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93-563: Achillea millefolium , commonly known as yarrow ( / ˈ j æ r oʊ / ) or common yarrow , is a flowering plant in the family Asteraceae . Growing to 1 metre ( 3 + 1 ⁄ 2 feet) tall, it is characterized by small whitish flowers, a tall stem of fernlike leaves, and a pungent odor. The plant is native to temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere in Asia , Europe , and North America . It has been introduced as

186-2008: A molecular phylogeny of plants placed the flowering plants in their evolutionary context: Bryophytes [REDACTED] Lycophytes [REDACTED] Ferns [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] The main groups of living angiosperms are: Amborellales [REDACTED] 1 sp. New Caledonia shrub Nymphaeales [REDACTED] c. 80 spp. water lilies & allies Austrobaileyales [REDACTED] c. 100 spp. woody plants Magnoliids [REDACTED] c. 10,000 spp. 3-part flowers, 1-pore pollen, usu. branch-veined leaves Chloranthales [REDACTED] 77 spp. Woody, apetalous Monocots [REDACTED] c. 70,000 spp. 3-part flowers, 1 cotyledon , 1-pore pollen, usu. parallel-veined leaves   Ceratophyllales [REDACTED] c. 6 spp. aquatic plants Eudicots [REDACTED] c. 175,000 spp. 4- or 5-part flowers, 3-pore pollen, usu. branch-veined leaves Amborellales Melikyan, Bobrov & Zaytzeva 1999 Nymphaeales Salisbury ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820 Austrobaileyales Takhtajan ex Reveal 1992 Chloranthales Mart. 1835 Canellales Cronquist 1957 Piperales von Berchtold & Presl 1820 Magnoliales de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820 Laurales de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820 Acorales Link 1835 Alismatales Brown ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820 Petrosaviales Takhtajan 1997 Dioscoreales Brown 1835 Pandanales Brown ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820 Liliales Perleb 1826 Asparagales Link 1829 Arecales Bromhead 1840 Poales Small 1903 Zingiberales Grisebach 1854 Commelinales de Mirbel ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820 Diploid Virtually all sexually reproducing organisms are made up of somatic cells that are diploid or greater, but ploidy level may vary widely between different organisms, between different tissues within

279-535: A ploidy series , featuring diploid ( X. tropicalis , 2n=20), tetraploid ( X. laevis , 4n=36), octaploid ( X. wittei , 8n=72), and dodecaploid ( X. ruwenzoriensis , 12n=108) species. Over evolutionary time scales in which chromosomal polymorphisms accumulate, these changes become less apparent by karyotype – for example, humans are generally regarded as diploid, but the 2R hypothesis has confirmed two rounds of whole genome duplication in early vertebrate ancestors. Ploidy can also vary between individuals of

372-417: A syncytium , though usually the ploidy of each nucleus is described individually. For example, a fungal dikaryon with two separate haploid nuclei is distinguished from a diploid cell in which the chromosomes share a nucleus and can be shuffled together. It is possible on rare occasions for ploidy to increase in the germline , which can result in polyploid offspring and ultimately polyploid species. This

465-442: A woody stem ), grasses and grass-like plants, a vast majority of broad-leaved trees , shrubs and vines , and most aquatic plants . Angiosperms are distinguished from the other major seed plant clade, the gymnosperms , by having flowers , xylem consisting of vessel elements instead of tracheids , endosperm within their seeds, and fruits that completely envelop the seeds. The ancestors of flowering plants diverged from

558-675: A zygote with n pairs of chromosomes, i.e. 2 n chromosomes in total. The chromosomes in each pair, one of which comes from the sperm and one from the egg, are said to be homologous . Cells and organisms with pairs of homologous chromosomes are called diploid. For example, most animals are diploid and produce haploid gametes. During meiosis , sex cell precursors have their number of chromosomes halved by randomly "choosing" one member of each pair of chromosomes, resulting in haploid gametes. Because homologous chromosomes usually differ genetically, gametes usually differ genetically from one another. All plants and many fungi and algae switch between

651-622: A child". This is apparently a corruption of the Achilles myth in which Jesus uses the plant to heal his adoptive father. For this reason, in France, it was called ' herbe de St. Joseph ', and it has also been called 'carpenter's weed' in this regard. Various other common names include arrowroot , death flower , eerie , hundred-leaved grass , knyghten , old man's mustard , sanguinary , seven-year's love , snake's grass , and soldier . The names milfoil and thousand leaf come refer to

744-467: A chromosome copy number of 1 to 4, and that number is commonly fractional, counting portions of the chromosome partly replicated at a given time. This is because under exponential growth conditions the cells are able to replicate their DNA faster than they can divide. In ciliates, the macronucleus is called ampliploid , because only part of the genome is amplified. Mixoploidy is the case where two cell lines, one diploid and one polyploid, coexist within

837-727: A density of about 0.3 kg/ha. One factor for its use in grass mixtures was its deep roots, with leaves rich in minerals, minimizing mineral deficiencies in ruminant feed. It was introduced into New Zealand as a drought-tolerant pasture. Some pick-up sticks are made of yarrow. Yarrow can be used for dying wool as it contains apigenin and luteolin . Depending on the mordant the color may be green to yellow. Yarrow has been found with Neanderthal burials , suggesting its association with human species dates to at least 60,000 years ago. Yarrow and tortoiseshell are considered to be lucky in Chinese tradition . The stalks are dried and used as

930-474: A feed for livestock in New Zealand and Australia . Used by some animals, the plant may have somewhat toxic properties, although historically it has been employed for medicinal purposes. Achillea millefolium is an erect, herbaceous , perennial plant that produces one to several stems 0.2–1 metre (8–40 inches) in height, and has a spreading rhizomatous growth form. Cauline and more or less clasping,

1023-424: A germ cell with an uneven number of chromosomes undergoes meiosis, the chromosomes cannot be evenly divided between the daughter cells, resulting in aneuploid gametes. Triploid organisms, for instance, are usually sterile. Because of this, triploidy is commonly exploited in agriculture to produce seedless fruit such as bananas and watermelons. If the fertilization of human gametes results in three sets of chromosomes,

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1116-703: A germination temperature of 18–24 °C (64–75 °F). It has a relatively short life in some situations, but may be prolonged by division in the spring every other year, and planting 30 to 46 cm (12–18 in) apart. It can become invasive . The species use in traditional gardens has generally been superseded by cultivars with specific 'improved' qualities. Some are used as drought-tolerant lawns , with periodic mowing. The many different ornamental cultivars include: 'Paprika', 'Cerise Queen', 'Red Beauty', 'Red Velvet', 'Saucy Seduction', 'Strawberry Seduction' (red), 'Island Pink' (pink), 'Calistoga' (white), and 'Sonoma Coast' (white). The following are recipients of

1209-629: A haploid and a diploid state, with one of the stages emphasized over the other. This is called alternation of generations . Most fungi and algae are haploid during the principal stage of their life cycle, as are some primitive plants like mosses . More recently evolved plants, like the gymnosperms and angiosperms , spend the majority of their life cycle in the diploid stage. Most animals are diploid, but male bees , wasps , and ants are haploid organisms because they develop from unfertilized, haploid eggs, while females (workers and queens) are diploid, making their system haplodiploid . In some cases there

1302-631: A more cosmopolitan distribution include Aethes smeathmanniana (Smeathmann's aethes moth), Chloroclystis v-ata (v-pug), Choristoneura diversana , Cochylidia richteriana , Epiblema graphana , Eupithecia succenturiata (bordered pug), E. vulgata (common pug), Jordanita budensis and Thiodia citrana (lemon bell). The Noctuid Agrotis stigmosa has also been reared on A. millefolium . Cassida denticollis , Galeruca tanaceti , Hypocassida subferruginea and Phytoecia virgula are cosmopolitan species of beetles that feed on A. millefolium . Chrysanthia viridissima

1395-451: A number of chromosomes that is an exact multiple of the number of chromosomes in a normal gamete; and having any other number, respectively. For example, a person with Turner syndrome may be missing one sex chromosome (X or Y), resulting in a (45,X) karyotype instead of the usual (46,XX) or (46,XY). This is a type of aneuploidy and cells from the person may be said to be aneuploid with a (diploid) chromosome complement of 45. The term ploidy

1488-425: A process called endoreduplication , where duplication of the genome occurs without mitosis (cell division). The extreme in polyploidy occurs in the fern genus Ophioglossum , the adder's-tongues, in which polyploidy results in chromosome counts in the hundreds, or, in at least one case, well over one thousand. It is possible for polyploid organisms to revert to lower ploidy by haploidisation . Polyploidy

1581-515: A randomising agent in I ;Ching divination . In antiquity , the plant was known as herba militaris for its use in stanching the flow of blood from wounds. In the Classical Greek epic Iliad , Homer tells of the centaur Chiron , who conveyed herbal secrets to his human pupils and taught Achilles to use yarrow on the battlegrounds of Troy . The genus name Achillea is inspired by

1674-401: A single nucleus rather than in the cell as a whole. Because in most situations there is only one nucleus per cell, it is commonplace to speak of the ploidy of a cell, but in cases in which there is more than one nucleus per cell, more specific definitions are required when ploidy is discussed. Authors may at times report the total combined ploidy of all nuclei present within the cell membrane of

1767-437: A single chromosome and diploid individuals have two chromosomes. In Entamoeba , the ploidy level varies from 4 n to 40 n in a single population. Alternation of generations occurs in most plants, with individuals "alternating" ploidy level between different stages of their sexual life cycle. In large multicellular organisms, variations in ploidy level between different tissues, organs, or cell lineages are common. Because

1860-495: A single copy of each chromosome – that is, one and only one set of chromosomes. In this case, the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell is said to be haploid only if it has a single set of chromosomes , each one not being part of a pair. By extension a cell may be called haploid if its nucleus has one set of chromosomes, and an organism may be called haploid if its body cells (somatic cells) have one set of chromosomes per cell. By this definition haploid therefore would not be used to refer to

1953-484: A single parent, without the involvement of gametes and fertilization, and all the offspring are genetically identical to each other and to the parent, including in chromosome number. The parents of these vegetative clones may still be capable of producing haploid gametes in preparation for sexual reproduction, but these gametes are not used to create the vegetative offspring by this route. Some eukaryotic genome-scale or genome size databases and other sources which may list

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2046-470: A total dry weight of 11,800 kg/ha (10,500 pounds per acre). It has been introduced as a feed for livestock in New Zealand and Australia , where it is a common weed of both wet and dry areas, such as roadsides, meadows, fields and coastal places. Several cavity-nesting birds, including the common starling , use yarrow to line their nests. Experiments conducted on the tree swallow , which does not use yarrow, suggest that adding yarrow to nests inhibits

2139-610: A total of 64 angiosperm orders and 416 families. The diversity of flowering plants is not evenly distributed. Nearly all species belong to the eudicot (75%), monocot (23%), and magnoliid (2%) clades. The remaining five clades contain a little over 250 species in total; i.e. less than 0.1% of flowering plant diversity, divided among nine families. The 25 most species-rich of 443 families, containing over 166,000 species between them in their APG circumscriptions, are: The botanical term "angiosperm", from Greek words angeíon ( ἀγγεῖον 'bottle, vessel') and spérma ( σπέρμα 'seed'),

2232-858: Is starting to impact plants and is likely to cause many species to become extinct by 2100. Angiosperms are terrestrial vascular plants; like the gymnosperms, they have roots , stems , leaves , and seeds . They differ from other seed plants in several ways. The largest angiosperms are Eucalyptus gum trees of Australia, and Shorea faguetiana , dipterocarp rainforest trees of Southeast Asia, both of which can reach almost 100 metres (330 ft) in height. The smallest are Wolffia duckweeds which float on freshwater, each plant less than 2 millimetres (0.08 in) across. Considering their method of obtaining energy, some 99% of flowering plants are photosynthetic autotrophs , deriving their energy from sunlight and using it to create molecules such as sugars . The remainder are parasitic , whether on fungi like

2325-490: Is 24. The monoploid number equals the total chromosome number divided by the ploidy level of the somatic cells: 48 chromosomes in total divided by a ploidy level of 4 equals a monoploid number of 12. Hence, the monoploid number (12) and haploid number (24) are distinct in this example. However, commercial potato crops (as well as many other crop plants) are commonly propagated vegetatively (by asexual reproduction through mitosis), in which case new individuals are produced from

2418-402: Is 7. The gametes of common wheat are considered to be haploid, since they contain half the genetic information of somatic cells, but they are not monoploid, as they still contain three complete sets of chromosomes ( n  = 3 x ). In the case of wheat, the origin of its haploid number of 21 chromosomes from three sets of 7 chromosomes can be demonstrated. In many other organisms, although

2511-519: Is a back-formation from haploidy and diploidy . "Ploid" is a combination of Ancient Greek -πλόος (-plóos, "-fold") and -ειδής (- eidḗs ), from εἶδος ( eîdos , "form, likeness"). The principal meaning of the Greek word ᾰ̔πλόος (haplóos) is "single", from ἁ- (ha-, "one, same"). διπλόος ( diplóos ) means "duplex" or "two-fold". Diploid therefore means "duplex-shaped" (compare "humanoid", "human-shaped"). Polish-German botanist Eduard Strasburger coined

2604-655: Is a mite that deforms flowers and leaves. external link to gallformers Achillea millefolium is cultivated as an ornamental plant by many plant nurseries . It is planted in gardens and natural landscaping settings of diverse climates and styles. They include native plant , drought-tolerant , and wildlife gardens . The plant is a frequent component of butterfly gardens . The plant prefers well-drained soil in full sun, but can be grown in less ideal conditions. For propagation , seeds require light for germination, so optimal germination occurs when planted no deeper than 6 mm ( 1 ⁄ 4  in). Seeds also require

2697-610: Is a European species whose adults can be found feeding on pollen and nectar. Trichodes ornatus (ornate checkered beetle) is a species found in North America whose adults can be found feeding on A. millefolium . Horistus orientalis is a species of plant bugs that feeds on A. millefolium . Hedychrum rutilans is a species of cuckoo wasps whose adults can be found feeding on A. millefolium in Europe and North Africa. Aceria kiefferi (Nalepa, 1891)

2790-413: Is a characteristic of the bacterium Deinococcus radiodurans and of the archaeon Halobacterium salinarum . These two species are highly resistant to ionizing radiation and desiccation , conditions that induce DNA double-strand breaks. This resistance appears to be due to efficient homologous recombinational repair. Depending on growth conditions, prokaryotes such as bacteria may have

2883-412: Is an important evolutionary mechanism in both plants and animals and is known as a primary driver of speciation . As a result, it may become desirable to distinguish between the ploidy of a species or variety as it presently breeds and that of an ancestor. The number of chromosomes in the ancestral (non-homologous) set is called the monoploid number ( x ), and is distinct from the haploid number ( n ) in

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2976-462: Is associated with a 14% lower risk of being endangered, and a 20% greater chance of being invasive. Polyploidy may be associated with increased vigor and adaptability. Some studies suggest that selection is more likely to favor diploidy in host species and haploidy in parasite species. However, polyploidization is associated with an increase in transposable element content and relaxed purifying selection on recessive deleterious alleles. When

3069-426: Is derived from mythical Greek character Achilles , who reportedly carried it with his army to treat battle wounds. The specific epithet millefolium comes from the featherlike leaves which are minutely divided. Yarrow is native to temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere in Asia , Europe , and North America . The plant grows from sea level to 3,500 m (11,500 ft) in elevation. Common yarrow

3162-431: Is derived from the Greek words ἀγγεῖον / angeion ('container, vessel') and σπέρμα / sperma ('seed'), meaning that the seeds are enclosed within a fruit. The group was formerly called Magnoliophyta . Angiosperms are by far the most diverse group of land plants with 64 orders , 416 families , approximately 13,000 known genera and 300,000 known species . They include all forbs (flowering plants without

3255-525: Is evidence that the n chromosomes in a haploid set have resulted from duplications of an originally smaller set of chromosomes. This "base" number – the number of apparently originally unique chromosomes in a haploid set – is called the monoploid number , also known as basic or cardinal number , or fundamental number . As an example, the chromosomes of common wheat are believed to be derived from three different ancestral species, each of which had 7 chromosomes in its haploid gametes. The monoploid number

3348-471: Is faster than diploid under high nutrient conditions. The NLH is also tested in haploid, diploid, and polyploid fungi by Gerstein et al. 2017. This result is also more complex: On the one hand, under phosphorus and other nutrient limitation, lower ploidy is selected as expected. However under normal nutrient levels or under limitation of only nitrogen , higher ploidy was selected. Thus the NLH – and more generally,

3441-466: Is frequently found in the mildly disturbed soil of grasslands and open forests. Active growth occurs in the spring. In North America, both native and introduced genotypes, and both diploid and polyploid plants are found. It is found in every habitat throughout California except the Colorado and Mojave Deserts . Common yarrow produces an average yield of 110,000 plants per hectare (43,000/acre), with

3534-509: Is produced in a flat-topped capitulum cluster and the inflorescences are visited by many insects, featuring a generalized pollination system. The small achene -like fruits are called cypsela. The plant has a sweet scent similar to that of chrysanthemums , so powerful that it may be irritating to some. The dark blue essential oil of yarrow contains chemicals called proazulenes . Chamazulene and δ-Cadinol are chemical compounds found in A. millefolium . The chromophore of azulene

3627-720: Is related to both the Dutch word gerw (alternately yerw ) and the Old High German word garawa . In the eastern counties it may be called yarroway. It was called old man's pepper due to its pungent flavor, while the name field hop came from its use in beer making in Sweden. In the Hebrides , a leaf held against the eyes was sometimes believed to give second sight . In the witchcraft trial of Elspeth Reoch in March 1616, she

3720-572: Is the simplest to illustrate in diagrams of genetics concepts. But this definition also allows for haploid gametes with more than one set of chromosomes. As given above, gametes are by definition haploid, regardless of the actual number of sets of chromosomes they contain. An organism whose somatic cells are tetraploid (four sets of chromosomes), for example, will produce gametes by meiosis that contain two sets of chromosomes. These gametes might still be called haploid even though they are numerically diploid. An alternative usage defines "haploid" as having

3813-426: Is the state in which the chromosomes are paired and can undergo meiosis. The zygoid state of a species may be diploid or polyploid. In the azygoid state the chromosomes are unpaired. It may be the natural state of some asexual species or may occur after meiosis. In diploid organisms the azygoid state is monoploid. (See below for dihaploidy.) In the strictest sense, ploidy refers to the number of sets of chromosomes in

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3906-731: Is the state where all cells have multiple sets of chromosomes beyond the basic set, usually 3 or more. Specific terms are triploid (3 sets), tetraploid (4 sets), pentaploid (5 sets), hexaploid (6 sets), heptaploid or septaploid (7 sets), octoploid (8 sets), nonaploid (9 sets), decaploid (10 sets), undecaploid (11 sets), dodecaploid (12 sets), tridecaploid (13 sets), tetradecaploid (14 sets), etc. Some higher ploidies include hexadecaploid (16 sets), dotriacontaploid (32 sets), and tetrahexacontaploid (64 sets), though Greek terminology may be set aside for readability in cases of higher ploidy (such as "16-ploid"). Polytene chromosomes of plants and fruit flies can be 1024-ploid. Ploidy of systems such as

3999-402: Is thus 7 and the haploid number is 3 × 7 = 21. In general n is a multiple of x . The somatic cells in a wheat plant have six sets of 7 chromosomes: three sets from the egg and three sets from the sperm which fused to form the plant, giving a total of 42 chromosomes. As a formula, for wheat 2 n  = 6 x  = 42, so that the haploid number n is 21 and the monoploid number x

4092-425: Is toxic to dogs, cats, and horses, causing increased urination, vomiting, diarrhea and dermatitis. When consumed by cows, an unfavorable flavor is given to their milk. In a standard rodent model for reproductive toxicity, aqueous extracts of yarrow produced a significant increase in the percentage of abnormal sperm. A. millefolium was used in traditional medicine , in part due to its astringent properties and

4185-417: Is well established in this original sense, but it has also been used for doubled monoploids or doubled haploids , which are homozygous and used for genetic research. Euploidy ( Greek eu , "true" or "even") is the state of a cell or organism having one or more than one set of the same set of chromosomes, possibly excluding the sex-determining chromosomes . For example, most human cells have 2 of each of

4278-491: The Alismatales grow in marine environments, spreading with rhizomes that grow through the mud in sheltered coastal waters. Some specialised angiosperms are able to flourish in extremely acid or alkaline habitats. The sundews , many of which live in nutrient-poor acid bogs , are carnivorous plants , able to derive nutrients such as nitrate from the bodies of trapped insects. Other flowers such as Gentiana verna ,

4371-620: The Royal Horticultural Society 's Award of Garden Merit : The many hybrids of this species designated Achillea × taygetea are useful garden subjects, including: 'Appleblossom', 'Fanal', 'Hoffnung', and 'Moonshine'. Yarrow can cause allergic skin rashes . It reportedly can induce menstruation and cause miscarriages. According to the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals , yarrow

4464-526: The leaves appear spirally and evenly along the stem, with the largest and most petiolate towards the base; they are 5–20 centimetres (2–8 in) long and fernlike , divided bipinnately or tripinnately . The inflorescence has 4 to 9 phyllaries and contains ray and disk flowers which are white to pink, blooming from March to October. There are generally 3 to 8 ray flowers, which are 3 millimetres ( 1 ⁄ 8  in) long and ovate to round. The tiny disk flowers range from 10 to 40. The inflorescence

4557-423: The monoploid number ( x ). The haploid number ( n ) refers to the total number of chromosomes found in a gamete (a sperm or egg cell produced by meiosis in preparation for sexual reproduction). Under normal conditions, the haploid number is exactly half the total number of chromosomes present in the organism's somatic cells, with one paternal and maternal copy in each chromosome pair. For diploid organisms,

4650-460: The orchids for part or all of their life-cycle, or on other plants , either wholly like the broomrapes, Orobanche , or partially like the witchweeds, Striga . In terms of their environment, flowering plants are cosmopolitan, occupying a wide range of habitats on land, in fresh water and in the sea. On land, they are the dominant plant group in every habitat except for frigid moss-lichen tundra and coniferous forest . The seagrasses in

4743-425: The salivary gland , elaiosome , endosperm , and trophoblast can exceed this, up to 1048576-ploid in the silk glands of the commercial silkworm Bombyx mori . The chromosome sets may be from the same species or from closely related species. In the latter case, these are known as allopolyploids (or amphidiploids, which are allopolyploids that behave as if they were normal diploids). Allopolyploids are formed from

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4836-892: The "Big Five" extinction events in Earth's history, only the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event had occurred while angiosperms dominated plant life on the planet. Today, the Holocene extinction affects all kingdoms of complex life on Earth, and conservation measures are necessary to protect plants in their habitats in the wild ( in situ ), or failing that, ex situ in seed banks or artificial habitats like botanic gardens . Otherwise, around 40% of plant species may become extinct due to human actions such as habitat destruction , introduction of invasive species , unsustainable logging , land clearing and overharvesting of medicinal or ornamental plants . Further, climate change

4929-453: The 23 homologous monoploid chromosomes, for a total of 46 chromosomes. A human cell with one extra set of the 23 normal chromosomes (functionally triploid) would be considered euploid. Euploid karyotypes would consequentially be a multiple of the haploid number , which in humans is 23. Aneuploidy is the state where one or more individual chromosomes of a normal set are absent or present in more than their usual number of copies (excluding

5022-407: The 23 homologous pairs of chromosomes that humans normally have. This results in two homologous pairs within each of the 23 homologous pairs, providing a full complement of 46 chromosomes. This total number of individual chromosomes (counting all complete sets) is called the chromosome number or chromosome complement . The number of chromosomes found in a single complete set of chromosomes is called

5115-572: The absence or presence of complete sets, which is considered euploidy). Unlike euploidy, aneuploid karyotypes will not be a multiple of the haploid number. In humans, examples of aneuploidy include having a single extra chromosome (as in Down syndrome , where affected individuals have three copies of chromosome 21) or missing a chromosome (as in Turner syndrome , where affected individuals have only one sex chromosome). Aneuploid karyotypes are given names with

5208-536: The alleged use of the herb by Achilles to treat his soldiers' wounds. Other names implying the plant's historical use in healing—particularly in the military—include bloodwort , knight's milfoil , staunchweed , and, from its use in the United States Civil War , soldier's woundwort . Its use in either starting or stopping nosebleeds led to the common name nosebleed . The English name yarrow comes from its Saxon ( Old English ) name gearwe , which

5301-437: The chromosome constitution. Dihaploids (which are diploid) are important for selective breeding of tetraploid crop plants (notably potatoes), because selection is faster with diploids than with tetraploids. Tetraploids can be reconstituted from the diploids, for example by somatic fusion. The term "dihaploid" was coined by Bender to combine in one word the number of genome copies (diploid) and their origin (haploid). The term

5394-453: The chromosome number is generally reduced only by the specialized process of meiosis, the somatic cells of the body inherit and maintain the chromosome number of the zygote by mitosis. However, in many situations somatic cells double their copy number by means of endoreduplication as an aspect of cellular differentiation . For example, the hearts of two-year-old human children contain 85% diploid and 15% tetraploid nuclei, but by 12 years of age

5487-560: The common ancestor of all living gymnosperms before the end of the Carboniferous , over 300 million years ago. In the Cretaceous , angiosperms diversified explosively , becoming the dominant group of plants across the planet. Agriculture is almost entirely dependent on angiosperms, and a small number of flowering plant families supply nearly all plant-based food and livestock feed. Rice , maize and wheat provide half of

5580-499: The condition is called triploid syndrome . In unicellular organisms the ploidy nutrient limitation hypothesis suggests that nutrient limitation should encourage haploidy in preference to higher ploidies. This hypothesis is due to the higher surface-to-volume ratio of haploids, which eases nutrient uptake, thereby increasing the internal nutrient-to-demand ratio. Mable 2001 finds Saccharomyces cerevisiae to be somewhat inconsistent with this hypothesis however, as haploid growth

5673-423: The diploid stage are under less efficient natural selection than those genes expressed in the haploid stage is referred to as the “masking theory”. Evidence in support of this masking theory has been reported in studies of the single-celled yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae . In further support of the masking theory, evidence of strong purifying selection in haploid tissue-specific genes has been reported for

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5766-438: The flavoring of beer prior to the use of hops . The flowers and leaves are used in making some liquors and bitters . Yarrow is used as a companion plant , attracting some beneficial insects and repelling some pests. A. millefolium can be planted to combat soil erosion due to the plant's resistance to drought . Before the arrival of monocultures of ryegrass, both grass and pasture contained A. millefolium at

5859-659: The flowering plants as an unranked clade without a formal Latin name (angiosperms). A formal classification was published alongside the 2009 revision in which the flowering plants rank as the subclass Magnoliidae. From 1998, the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (APG) has reclassified the angiosperms, with updates in the APG II system in 2003, the APG III system in 2009, and the APG IV system in 2016. In 2019,

5952-425: The gametes produced by the tetraploid organism in the example above, since these gametes are numerically diploid. The term monoploid is often used as a less ambiguous way to describe a single set of chromosomes; by this second definition, haploid and monoploid are identical and can be used interchangeably. Gametes ( sperm and ova ) are haploid cells. The haploid gametes produced by most organisms combine to form

6045-1417: The growth of parasites . Achillea millefolium is a food source for many species of insects, although is not particularly attractive to ladybirds . The larvae of the moths Bucculatrix clavenae , B. cristatella , B. fatigatella , B. humiliella , B. latviaella , Cnephasia abrasana , Cochylimorpha elongana , Coleophora argentula , C. carelica , C. ditella , C. expressella , C. follicularis , C. gardesanella , C. millefolii , C. partitella , C. ptarmicia , C. quadristraminella , C. succursella , C. vibicigerella , Depressaria olerella , D. silesiaca , Dichrorampha alpinana (broad-blotch drill), D. petiverella , D. vancouverana (tanacetum root moth), Eupithecia millefoliata (yarrow pug), E. nanata (narrow-winged pug), Gillmeria pallidactyla , Idaea pallidata , Isidiella nickerlii , Loxostege manualis , Phycitodes maritima , P. saxicola , Pyncostola bohemiella , Sophronia sicariellus and Thetidia smaragdaria ( Essex emerald ) feed on Achillea millefolium in Europe. The larvae of Chlorochlamys chloroleucaria (blackberry looper), Coleophora quadruplex and Sparganothoides lentiginosana (lentiginos moth) feed on A. millefolium in North America. Other species of moths with

6138-419: The haploid number n  = 21). The gametes are haploid for their own species, but triploid, with three sets of chromosomes, by comparison to a probable evolutionary ancestor, einkorn wheat . Tetraploidy (four sets of chromosomes, 2 n  = 4 x ) is common in many plant species, and also occurs in amphibians , reptiles , and insects . For example, species of Xenopus (African toads) form

6231-532: The hybridization of two separate species. In plants, this probably most often occurs from the pairing of meiotically unreduced gametes , and not by diploid–diploid hybridization followed by chromosome doubling. The so-called Brassica triangle is an example of allopolyploidy, where three different parent species have hybridized in all possible pair combinations to produce three new species. Polyploidy occurs commonly in plants, but rarely in animals. Even in diploid organisms, many somatic cells are polyploid due to

6324-583: The idea that haploidy is selected by harsher conditions – is cast into doubt by these results. Older WGDs have also been investigated. Only as recently as 2015 was the ancient whole genome duplication in Baker's yeast proven to be allopolyploid , by Marcet-Houben and Gabaldón 2015. It still remains to be explained why there are not more polyploid events in fungi, and the place of neopolyploidy and mesopolyploidy in fungal history . The concept that those genes of an organism that are expressed exclusively in

6417-518: The manner of vines or lianas . The number of species of flowering plants is estimated to be in the range of 250,000 to 400,000. This compares to around 12,000 species of moss and 11,000 species of pteridophytes . The APG system seeks to determine the number of families , mostly by molecular phylogenetics . In the 2009 APG III there were 415 families. The 2016 APG IV added five new orders (Boraginales, Dilleniales, Icacinales, Metteniusales and Vahliales), along with some new families, for

6510-510: The mild laxative effect of its leaves. It has been used since ancient times to heal wounds and stop bleeding, and in the sixteenth century the crushed leaves were used to stop nosebleeds. Yarrow and its North American varieties were traditionally used by many Native American nations. The Navajo historically considered it a "life medicine" and chewed the plant for toothaches and used its infusions for earaches. The Miwok in California used

6603-598: The minutely divided leaves. In Spanish , it is known as gordaldo and, in New Mexico and southern Colorado , plumajillo (Spanish for 'little feather'). In Sussex and Devonshire superstition, yarrow was used for finding one's real sweetheart. One would pluck yarrow growing on a young man's grave while reciting: and go to sleep with the yarrow under the pillow. In a similar tradition in Wicklow , girls would pick yarrow on Hallow Eve and recite: then retire for

6696-455: The monoploid number and haploid number are equal; in humans, both are equal to 23. When a human germ cell undergoes meiosis, the diploid 46 chromosome complement is split in half to form haploid gametes. After fusion of a male and a female gamete (each containing 1 set of 23 chromosomes) during fertilization , the resulting zygote again has the full complement of 46 chromosomes: 2 sets of 23 chromosomes. Euploidy and aneuploidy describe having

6789-418: The most generic sense, haploid refers to having the number of sets of chromosomes normally found in a gamete . Because two gametes necessarily combine during sexual reproduction to form a single zygote from which somatic cells are generated, healthy gametes always possess exactly half the number of sets of chromosomes found in the somatic cells, and therefore "haploid" in this sense refers to having exactly half

6882-427: The night without speaking and go to sleep with an ounce of yarrow sewn in flannel under the pillow. In Suffolk a leaf was placed in the nose so it would bleed, while reciting Flowering plant Basal angiosperms Core angiosperms Flowering plants are plants that bear flowers and fruits , and form the clade Angiospermae ( / ˌ æ n dʒ i ə ˈ s p ər m iː / ). The term 'angiosperm'

6975-565: The number of chromosomes may have originated in this way, this is no longer clear, and the monoploid number is regarded as the same as the haploid number. Thus in humans, x  =  n  = 23. Diploid cells have two homologous copies of each chromosome , usually one from the mother and one from the father . All or nearly all mammals are diploid organisms. The suspected tetraploid (possessing four-chromosome sets) plains viscacha rat ( Tympanoctomys barrerae ) and golden viscacha rat ( Pipanacoctomys aureus ) have been regarded as

7068-406: The number of sets of chromosomes found in a somatic cell. By this definition, an organism whose gametic cells contain a single copy of each chromosome (one set of chromosomes) may be considered haploid while the somatic cells, containing two copies of each chromosome (two sets of chromosomes), are diploid. This scheme of diploid somatic cells and haploid gametes is widely used in the animal kingdom and

7161-694: The only known exceptions (as of 2004). However, some genetic studies have rejected any polyploidism in mammals as unlikely, and suggest that amplification and dispersion of repetitive sequences best explain the large genome size of these two rodents. All normal diploid individuals have some small fraction of cells that display polyploidy . Human diploid cells have 46 chromosomes (the somatic number, 2n ) and human haploid gametes (egg and sperm) have 23 chromosomes ( n ). Retroviruses that contain two copies of their RNA genome in each viral particle are also said to be diploid. Examples include human foamy virus , human T-lymphotropic virus , and HIV . Polyploidy

7254-409: The organism as it now reproduces. Common wheat ( Triticum aestivum ) is an organism in which x and n differ. Each plant has a total of six sets of chromosomes (with two sets likely having been obtained from each of three different diploid species that are its distant ancestors). The somatic cells are hexaploid, 2 n  = 6 x  = 42 (where the monoploid number x  = 7 and

7347-403: The plant Scots Pine . The common potato ( Solanum tuberosum ) is an example of a tetraploid organism, carrying four sets of chromosomes. During sexual reproduction, each potato plant inherits two sets of 12 chromosomes from the pollen parent, and two sets of 12 chromosomes from the ovule parent. The four sets combined provide a full complement of 48 chromosomes. The haploid number (half of 48)

7440-450: The plant as an analgesic and head cold remedy. Native American nations used the plant for healing cuts and abrasions, relief from earaches and throat infections, as well as for an eyewash . Common yarrow was used by Plains indigenous peoples to reduce pain or fever and aid sleep. In the early 20th century, some Ojibwe people used a decoction of yarrow leaves on hot stones and inhaled it to treat headaches , or applied decoctions of

7533-400: The proportions become approximately equal, and adults examined contained 27% diploid, 71% tetraploid and 2% octaploid nuclei. There is continued study and debate regarding the fitness advantages or disadvantages conferred by different ploidy levels. A study comparing the karyotypes of endangered or invasive plants with those of their relatives found that being polyploid as opposed to diploid

7626-684: The rest of the body being diploid (as in the mammalian liver ). For many organisms, especially plants and fungi, changes in ploidy level between generations are major drivers of speciation . In mammals and birds, ploidy changes are typically fatal. There is, however, evidence of polyploidy in organisms now considered to be diploid, suggesting that polyploidy has contributed to evolutionary diversification in plants and animals through successive rounds of polyploidization and rediploidization. Humans are diploid organisms, normally carrying two complete sets of chromosomes in their somatic cells: one copy of paternal and maternal chromosomes, respectively, in each of

7719-497: The root onto skin for its stimulating effect. The entire plant is reportedly edible and nutritious, but it is advised not to consume much. The foliage is pungent; both its leaves and flowers are bitter and astringent. The leaves can be eaten young; raw, they can be added to salad. The leaves, with an aniseed -grass flavour, can be brewed as tea. In the Middle Ages , yarrow was part of a herbal mixture known as gruit used in

7812-450: The same organism . Though polyploidy in humans is not viable, mixoploidy has been found in live adults and children. There are two types: diploid-triploid mixoploidy, in which some cells have 46 chromosomes and some have 69, and diploid-tetraploid mixoploidy, in which some cells have 46 and some have 92 chromosomes. It is a major topic of cytology. Dihaploid and polyhaploid cells are formed by haploidisation of polyploids, i.e., by halving

7905-462: The same organism, and at different stages in an organism's life cycle. Half of all known plant genera contain polyploid species, and about two-thirds of all grasses are polyploid. Many animals are uniformly diploid, though polyploidy is common in invertebrates, reptiles, and amphibians. In some species, ploidy varies between individuals of the same species (as in the social insects ), and in others entire tissues and organ systems may be polyploid despite

7998-500: The same species or at different stages of the life cycle . In some insects it differs by caste . In humans, only the gametes are haploid, but in many of the social insects , including ants , bees , and termites , males develop from unfertilized eggs, making them haploid for their entire lives, even as adults. In the Australian bulldog ant, Myrmecia pilosula , a haplodiploid species, haploid individuals of this species have

8091-568: The spring gentian, are adapted to the alkaline conditions found on calcium -rich chalk and limestone , which give rise to often dry topographies such as limestone pavement . As for their growth habit , the flowering plants range from small, soft herbaceous plants , often living as annuals or biennials that set seed and die after one growing season, to large perennial woody trees that may live for many centuries and grow to many metres in height. Some species grow tall without being self-supporting like trees by climbing on other plants in

8184-547: The suffix -somy (rather than -ploidy , used for euploid karyotypes), such as trisomy and monosomy . Homoploid means "at the same ploidy level", i.e. having the same number of homologous chromosomes . For example, homoploid hybridization is hybridization where the offspring have the same ploidy level as the two parental species. This contrasts with a common situation in plants where chromosome doubling accompanies or occurs soon after hybridization. Similarly, homoploid speciation contrasts with polyploid speciation . Zygoidy

8277-491: The terms haploid and diploid in 1905. Some authors suggest that Strasburger based the terms on August Weismann 's conception of the id (or germ plasm ), hence haplo- id and diplo- id . The two terms were brought into the English language from German through William Henry Lang 's 1908 translation of a 1906 textbook by Strasburger and colleagues. The term haploid is used with two distinct but related definitions. In

8370-559: The world's staple calorie intake, and all three plants are cereals from the Poaceae family (colloquially known as grasses). Other families provide important industrial plant products such as wood , paper and cotton , and supply numerous ingredients for beverages , sugar production , traditional medicine and modern pharmaceuticals . Flowering plants are also commonly grown for decorative purposes , with certain flowers playing significant cultural roles in many societies. Out of

8463-641: Was alleged to have plucked "melefour", thought to be another name for yarrow, and said " In nomine Patris, Fiili, et Spiritus Sancti " to become able to cure distemper (disorders of the four humours ) and impart the faculty of prediction. For its association with the Abrahamic devil it was called bad man's plaything , devil's nettle , and devil's plaything . Yarrow was thought to bring luck due to being, according to one woman cited by James Britten ( c.  1878 ), "the first herb our Saviour put in His hand when

8556-483: Was coined in the form "Angiospermae" by Paul Hermann in 1690, including only flowering plants whose seeds were enclosed in capsules. The term angiosperm fundamentally changed in meaning in 1827 with Robert Brown , when angiosperm came to mean a seed plant with enclosed ovules. In 1851, with Wilhelm Hofmeister 's work on embryo-sacs, Angiosperm came to have its modern meaning of all the flowering plants including Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons. The APG system treats

8649-584: Was discovered in yarrow and wormwood and named in 1863 by Septimus Piesse . Yarrow contains isovaleric acid , salicylic acid , asparagine , sterols , and flavonoids . It also contains phenolic acids such as gallic acid , 3, 4-dihydroxy benzoic acid , chlorogenic acid, vanillic acid, caffeic acid, syringic acid, p-coumaric acid, sinapic acid, ferulic acid, cinnamic acid and flavonoid such as myricetin , hesperidin , quercetin , luteolin , kaempferol , apigenin , rutin , hyperoside . The several varieties and subspecies include: The genus name Achillea

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