Yun Kwan ( Korean : 윤관 ; Hanja : 尹瓘 ; 12 July 1040 – 15 June 1111) was a Korean military general of Goryeo who was known for training the Byeolmuban and leading it to victory against the aggressive Jurchen tribes.
121-511: Yun was born as a descendant of official Yun Sin-dal ( 윤신달 ; 尹莘達 ). He passed the Goryeo civil service exam during the reign of Munjong . In 1087, Yun became a Chulchusa, and inspected Gwangju , Cheongju , and Chungju . When Sukjong became the new King, Yun was sent to the Liao dynasty to notify Sukjong's coronation. In 1098, Yun went to an ambassador of Northern Song dynasty , and told
242-626: A "classics licentiate" (or saengwon ) and others for a "literary licentiate" (or jinsa ). After passing these lower examinations ( saengjin-gwa ), they could proceed to the higher examination. This lower examination may have originated in the entrance examinations for the Gukjagam of Goryeo. In the lower examination, the literary licentiate tested compositional skill in various forms of Chinese poetry and prose, including shi poetry, fu rhyming prose, piao documentary prose, and ts'e problem-essays. The classics licentiate tested knowledge of
363-520: A few days after issuing the edict, he personally commanded the Guozijian and county-level schools to practice it diligently. As a result of the new focus on practical learning, from 1384 to 1756/57, all provincial and metropolitan examinations incorporated material on legal knowledge and the palace examinations included policy questions on current affairs. The first palace examination of the Ming dynasty
484-406: A frequent flashpoint of controversy, with various factions vying for control of the examination criteria. In particular, the question of whether the first phase of the higher examination should be oral or written became a hot topic of debate in early Joseon. The literary examination was divided into a lower and higher examination. In turn, in the lower literary examination some candidates applied for
605-410: A hundred palace examinations were held during the dynasty, resulting in a greater number of jinshi degrees rewarded. The examinations were opened to adult Chinese males, with some restrictions, including even individuals from the occupied northern territories of the Liao and Jin dynasties. Figures given for the number of examinees record 70–80,000 in 1088 and 79,000 at the turn of the 12th century. In
726-400: A means of breaking the hold which a few powerful families held over the government. Throughout the dynasty, they retained this character of strengthening the throne against the aristocracy. This also took the form of aligning the throne with the provincial elites, and the kings of Goryeo strove to extend educational opportunities to the local elites throughout the country. In fact, any member of
847-519: A memorial recommending the restoration of the examination system: however, this was not done. Kublai ended the imperial examination system, as he believed that Confucian learning was not needed for government jobs. Also, Kublai was opposed to such a commitment to the Chinese language and to the ethnic Han scholars who were so adept at it, as well as its accompanying ideology: he wished to appoint his own people without relying on an apparatus inherited from
968-502: A more decisive role in the Court. At the same time, a quota system was established which could enhance the equitable representation, geographically, of successful candidates. From 702 onward, the names of examinees were hidden to prevent examiners from knowing who was tested. Prior to this, it was even a custom for candidates to present their examiner with their own literary works in order to impress him. Sometime between 730 and 740, after
1089-516: A new category of examinations for the "presented scholar" ( jinshike 进士科 ). These three categories of examination were the origins of the imperial examination system that would last until 1905. Consequently, the year 607 is also considered by many to be the real beginning of the imperial examination system. The Sui dynasty was itself short lived however and the system was not developed further until much later. The imperial examinations did not significantly shift recruitment selection in practice during
1210-503: A newly conquered and sometimes rebellious country. The discontinuation of the exams had the effect of reducing the prestige of traditional learning, reducing the motivation for doing so, as well as encouraging new literary directions not motivated by the old means of literary development and success. The examination system was revived in 1315, with significant changes, during the reign of Ayurbarwada Buyantu Khan . The new examination system organized its examinees into regional categories in
1331-433: A position of rank, or who had already passed the lower examination. The miscellaneous examinations were looked down upon by the yangban, and were generally restricted to the chungin class of hereditary technical workers. Criteria for the military examination varied, but over time it became open even to members of the lowest class (the cheonmin ). The gwageo provided a basis for various forms of regionalism . Due to
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#17327726369801452-460: A position of the fifth rank or higher could automatically have one son placed in a position of rank. The examination system was spread to Goryeo in 957 by a visiting Hanlin scholar named Shuang Ji from Later Zhou . Gwangjong was highly pleased with Shuang Ji and requested that he remain at the Korean court permanently. The examinations were established in 958, during the reign of Gwangjong as
1573-463: A recommendation from the local official to undergo the final civil service examinations. As a result, the Han system of official selection combined education, administrative exposure, recommendation and examinations in their procedure. In AD 132, examinations were instituted to test all Xiaolian candidates recommended to the court. The system relied heavily on families who had access to education; before
1694-411: A relatively small scale until the examination system was extensively expanded during the reign of Wu Zetian , ruler of Wu Zhou . Included in the expanded examination system was a military exam, but the military exam never had a significant impact on the Chinese officer corps and military degrees were seen as inferior to their civil counterpart. The exact nature of Wu's influence on the examination system
1815-523: A special clerical title, beginning with daeseon , or "monk designate." Under the Joseon Dynasty (1392–1910), the examinations fell under three broad categories: the literary examinations ( 文科 ; mun-gwa ), military examinations ( 武科 ; mugwa ), and miscellaneous examinations ( 雜科 ; japgwa ) covering topics such as medicine, geography, astronomy, and translation. As other roads to advancement were much more closed than during
1936-410: A test of classical knowledge ( myeonggyeong eop ). These tests were officially to be held every three years, but in practice it was common for them to be held at other times as well. The composition test came to be viewed as more prestigious, and its successful applicants were divided into three grades. On the other hand, successful candidates on the classical examination were not ranked. In the course of
2057-627: A tool of selection started in earnest during the Sui dynasty (581–618), then into the Tang dynasty (618–907). The system became dominant during the Song dynasty (960–1279) and lasted for almost a millennium until its abolition during the late Qing dynasty reforms in 1905. The key sponsors for abolition were Yuan Shikai , Yin Chang and Zhang Zhidong . Aspects of the imperial examination still exist for entry into
2178-527: A total of 33 successful candidates were selected from a pool of 240. These 240, in turn, were sent from the Seonggyungwan (50), the capital (40), and the Eight Provinces (the number sent from each province varied, with Hwanghae and Yeongan sending only 10 while Gyeongsang sent 30). Each of the first two of the higher examination was in turn divided into three parts: in the first section,
2299-485: A way which favored Mongols and severely disadvantaged Southern Chinese. A quota system both for number of candidates and degrees awarded was instituted based on the classification of the four groups, those being the Mongols, their non-Han allies ( Semu-ren ), Northern Chinese, and Southern Chinese, with further restrictions by province favoring the northeast of the empire (Mongolia) and its vicinities. A quota of 300 persons
2420-504: Is still a matter of scholarly debate. During the Song dynasty the emperors expanded both examinations and the government school system, in part to counter the influence of military aristocrats, increasing the number of degree holders to more than four to five times that of the Tang. From the Song dynasty onward, the examinations played the primary role in selecting scholar-officials, who formed
2541-405: The gwageo and their subsequent career in government service. Under Joseon law, high office was closed to those who were not children of officials of the second full rank or higher, unless the candidate had passed the gwageo . Those who passed the higher literary examination came to monopolize all of the dynasty's high positions of state. The first national examinations were administered in
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#17327726369802662-480: The yangin freeborn class was permitted to take the examination, although the descendants of monks, criminals and cheonmin were excluded. However, over time government-run educational institutions such as the hyanggyo and Gukjagam lost ground to private institutions like the Twelve Assemblies . The major examinations were literary, and came in two forms: a composition test ( jesul eop ), and
2783-488: The Four Books and Five Classics from an orthodox Neo-Confucian interpretation. From each regular administration of the test, a total of 100 successful candidates were selected for each licentiate. These were drawn from a pool of 600 (for each licentiate), of which 200 were chosen from the capital and 400 were apportioned from the various provinces. The higher literary examination was administered every three years, and
2904-484: The Four Classics became the orthodox Neo-Confucianism which dominated later dynasties. Two other prominent successful entries into politics through the examination system were Su Shi (1037–1101) and his brother Su Zhe (1039–1112): both of whom became political opponents of Wang Anshi. The process of studying for the examination tended to be time-consuming and costly, requiring time to spare and tutors. Most of
3025-555: The Gabo Reforms of 1894, along with legal class discrimination and the old rank system. Imperial examination The imperial examination was a civil service examination system in Imperial China administered for the purpose of selecting candidates for the state bureaucracy . The concept of choosing bureaucrats by merit rather than by birth started early in Chinese history , but using written examinations as
3146-506: The Goryeo (918–1392) and Joseon (1392–1897) periods of Korea . Typically quite demanding, these tests measured candidates' ability of writing composition and knowledge of the Chinese classics . The form of writing varied from literature to proposals on management of the state. Technical subjects were also tested to appoint experts on medicine, interpretation, accounting, law etc. These were
3267-445: The byeolsi (special examinations) held on other special occasions. However, these special examinations were usually limited to the literary and military examinations. Over the course of the dynasty, a total of 581 irregular examinations were held, in comparison to 163 of the triennial singneonsi examinations. The literary and military examinations were administered in three stages: an initial qualifying test ( chosi ) administered in
3388-537: The singnyeonsi ( 식년시 ). However, the singnyeonsi became less important over time, and an increasing percentage of candidates took the gwageo on special occasions. These included the alseongsi (visitation examinations), which were administered when the king visited the Shrine of Confucius at the Seonggyungwan royal academy, the jeunggwangsi (augmented examinations) held during national celebrations, and
3509-460: The 13th century when only one percent of candidates were allowed to pass the prefectural examination. Even graduates of the lowest tier of examinations represented an elite class. In 1071, Emperor Shenzong of Song (r. 1067–1085) abolished the classicist as well as various other examinations on law and arithmetics. The jinshi examination became the primary gateway to officialdom. Judicial and classicist examinations were revived shortly after. However
3630-459: The Bureau of Medicine, which sent some of them to the palace and others to each provincial division down to the hyeon level. Those who passed the japgwa were originally given a crimson certificate, the same color obtained by those who passed the literary examination. However, pressure from the yangban eventually changed this color to white, signifying a lower level of achievement and entitling
3751-602: The Classics or sentences of similar meaning to certain passages. This reflected the stress the Song placed on creative understanding of the Classics. It would eventually develop into the so-called 'eight-legged essays' (bagu wen) that gave the defining character to the Ming and Qing examinations. Various reforms or attempts to reform the examination system were made during the Song dynasty by individuals such as Fan Zhongyan , Zhu Xi , and by Wang Anshi. Wang and Zhu successfully argued that poems and rhapsodies should be excluded from
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3872-484: The Department of State Affairs in the capital and were subjected to annual merit rating evaluations. Regional Inspectors and District Magistrates had to be transferred every three years and their subordinates every four years. They were not allowed to bring their parents or adult children with them upon reassignment of territorial administration. The Sui did not establish any hereditary kingdoms or marquisates ( hóu ) of
3993-465: The Goryeo period, the gwageo became virtually the only pathway to a position of rank. In theory, anyone other than nobi could take gwageo examinations, but in reality only yangban who had the luxury of spending much of their childhood and early adulthood studying could hope to pass the exam. In the case of literary administration, children of remarried women, concubines, and officials who were dismissed for corruption were excluded from taking
4114-460: The Grade B (乙科) graduates were sent to serve probationary positions in their local commanderies. The Taixue thereby began to dilute the aristocratic backgrounds of the Court gentlemen, increasing the access of commoner scholars to official appointments. After the reign of Emperor Wu, the numbers of Court gentlemen swelled by over two hundred every year; of this number, more than half were graduates from
4235-545: The Han sort. To compensate, nobles were given substantial stipends and staff. Aristocratic officials were ranked based on their pedigree with distinctions such as "high expectations", "pure", and "impure" so that they could be awarded offices appropriately. The Tang dynasty and the Zhou interregnum of Empress Wu (Wu Zetian) expanded examinations beyond the basic process of qualifying candidates based on questions of policy matters followed by an interview. Oral interviews as part of
4356-461: The Han to the Sui dynasty, they did not offer an official avenue to government appointment, the majority of which were filled through recommendations based on qualities such as social status, morals, and ability. The bureaucratic imperial examinations as a concept have their origins in the year 605 during the short-lived Sui dynasty . Its successor, the Tang dynasty , implemented imperial examinations on
4477-432: The Han. Successful candidates were awarded one of three ranks. All graduates were eligible for official appointment. The Yuan decision to use Zhu Xi’s classical scholarship as the examination standard was critical in enhancing the integration of the examination system with Confucian educational experience. Both Chinese and non-Chinese candidates were recruited separately, to guarantee that non-Chinese officials could control
4598-546: The Mongols and disadvantaged Southern Chinese. During the Ming and Qing dynasties, the system contributed to the narrow and focused nature of intellectual life and enhanced the autocratic power of the emperor. The system continued with some modifications until its abolition in 1905 during the late Qing reforms in the last years of the Qing dynasty. The modern examination system for selecting civil servants also indirectly evolved from
4719-456: The Mugwa the first time due to falling off his horse during this phase, at which point he applied a hasty tourniquet using willow branches, and finishing his mounted archery portion is well known. The miscellaneous examinations, or japgwa , were divided into four parts: translation, medicine, natural science (astrology, geography, and others), and recordkeeping. These examinations were overseen by
4840-732: The Ryukyu Kingdom, and Vietnam. In addition to Asia, reports by European missionaries and diplomats introduced the Chinese examination system to the Western world and encouraged France, Germany and the British East India Company (EIC) to use similar methods to select prospective employees. Seeing its initial success within the EIC, the British government adopted a similar testing system for screening civil servants across
4961-411: The Song imperial government degree-awards eventually more than doubled the highest annual averages of those awarded during the Tang dynasty, with 200 or more per year on average being common, and at times reaching a per annum figure of almost 240. The examination hierarchy was formally divided into prefectural, metropolitan, and palace examinations. The prefectural examination was held on the 15th day of
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5082-475: The Sui dynasty, examinations for "classicists" ( mingjing ke ) and "cultivated talents" ( xiucai ke ) were introduced. Classicists were tested on the Confucian canon, which was considered an easy task at the time, so those who passed were awarded posts in the lower rungs of officialdom. Cultivated talents were tested on matters of statecraft as well as the Confucian canon. In 607, Emperor Yang of Sui established
5203-424: The Sui dynasty. Schools at the capital still produced students for appointment. Inheritance of official status was also still practiced. Men of the merchant and artisan classes were still barred from officialdom. However the reign of Emperor Wen of Sui did see much greater expansion of government authority over officials. Under Emperor Wen (r. 581–604), all officials down to the district level had to be appointed by
5324-558: The Taixue's graduates to become imperial officials but they usually only started off as clerks and attendants, and mastery of only one canonical text was required upon its founding, changing to all five in the Eastern Han . Starting with only 50 students, Emperor Zhao expanded it to 100, Emperor Xuan to 200, and Emperor Yuan to 1,000. The top graduates (Grade A, 甲科) of the Taixue were immediately admitted as Court gentlemen, while
5445-436: The Taixue, increasing the proportion of non-aristocratic scholars in government. Emperor Wu introduced a regularised system of recommendations known as Xiaolian (Filially Pious and Incorrupt) in which each local magistrate or governor had to recommend at least one candidate to the court every year. Later, the recommendation quota would be set at one candidate for each 200,000 households. Candidates for offices recommended by
5566-433: The Tang restoration, a section requiring the composition of original poetry (including both shi and fu ) was added to the tests, with rather specific set requirements: this was for the jinshi degree, as well as certain other tests. The less-esteemed examinations tested for skills such as mathematics, law, and calligraphy. The success rate on these tests of knowledge on the classics was between 10 and 20 percent, but for
5687-458: The annual average of exam takers graduated with a jinshi degree was greater than 58 persons per year. Wu lavished favors on the newly graduated jinshi degree-holders, increasing the prestige associated with this path of attaining a government career, and clearly began a process of opening up opportunities to success for a wider population pool, including inhabitants of China's less prestigious southeast area. Wu Zetian's government further expanded
5808-410: The bearer to a position of lower rank. Those who passed this examination became known as chungin . The gwageo were supplemented in the reign of Jungjong of Joseon (1506–1544), at the suggestion of the high official Jo Gwang-jo . The supplementary examination was called an "examination for the learned and the virtuous" ( hyeollanggwa ). This was an abbreviated examination, held in the presence of
5929-599: The board throughout the United Kingdom in 1855. The United States would also establish such programs for certain government jobs after 1883. Tests of skill such as archery contests have existed since the Zhou dynasty (or, more mythologically, Yao ). The Confucian characteristic of the later imperial exams was largely due to the reign of Emperor Wu of Han during the Han dynasty . Although some examinations did exist from
6050-509: The candidates came from the numerically small but relatively wealthy land-owning scholar-official class. Since 937, by the decision of the Emperor Taizu of Song , the palace examination was supervised by the emperor himself. In 992, the practice of anonymous submission of papers during the palace examination was introduced; it was spread to the departmental examinations in 1007, and to the prefectural level in 1032. Starting in 1037, it
6171-475: The candidates showed their understanding of the Confucian canon, in the second part they demonstrated their ability to compose in various literary forms, and in the last portion they wrote a problem-essay which was intended to show their political aptitude. Over the course of the Joseon Dynasty, a total of 14,620 men passed the literary examination. The triennial singneonsi passed roughly 41% of these;
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#17327726369806292-399: The capital and in the major border-ports and cities. At the first level, 45 candidates were accepted in spoken Chinese and 4 in each of the other languages; the second level selected 13 successful applicants in Chinese and 2 in each of the other languages. The medical examination selected 18 finalists, narrowed to 9 successful applicants in the second round. These were then given positions in
6413-675: The careers of examination graduates during the Ming dynasty. Graduates of the metropolitan exam with honors were directly appointed senior compilers in the Hanlin Academy. Regular metropolitan exam graduates were appointed junior compilers or examining editors. In 1458, appointment in the Hanlin Academy and the Grand Secretariat was restricted to jinshi graduates. Posts such as minister or vice minister of rites or right vice minister of personnel were also restricted to jinshi graduates. The training jinshi graduates underwent in
6534-512: The civil service examination system by allowing certain commoners and gentry previously disqualified by their non-elite backgrounds to take the tests. Most of the Li family supporters were located to the northwest, particularly around the capital city of Chang'an. Wu's progressive accumulation of political power through enhancement of the examination system involved attaining the allegiance of previously under-represented regions, alleviating frustrations of
6655-420: The civil service of both China and Taiwan . The exams served to ensure a common knowledge of writing, Chinese classics , and literary style among state officials. This common culture helped to unify the empire, and the ideal of achievement by merit gave legitimacy to imperial rule. The examination system played a significant role in tempering the power of hereditary aristocracy and military authority, and in
6776-551: The court information about Sukjong's coronation. Jurchen tribes lived to the north of Goryeo . The Jurchens always rendered tribute to the kings of Goryeo, but the Jurchen tribes grew strong and were soon united under Wanyan clan . They began to violate the Goryeo-Jurchen borders, and eventually invaded Goryeo. Goryeo, however, did not have a powerful army at that time, due in part to a century of peaceful existence. With
6897-511: The creation of a series of posts for academicians in 136 BC. Ardently promoted by Dong Zhongshu , the Taixue and Imperial examination came into existence by recommendation of Gongsun Hong , chancellor under Wu. Officials would select candidates to take part in an examination of the Confucian classics , from which Emperor Wu would select officials to serve by his side. Gongsun intended for
7018-425: The current Goryeo military into a professional army that would contain well-trained cavalry units. Finally, in 1107, General Yun led the newly formed Goryeo army, a force of approximately 170 thousand men called Byeolmuban , and attacked the Jurchen tribes. Though the war lasted for several years, the Jurchen were ultimately defeated, and surrendered to Yun Kwan. To mark the victory, General Yun built nine fortresses to
7139-516: The dynasty, some 6000 men passed the composition examination, while only about 450 passed the classics examination. The classics examination was revised in 1344, under the reign of Chunghye , on the model of the examination system then employed in Yuan Dynasty . The earlier system based directly on the classics was replaced with one based on Neo-Confucian interpretations of the classics. Military examinations were established briefly under
7260-424: The early years of the Tang restoration, the following emperors expanded on Wu's policies since they found them politically useful, and the annual averages of degrees conferred continued to rise. This led to the formation of new court factions consisting of examiners and their graduates. With the upheavals which later developed and the disintegration of the Tang empire into the " Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period ",
7381-482: The eighth lunar month. Graduates of the prefectural examination were then sent to the capital for metropolitan examination, which took place in Spring, but had no fixed date. Graduates of the metropolitan examination were then sent to the palace examination. Many individuals of low social status were able to rise to political prominence through success in the imperial examination. According to studies of degree-holders in
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#17327726369807502-464: The essay ranged between 550 and 700 characters. Gu Yanwu considered the eight-legged essay to be worse than the book burning of Qin Shi Huang and his burying alive of 460 Confucian scholars. The content of the examinations in the Ming and Qing times remained very much the same as that in the Song, except that literary composition was now widened to include government documents. The most important
7623-480: The exam were not automatically granted office. They still had to pass a quality evaluation by the Ministry of Rites, after which they were allowed to wear official robes. Wu Zetian's reign was a pivotal moment for the imperial examination system. The reason for this was because up until that point, the Tang rulers had all been male members of the Li family. Wu Zetian, who officially took the title of emperor in 690,
7744-419: The exam. Gwageo examinations were very important not only for an individual but for his family because a yangban family that did not produce a government official for four generations lost their status as yangban. When writing the examination, candidates had to record the names and positions of their four great-grandfathers. The higher literary examination was restricted to those who either were already in
7865-406: The examination system gave ground to other traditional routes to government positions and favoritism in grading reduced the opportunities of examinees who lacked political patronage. Ironically this period of fragmentation resulted in the utter destruction of old networks established by elite families that had ruled China throughout its various dynasties since its conception. With the disappearance of
7986-582: The examinations because they were of no use to administration or cultivation of virtue. The poetry section of the examination was removed in the 1060s. Fan's memorial to the throne initiated a process which lead to major educational reform through the establishment of a comprehensive public school system. The Khitans who ruled the Liao dynasty only held imperial examinations for regions with large Han populations. The Liao examinations focused on lyric-meter poetry and rhapsodies . The Khitans themselves did not take
8107-413: The examinations were irregularly implemented for significant periods of time: thus, the calculated statistical averages for the number of degrees conferred annually should be understood in this context. The jinshi exams were not a yearly event and should not be considered so; the annual average figures are a necessary artifact of quantitative analysis. The operations of the examination system were part of
8228-480: The examinations were revived again, however in addition to the Neo-Confucian canon, Hongwu added another portion to the exams to be taken by successful candidates five days after the first exam. These new exams emphasized shixue (practical learning), including subjects such as law, mathematics, calligraphy, horse riding , and archery. The emperor was particularly adamant about the inclusion of archery, and for
8349-470: The examiners could use for questions. More often than not, the questions could be a combination of two or more totally unrelated passages. Candidates could be at a complete loss as to how to make out their meaning, let alone writing a logically coherent essay. This aroused strong criticism, but the use of the style remained until the end of the examination system. The Hanlin Academy played a central role in
8470-579: The exams until 1115 when it became an acceptable avenue for advancing their careers. The Jurchens of the Jin dynasty held two separate examinations to accommodate their former Liao and Song subjects. In the north examinations focused on lyric-meter poetry and rhapsodies while in the south, Confucian Classics were tested. During the reign of Emperor Xizong of Jin (r. 1135–1150), the contents of both examinations were unified and examinees were tested on both genres. Emperor Zhangzong of Jin (r. 1189–1208) abolished
8591-590: The favour by recommending their other relatives. The kin of higher officials therefore had better chances of gaining positions. The first standardized method of recruitment in Chinese history was introduced during the Three Kingdoms period in the Kingdom of Wei . It was called the nine-rank system . In the nine-rank system, each office was given a rank from highest to lowest in descending order from one to nine. Imperial officials were responsible for assessing
8712-603: The government office which employed specialists in the field. They were closely connected to the Sahak royal technical academies, which were overseen by the same offices. In the case of translation, the languages tested were the four in which the Joseon court maintained interpreters: contemporary Chinese, Mongolian, Jurchen/Manchu, and Japanese. This examination was overseen by the Bureau of Interpreters , which maintained interpreters in
8833-507: The government, but this also furthered Confucianisation of the conquerors. Under the revised system, the yearly averages for examination degrees awarded was about 21. The way in which the four regional racial categories were divided tended to favor the Mongols, Semu-ren, and North Chinese, despite the South Chinese being by far the largest portion of the population. The 1290 census figures record some 12,000,000 households (about 48% of
8954-507: The highest offices. On the other hand, holders of the basic degree, the shengyuan became vastly oversupplied, resulting in holders who could not hope for office. During the 19th century, the wealthy could opt into the system by educating their sons or by purchasing an office. In the late 19th century, some critics within Qing China blamed the examination system for stifling scientific and technical knowledge, and urged for some reforms. At
9075-580: The imperial one. In the early Han dynasty , the paths to officialdom were initially monopolised by the higher aristocrats. For instance, officials of ranks 2,000- dan and above were permitted to recommend their sons and relatives into the court as attendants/Court gentlemen. In 165 BC, Emperor Wen of Han introduced recruitment to the civil service through examinations . Previously, potential officials never sat for any sort of academic examinations . However, these examinations did not heavily emphasize Confucian material. Emperor Wu of Han 's early reign saw
9196-486: The imperial record keeping system, and the date of receiving the jinshi degree is often a key biographical datum: sometimes the date of achieving jinshi is the only firm date known for even some of the most historically prominent persons in Chinese history. A brief interruption to the examinations occurred at the beginning of the Yuan dynasty in the 13th century, but was later brought back with regional quotas which favored
9317-412: The invasion of the Jurchen, King Sukjong ordered all available soldiers into battle, but this ended in defeat. General Yun Kwan convinced the Jurchen leaders to pull their troops back, and this ended the invasion of the Jurchen. After experiencing the invasion by the Jurchen, Yun Kwan realized that Goryeo lacked efficient cavalry units, and requested permission from King Sukjong to train and reorganize
9438-453: The jinshi examination not only tested the Confucian classics, but also history, proficiency in compiling official documents, inscriptions, discursive treatises, memorials, and poems and rhapsodies. Because the number of jinshi graduates were so low they acquired great social standing in society. The judicial, arithmetic, and clerical examinations were also held but these graduates only qualified for their specific agencies. Candidates who passed
9559-419: The judicial examination was classified as a special examination and not many people took the classicist examination. The oral version of the classicist exam was abolished. Other special examinations for household and family member of officials, Minister of Personnel, and subjects such as history as applied to current affairs ( shiwu ce , Policy Questions), translation, and judicial matters were also administered by
9680-489: The king. The candidates had to be recommended by their local magistrate as men of the highest integrity. The gwageo system became increasingly corrupt in the later years of the Joseon Dynasty. Scholars who were unable to pass the examination began to form a class of disaffected yangban; notable among these was early 19th-century rebel leader Hong Gyeong-nae . Many of the later Silhak scholars also turned away from state service. The gwageo were finally abolished in
9801-645: The kingdom of Silla beginning in 788, after the Confucian scholar Ch'oe Ch'i-wŏn submitted the Ten Urgent Points of Reform to Queen Jinseong , the ruler of Silla at the time. However, due to Silla's entrenched bone rank system , which dictated that appointments be made on the basis of birth, these examinations did not have a strong effect on the government. Under the Goryeo dynasty, the national examinations became more systematic and powerful than they had been under Silla. However, they remained only one among several avenues to power. A man who had reached
9922-530: The land of Goryeo's ancestors, Goguryeo . Due to wars and invasions, the location of Yun Kwan's tomb was lost until the 18th century. Yun Kwan's tomb was located near another tomb belonging to the Sim clan. Because of this, a family feud erupted between the Yuns and Sims lasting 300 years. Gwageo The gwageo ( Korean : 과거 ) or kwagŏ were the national civil service examinations under
10043-438: The literati elite of society. However the examinations co-existed with other forms of recruitment such as direct appointments for the ruling family, nominations, quotas, clerical promotions, sale of official titles, and special procedures for eunuchs . The regular higher level degree examination cycle was decreed in 1067 to be three years but this triennial cycle only existed in nominal terms. In practice both before and after this,
10164-515: The literati, and encouraging education in various locales so even people in the remote corners of the empire would study to pass the imperial exams. These degree holders would then become a new nucleus of elite bureaucrats around which the government could center itself. In 681, a fill in the blank test based on knowledge of the Confucian classics was introduced. Examples of officials whom she recruited through her reformed examination system include Zhang Yue , Li Jiao , and Shen Quanqi . Despite
10285-459: The mid-11th century, between 5,000 and 10,000 took the metropolitan examinations in a given year. By the mid-12th century, 100,000 candidates registered for the prefectural examinations each year, and by the mid-13th century, more than 400,000. The number of active jinshi degree holders ranged from 5,000 to 10,000 between the 11th and 13th centuries, representing 7,085 of 18,700 posts in 1046 and 8,260 of 38,870 posts in 1213. Statistics indicate that
10406-514: The new nine fortresses were returned to the Jurchens. Soon after, Yun Kwan was released from his prison in 1110, and was offered a chance to return to his duties as general, but he refused and returned to his hometown. A year later, in 1111, Yun Kwan died to illness. After the death of Yun Kwan, the Jurchen destroyed the Liao dynasty , and established the Jin dynasty . With the rise of the Jin, Goryeo
10527-420: The northeast of the Goryeo-Jurchen borders ( 동북 9성 ; 東北 九城 ). In 1108, however, General Yun was given orders to withdraw his troops by Goryeo's new ruler, King Yejong . After the war, Yun brought 346 prisoners, 96 horses, and about 300 cows. Due to manipulation and court intrigue from opposing factions, he was discharged from his post in 1108. Along with this, the opposing factions fought to make sure that
10648-539: The old aristocracy, Wu's system of bureaucrat recruitment once more became the dominant model in China, and eventually coalesced into the class of nonhereditary elites who would become known to the West as "mandarins", in reference to Mandarin , the dialect of Chinese employed in the imperial court. In the Song dynasty (960–1279), the imperial examinations became the primary method of recruitment for official posts. More than
10769-493: The prefect of a prefecture were examined by the Ministry of Rites and then presented to the emperor. Some candidates for clerical positions would be given a test to determine whether they could memorize nine thousand Chinese characters. The "proper path" (正途) to official positions, which rapidly crowded out all other forms of entry, was to graduate from the Taixue, serve a probationary post in one's local commandery, and then gain
10890-560: The prefectural examinations. Emperor Shizong of Jin (r. 1161–1189) created the first examination conducted in the Jurchen language , with a focus on political writings and poetry. Graduates of the Jurchen examination were called "treatise graduates" ( celun jinshi ) to distinguish them from the regular Chinese jinshi. Imperial examinations were ceased for a time with the defeat of the Song in 1279 by Kublai Khan and his Yuan dynasty . One of Kublai's main advisers, Liu Bingzhong , submitted
11011-399: The presented scholar jinshi degree, became more prominent over time until it superseded all other examinations. By the late Tang the jinshi degree became a prerequisite for appointment into higher offices. Appointments by recommendation were also required to take examinations. The examinations were carried out in the first lunar month. After the results were completed, the list of results
11132-464: The primary route for most people to achieve positions in the bureaucracy. Based on the civil service examinations of imperial China, the gwageo first arose in Unified Silla , gained importance in Goryeo, and were the centerpiece of most education in the Joseon dynasty . The tutelage provided at the hyanggyo , seowon , and Sungkyunkwan was aimed primarily at preparing students for
11253-502: The proliferation of paper and printing, books were made of expensive or unwieldy bamboo and silk. The costs of literacy meant that relatively few could afford to become sufficiently educated for government service. Furthermore, the system of recommendations allowed high level (2,000- dan ) officials to induct their family members into the government, and whenever they served as a Commandery governor they could also recommend new candidates who would be beholden to them, and were expected to repay
11374-406: The provinces, a second examination ( hoesi ) conducted in the capital (in which the qualifying candidates were selected), and a third examination ( jeonsi ) in the presence of the king, in which the successful candidates were ranked in order. Each stage was norm-referenced , with a set number of successful applicants. The candidate who received the highest score ( jangwon ) in the literary examination
11495-409: The quality of the talents recommended by local elites. The criteria for recruitment included qualities such as morals and social status, which in practice meant that influential families monopolized all high ranking posts while men of poorer means filled the lower ranks. The local zhongzheng (lit. central and impartial) officials assessed the status of households or families in nine categories; only
11616-429: The reign of Yejong , and again in the reign of Gongyang just before the dynasty's fall; however, for most of the dynasty, there was no military examination and thus no educational path to military rank. This may have reflected the relative strength of the military elites during this period. Miscellaneous examinations ( jabeop ) were administered in various fields. One among these was Buddhism; monks who passed received
11737-445: The remainder passed in the course of irregular examinations. This proportion shifted over time; as the dynasty progressed, the irregular examinations became increasingly important. This may in part have been because the number of candidates in triennial examinations was fixed, while the number in the irregular examinations was not fixed. The military examination selected 190 candidates in the first stage, of whom 28 were allowed to pass
11858-445: The rise in importance of the examination system, the Tang society was still heavily influenced by aristocratic ideals, and it was only after the ninth century that the situation changed. As a result, it was common for candidates to visit examiners before the examinations in order to win approval. The aristocratic influence declined after the ninth century, when the examination degree holders also increased in numbers. They now began to play
11979-417: The rise of a gentry class of scholar-bureaucrats . Starting with the Song dynasty, the imperial examination system became a more formal system and developed into a roughly three-tiered ladder from local to provincial to court exams. During the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), authorities narrowed the content down to mostly texts on Neo-Confucian orthodoxy; the highest degree, the jinshi became essential for
12100-437: The second stage, in which the successful applicants were selected, was an oral examination of applicants' knowledge of the Confucian canon and certain classics of military thought. Of importance were Sun Tzu's Art of War, as well as Hanbizi and Wuzi . The third stage, in which the candidates were ranked, was again based on practical military skills. These include horsemanship, and mounted archery. The story of Yi Sunshin failing
12221-423: The second stage. Of these, 70 came from the capital and the remainder from the various provinces, with Gyeongsang contributing 30, Chungcheong and Jeolla contributing 25, and the remaining provinces 10 candidates each. The military examinations tested a mixture of military and literary skills and knowledge. The first stage of the test was a practical test of various military skills, focused on Korean archery but
12342-689: The selection process were theoretically supposed to be an unbiased process, but in practice favored candidates from elite clans based in the capitals of Chang'an and Luoyang (speakers of solely non-elite dialects could not succeed). Under the Tang, six categories of regular civil service examinations were organized by the Department of State Affairs and held by the Ministry of Rites : cultivated talents, classicists, presented scholars, legal experts, writing experts, and arithmetic experts. Emperor Xuanzong of Tang also added categories for Daoism and apprentices. The hardest of these examination categories,
12463-538: The sons of the fifth categories and above were entitled to offices. The method obviously contradicted the ideal of meritocracy. It was, however, convenient in a time of constant wars among the various contending states, all of them relying on an aristocratic political and social structure. For nearly three hundred years, noble young men were afforded government higher education in the Imperial Academy and carefully prepared for public service. The Jiupin guanren fa
12584-491: The state. Policy Questions became an essential part of following examinations. An exam called the cewen which focused on contemporary matters such as politics, economics, and military affairs was introduced. The Song also saw the introduction of a new examination essay, that of jing yi ; (exposition on the meaning of the Classics). This required candidates to compose a logically coherent essay by juxtaposing quotations from
12705-546: The strength of regional factions in Joseon Dynasty politics , scholars from out-of-favor factions often did not bother to take the examination at all. In the late Joseon Dynasty, an increasing percentage of successful candidates came from the northern province of Pyongan , and the small county of Chŏngju came to produce more successful candidates than any other county. The gwageo were originally administered every three years; these regular examinations were known as
12826-440: The system it inherited. The Hongwu Emperor was initially reluctant to restart the examinations, considering their curriculum to be lacking in practical knowledge. In 1370 he declared that the exams would follow the Neo-Confucian canon put forth by Zhu Xi in the Song dynasty: the Four Books , discourses, and political analysis. Then he abolished the examinations two years later because he preferred appointment by referral. In 1384,
12947-505: The third session was held, consisting of five essays on the Classics, historiography, and contemporary affairs. The palace exam was just one session, consisting of questions on critical matters in the Classics or current affairs. Written answers were expected to follow a predefined structure called the eight-legged essay , which consisted of eight parts: opening, amplification, preliminary exposition, initial argument, central argument, latter argument, final argument, and conclusion. The length of
13068-399: The thousand or more candidates going for a jinshi degree each year in which it was offered, the success rate for the examinees was only between 1 and 2 percent: a total of 6504 jinshi were created during course of the Tang dynasty (an average of only about 23 jinshi awarded per year). After 755, up to 15 percent of civil service officials were recruited through the examinations. During
13189-477: The time, China had about one civil licentiate per 1000 people. Due to the stringent requirements, there was only a 1% passing rate among the two or three million annual applicants who took the exams. The Chinese examination system has had a profound influence in the development of modern civil service administrative functions in other countries. These include analogous structures that have existed in Japan, Korea,
13310-612: The total Yuan population) for South China, versus 2,000,000 North Chinese households, and the populations of Mongols and Semu-ren were both less. While South China was technically allotted 75 candidates for each provincial exam, only 28 Han Chinese from South China were included among the 300 candidates, the rest of the South China slots (47) being occupied by resident Mongols or Semu-ren, although 47 "racial South Chinese" who were not residents of South China were approved as candidates. The Ming dynasty (1368–1644) retained and expanded
13431-404: The whole paragraph to complete the phrase. If the examinee was able to correctly answer five of ten questions, they passed. This was considered such an easy task that a 30-year-old candidate was said to be old for a classicist examinee, but young to be a jinshi. An oral version of the classicist examination known as moyi also existed but consisted of 100 questions rather than just ten. In contrast,
13552-411: The years 1148 and 1256, approximately 57 percent originated from families without a father, grandfather, or great-grandfather who had held official rank. However most did have some sort of relative in the bureaucracy. Prominent officials who went through the imperial examinations include Wang Anshi , who proposed reforms to make the exams more practical, and Zhu Xi (1130–1200), whose interpretations of
13673-400: Was a woman outside the Li family who needed an alternative base of power. Reform of the imperial examinations featured prominently in her plan to create a new class of elite bureaucrats derived from humbler origins. Both the palace and military examinations were created under Wu Zetian. In 655, Wu Zetian graduated 44 candidates with the jìnshì degree ( 進士 ), and during one seven-year period
13794-453: Was closely related to this kind of educational practice and only began to decline after the second half of the sixth century. The Sui dynasty continued the tradition of recruitment through recommendation but modified it in 587 with the requirement for every prefecture ( fu ) to supply three scholars a year. In 599, all capital officials of rank five and above were required to make nominations for consideration in several categories. During
13915-502: Was fixed for provincial examinations with 75 persons from each group. The metropolitan exam had a quota of 100 persons with 25 persons from each group. Candidates were enrolled on two lists with the Mongols and Semu-ren located on the left and the Northern and Southern Chinese on the right. Examinations were written in Chinese and based on Confucian and Neo-Confucian texts but the Mongols and Semu-ren received easier questions to answer than
14036-691: Was forbidden for examiners to supervise examinations in their home prefecture. Examiners and high officials were also forbidden from contacting each other prior to the exams. The practice of recopying papers in order to prevent revealing the candidate's calligraphy was introduced at the capital and departmental level in 1015, and in the prefectures in 1037. In 1009, Emperor Zhenzong of Song (r. 997–1022) introduced quotas on degrees awarded. In 1090, only 40 degrees were awarded to 3,000 candidates in Fuzhou , which meant only one degree would be awarded for every 75 candidates. The quota system became even more stringent in
14157-429: Was given a post of the 6th junior ( jong ) rank. If the jangwon was already employed in a position of rank, he was raised 4 levels. The candidates with second and third highest scores were given posts of the 7th junior rank. The rest were not guaranteed a post, but had to wait until one became vacant. The miscellaneous examinations had only the first two stages; their candidates were not ranked. Testing procedures were
14278-478: Was held in 1385. Provincial and metropolitan exams were organized in three sessions. The first session consisted of three questions on the examinee's interpretation of the Four Books, and four on the Classics corpus. The second session took place three days later, and consisted of a discursive essay, five critical judgments, and one in the style of an edict, an announcement and a memorial. Three days after that,
14399-543: Was no longer able to trade with the Song dynasty or any of the other neighboring nations, and became isolated, which contributed to the weakening of the kingdom. The extent of Yun Kwan's military campaigns has been in dispute for centuries. While the general and traditional belief is that his nine fortresses were built in present-day Hamheung in North Korea, a number of historical sources seem to indicate that Yun took parts of Manchuria for Goryeo, temporarily claiming
14520-540: Was submitted to the Grand Chancellor , who had the right to alter the results. Sometimes the list was also submitted to the Secretariat-Chancellery for additional inspection. The emperor could also announce a repeat of the exam. The list of results was then published in the second lunar month. Classicists were tested by being presented phrases from the classic texts. Then they had to write
14641-438: Was the weight given to eight-legged essays. As a literary style, they are constructed on logical reasoning for coherent exposition. However, as the format evolved, they became excessively rigid, to ensure fair grading. Candidates often only memorised ready essays in the hope that the ones they memorised might be the examination questions. Since all questions were taken from the Classics, there were just so many possible passages that
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