from too much and too little emotions. It suggests dayā reflects one's inner state,

9991-417: The whole body, and nourish it. When one inhales or exhales, according to verses 4.47–65, the Nadis are loaded with vital airs. There are ten types of vital airs, corresponding to different stages of breathing, and they are named Prana , Apana , Samana , Udana , Vyana , Naga , Kurma , Krikara , Devadatta and Dhananjaya . These affect the Nadis in different ways, and how the body functions and what

10094-530: The word varnadharma (that is, the dharma of varnas), or varnasramadharma (that is, the dharma of varnas and asramas), the scholarly commentary on Manusmriti use these words, and thus associate dharma with varna system of India. In 6th century India, even Buddhist kings called themselves "protectors of varnasramadharma" – that is, dharma of varna and asramas of life. At the individual level, some texts of Hinduism outline four āśramas , or stages of life as individual's dharma . These are: (1) brahmacārya ,

10197-490: The world. It is neither the act nor the result, but the natural laws that guide the act and create the result to prevent chaos in the world. It is innate characteristic, that makes the being what it is. It is, claims Van Buitenen, the pursuit and execution of one's nature and true calling, thus playing one's role in cosmic concert. In Hinduism, it is the dharma of the bee to make honey, of cow to give milk, of sun to radiate sunshine, of river to flow. In terms of humanity, dharma

10300-508: The yoga. The mantras for internal time measurement mentioned include Pranava ( Om ), Gayatri with Vyahritis , or Gayatri with Siras . The text classifies three levels of breath regulation, namely Puraka (पूरक, satisfying), Kumbhaka (कुम्भक, prominent) and Rechaka (रेचक, purging). The Puraka exercise is shortest and counts twelve moments ( matras , music beats); the Kumbhaka is medium and stretches over twenty-four moments, while

10403-514: The Śāṇḍilya and Vārāha Upanishads , the Hatha Yoga Pradipika by Svātmārāma, and the Tirumantiram of Tirumular . The yamas apply broadly and include self-restraints in one's actions, words, and thoughts. The earliest mention of yamas is found in the Hindu scripture Rigveda, such as in verse 5.61.2, and later in the Jain Agamas . The word yama in the Rigveda means

10506-691: Was "the author of two works that combined the eight part practice with teachings on Hatha Yoga and Vedanta Philosophy": the Yoga Yajnavalkya and the Yogi Yajnavalkya-smriti . This issue has since been clarified in a 2017 study of the two works. According to Dominik Wujastyk – a scholar of Sanskrit literature, Indology and the history of Yoga philosophy and practice, the Yoga Yajnavalkya is an early text on yoga. Many versions of its manuscripts have been discovered, with two pre-10th-century CE palm leaf manuscripts in Sanskrit, while many more versions have been found in other regional languages of

10609-498: Was a central concept and meant not only religious ideas, but ideas of right, of good, of one's duty toward the human community. The evolving literature of Hinduism linked dharma to two other important concepts: Ṛta and Māyā . Ṛta in Vedas is the truth and cosmic principle which regulates and coordinates the operation of the universe and everything within it. Māyā in Rig-veda and later literature means illusion, fraud, deception, magic that misleads and creates disorder, thus

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