The ZIS-110 is a Soviet limousine produced by ZIL from 1946 to 1958.
67-403: The 110 was developed from the reverse engineering of a 1942 Packard Super Eight during 1944. The first five prototypes were completed by August 1945. It was powered by a 6-litre, straight 8-cylinder engine, producing 140 hp (104 kW) and giving a top speed of over 140 km/h (87 mph). It was made in both sedan and convertible versions. The ZIS was rumored to use machinery from
134-510: A breach of contract as well as any other relevant laws. That is because most end-user license agreements specifically prohibit it, and US courts have ruled that if such terms are present, they override the copyright law that expressly permits it (see Bowers v. Baystate Technologies ). According to Section 103(f) of the Digital Millennium Copyright Act ( 17 U.S.C. § 1201 (f) ), a person in legal possession of
201-456: A 3D model. The physical object can be measured using 3D scanning technologies like CMMs , laser scanners , structured light digitizers , or industrial CT scanning (computed tomography). The measured data alone, usually represented as a point cloud , lacks topological information and design intent. The former may be recovered by converting the point cloud to a triangular-faced mesh . Reverse engineering aims to go beyond producing such
268-408: A SEM is stitching the images together, which is necessary because each layer cannot be captured by a single shot. A SEM needs to sweep across the area of the circuit and take several hundred images to cover the entire layer. Image stitching takes as input several hundred pictures and outputs a single properly-overlapped picture of the complete layer. Next, the stitched layers need to be aligned because
335-507: A combination of geometric and freeform surfaces can provide a powerful method of 3D modeling . Areas of freeform data can be combined with exact geometric surfaces to create a hybrid model. A typical example of this would be the reverse engineering of a cylinder head, which includes freeform cast features, such as water jackets and high-tolerance machined areas. Reverse engineering is also used by businesses to bring existing physical geometry into digital product development environments, to make
402-421: A competitor's advertising message can reveal new product offerings , new production processes, a new branding strategy , a new positioning strategy , a new segmentation strategy , line extensions and contractions, problems with previous positions, insights from recent marketing or product research , a new strategic direction , a new source of sustainable competitive advantage , or value migrations within
469-414: A competitor's product was built. That process is commonly used for "cracking" software and media to remove their copy protection , or to create a possibly-improved copy or even a knockoff , which is usually the goal of a competitor or a hacker. Malware developers often use reverse engineering techniques to find vulnerabilities in an operating system to build a computer virus that can exploit
536-502: A digital 3D record of their own products, or to assess competitors' products. It is used to analyze how a product works, what it does, what components it has; estimate costs; identify potential patent infringement; etc. Value engineering , a related activity that is also used by businesses, involves deconstructing and analyzing products. However, the objective is to find opportunities for cost-cutting. Reverse engineering of printed circuit boards involves recreating fabrication data for
603-682: A lot in common with reverse engineering. The tester usually has the API but has the goals to find bugs and undocumented features by bashing the product from outside. Other purposes of reverse engineering include security auditing, removal of copy protection (" cracking "), circumvention of access restrictions often present in consumer electronics , customization of embedded systems (such as engine management systems), in-house repairs or retrofits, enabling of additional features on low-cost "crippled" hardware (such as some graphics card chip-sets), or even mere satisfaction of curiosity. Binary reverse engineering
670-449: A mesh and to recover the design intent in terms of simple analytical surfaces where appropriate ( planes , cylinders , etc.) as well as possibly NURBS surfaces to produce a boundary-representation CAD model. Recovery of such a model allows a design to be modified to meet new requirements, a manufacturing plan to be generated, etc. Hybrid modeling is a commonly used term when NURBS and parametric modeling are implemented together. Using
737-469: A new advertising agency. It might also indicate a new distribution strategy , new distribution partners, more extensive distribution, more intensive distribution, a change in geographical focus, or exclusive distribution. Similar techniques can be used by observing a competitor's search engine optimization targets and practices. A competitor's media strategy reveals budget allocation, segmentation and targeting strategy , and selectivity and focus . From
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#1732790348757804-500: A particular circuit board. This is done primarily to identify a design, and learn the functional and structural characteristics of a design. It also allows for the discovery of the design principles behind a product, especially if this design information is not easily available. Outdated PCBs are often subject to reverse engineering, especially when they perform highly critical functions such as powering machinery, or other electronic components. Reverse engineering these old parts can allow
871-480: A process or artifact in which the manner of its construction, use, or internal processes has not been made clear by its creator. Patented items do not of themselves have to be reverse-engineered to be studied, for the essence of a patent is that inventors provide a detailed public disclosure themselves, and in return receive legal protection of the invention that is involved. However, an item produced under one or more patents could also include other technology that
938-416: A program may reverse-engineer and circumvent its protection if that is necessary to achieve "interoperability", a term that broadly covers other devices and programs that can interact with it, make use of it, and to use and transfer data to and from it in useful ways. A limited exemption exists that allows the knowledge thus gained to be shared and used for interoperability purposes. EU Directive 2009/24 on
1005-525: A registry of existing cars and information about all ZIS versions, but particularly a point to point comparison between the products of Packard and ZIS. Therefore more likely that the top commissars, including Joseph Stalin , owned several Packards and wanted their first effort at a luxury car to be based on what is arguably one of the top cars of the 1940s. These cars were often given away as gifts to foreign communist leaders such as Chinese leader Mao Zedong and North Korean premier Kim Il-sung . After Stalin,
1072-402: A reproduction of the code and translation of its form are indispensable to obtain the necessary information to achieve the interoperability of an independently created program with other programs. It has therefore to be considered that, in these limited circumstances only, performance of the acts of reproduction and translation by or on behalf of a person having a right to use a copy of the program
1139-561: A tactical perspective, it can also be used to help a manager implement his own media plan. By knowing the competitor's media buy, media selection, frequency, reach, continuity, schedules, and flights, the manager can arrange their own media plan so that they do not coincide. Other sources of corporate intelligence include trade shows, patent filings, mutual customers, annual reports, and trade associations. Some firms hire competitor intelligence professionals to obtain this information. The Society of Competitive Intelligence Professionals maintains
1206-511: A task with very little (if any) insight into exactly how it does so. Depending on the system under consideration and the technologies employed, the knowledge gained during reverse engineering can help with repurposing obsolete objects, doing security analysis, or learning how something works. Although the process is specific to the object on which it is being performed, all reverse engineering processes consist of three basic steps: information extraction, modeling, and review. Information extraction
1273-417: Is an invasive and destructive form of analyzing a smart card . The attacker uses chemicals to etch away layer after layer of the smart card and takes pictures with a scanning electron microscope (SEM). That technique can reveal the complete hardware and software part of the smart card. The major problem for the attacker is to bring everything into the right order to find out how everything works. The makers of
1340-494: Is being used mostly for long and thorough reverse engineering tasks (complete analysis of a complex algorithm or big piece of software). In general, statistical classification is considered to be a hard problem, which is also true for software classification, and so few solutions/tools that handle this task well. A number of UML tools refer to the process of importing and analysing source code to generate UML diagrams as "reverse engineering". See List of UML tools . Although UML
1407-451: Is constructing a competitor array . The steps may include: Two additional columns can be added. In one column, a company can be rated on each of the key success factors (try to be objective and honest). In another column, benchmarks can be listed. They are the ideal standards of comparisons on each of the factors. They reflect the workings of a company using all the industry's best practices. The strategic rationale of competitor profiling
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#17327903487571474-473: Is generally available only to large chip manufacturers. Furthermore, the payoff from this attack is low since other security techniques are often used such as shadow accounts. It is still uncertain whether attacks against chip-and-PIN cards to replicate encryption data and then to crack PINs would provide a cost-effective attack on multifactor authentication. Full reverse engineering proceeds in several major steps. The first step after images have been taken with
1541-493: Is known to be NP-complete , but online learning can be done in polynomial time. An automatic offline approach has been demonstrated by Comparetti et al. and an online approach by Cho et al. Other components of typical protocols, like encryption and hash functions, can be reverse-engineered automatically as well. Typically, the automatic approaches trace the execution of protocol implementations and try to detect buffers in memory holding unencrypted packets. Reverse engineering
1608-400: Is legitimate and compatible with fair practice and must therefore be deemed not to require the authorisation of the rightholder. An objective of this exception is to make it possible to connect all components of a computer system, including those of different manufacturers, so that they can work together. Such an exception to the author's exclusive rights may not be used in a way which prejudices
1675-530: Is not patented and not disclosed. Indeed, one common motivation of reverse engineering is to determine whether a competitor's product contains patent infringement or copyright infringement . In the United States, even if an artifact or process is protected by trade secrets , reverse-engineering the artifact or process is often lawful if it has been legitimately obtained. Reverse engineering of computer software often falls under both contract law as
1742-557: Is one approach in providing "reverse engineering" more recent advances in international standards activities have resulted in the development of the Knowledge Discovery Metamodel (KDM). The standard delivers an ontology for the intermediate (or abstracted) representation of programming language constructs and their interrelationships. An Object Management Group standard (on its way to becoming an ISO standard as well), KDM has started to take hold in industry with
1809-604: Is performed if source code for a software is unavailable. This process is sometimes termed reverse code engineering , or RCE. For example, decompilation of binaries for the Java platform can be accomplished by using Jad. One famous case of reverse engineering was the first non- IBM implementation of the PC BIOS , which launched the historic IBM PC compatible industry that has been the overwhelmingly-dominant computer hardware platform for many years. Reverse engineering of software
1876-535: Is protected in the US by the fair use exception in copyright law . The Samba software , which allows systems that do not run Microsoft Windows systems to share files with systems that run it, is a classic example of software reverse engineering since the Samba project had to reverse-engineer unpublished information about how Windows file sharing worked so that non-Windows computers could emulate it. The Wine project does
1943-404: Is reverse-engineered back to the analysis phase, in an inversion of the traditional waterfall model . Another term for this technique is program comprehension . The Working Conference on Reverse Engineering (WCRE) has been held yearly to explore and expand the techniques of reverse engineering. Computer-aided software engineering (CASE) and automated code generation have contributed greatly in
2010-549: Is simple. Superior knowledge of rivals offers a legitimate source of competitive advantage. The raw material of competitive advantage consists of offering superior customer value in the firm's chosen market. The definitive characteristic of customer value is the adjective, superior. Customer value is defined relative to rival offerings making competitor knowledge an intrinsic component of corporate strategy. Profiling facilitates this strategic objective in three important ways. First, profiling can reveal strategic weaknesses in rivals that
2077-455: Is tested by genetic perturbation experiments followed by dynamic modelling, based on the principle that removing one network node has predictable effects on the functioning of the remaining nodes of the network. Applications of the reverse engineering of gene networks range from understanding mechanisms of plant physiology to the highlighting of new targets for anticancer therapy. Reverse engineering applies primarily to gaining understanding of
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2144-418: Is the creation of new representation of the computer code so that it is easier to understand. Meanwhile, design recovery is the use of deduction or reasoning from general knowledge or personal experience of the product to understand the product's functionality fully. It can also be seen as "going backwards through the development cycle". In this model, the output of the implementation phase (in source code form)
2211-650: Is the practice of gathering all relevant information for performing the operation. Modeling is the practice of combining the gathered information into an abstract model, which can be used as a guide for designing the new object or system. Review is the testing of the model to ensure the validity of the chosen abstract. Reverse engineering is applicable in the fields of computer engineering , mechanical engineering , design , electronic engineering , software engineering , chemical engineering , and systems biology . There are many reasons for performing reverse engineering in various fields. Reverse engineering has its origins in
2278-420: Is the process of identifying similarities between different software binaries (such as two different versions of the same binary) used to detect code relations between software samples. The task was traditionally done manually for several reasons (such as patch analysis for vulnerability detection and copyright infringement ), but it can now be done somewhat automatically for large numbers of samples. This method
2345-724: The Packard 180 assembly line which was sent to the USSR after American production ended. However, according to The Fall of the Packard Motor Car Company , there is no evidence whatsoever in the Packard archives of such a transfer. Moreover, as one of the main results of the collection of information and material of Bert Hein, there can be many current opinions within the car literature disproved. The database includes, in addition to some pictures of commissars with Packards,
2412-467: The "subject system" is the end product of software development. Reverse engineering is a process of examination only, and the software system under consideration is not modified, which would otherwise be re-engineering or restructuring. Reverse engineering can be performed from any stage of the product cycle, not necessarily from the functional end product. There are two components in reverse engineering: redocumentation and design recovery. Redocumentation
2479-622: The ZIL-110B cabriolet was used as a parade car for Nikita Khrushchev and this model was also given to Enver Hoxha , the lifelong president of Albania . Ho Chi Minh , the first president of North Vietnam, also received one (most likely from the Soviet Union), which can be seen on display on the grounds of his former residence in the Vietnamese capital of Hanoi. Production ended in 1958, with total of 2,089 cars made. Famous owners of
2546-476: The ZIS-110 have included the following people, but most of them were often given away as gifts to foreign communist leaders. Reverse engineering Reverse engineering (also known as backwards engineering or back engineering ) is a process or method through which one attempts to understand through deductive reasoning how a previously made device, process, system, or piece of software accomplishes
2613-404: The analysis of hardware for commercial or military advantage. However, the reverse engineering process may not always be concerned with creating a copy or changing the artifact in some way. It may be used as part of an analysis to deduce design features from products with little or no additional knowledge about the procedures involved in their original production. In some cases, the goal of
2680-409: The broad language set as well as evolution. KDM is compatible with UML, BPMN, RDF, and other standards enabling migration into other environments and thus leverage system knowledge for efforts such as software system transformation and enterprise business layer analysis. Protocols are sets of rules that describe message formats and how messages are exchanged: the protocol state machine . Accordingly,
2747-404: The card try to hide keys and operations by mixing up memory positions, such as by bus scrambling. In some cases, it is even possible to attach a probe to measure voltages while the smart card is still operational. The makers of the card employ sensors to detect and prevent that attack. That attack is not very common because it requires both a large investment in effort and special equipment that
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2814-427: The correlation of the various layers of system knowledge for either detailed analysis (such as root cause, impact) or derived analysis (such as business process extraction). Although efforts to represent language constructs can be never-ending because of the number of languages, the continuous evolution of software languages, and the development of new languages, the standard does allow for the use of extensions to support
2881-415: The development of tools and analysis environments that can deliver the extraction and analysis of source, binary, and byte code. For source code analysis, KDM's granular standards' architecture enables the extraction of software system flows (data, control, and call maps), architectures, and business layer knowledge (rules, terms, and process). The standard enables the use of a common data format (XMI) enabling
2948-464: The field of reverse engineering. Software anti-tamper technology like obfuscation is used to deter both reverse engineering and re-engineering of proprietary software and software-powered systems. In practice, two main types of reverse engineering emerge. In the first case, source code is already available for the software, but higher-level aspects of the program, which are perhaps poorly documented or documented but no longer valid, are discovered. In
3015-692: The fields or by intelligence operations. It was often used during the Second World War and the Cold War . Here are well-known examples from the Second World War and later: Reverse engineering concepts have been applied to biology as well, specifically to the task of understanding the structure and function of gene regulatory networks . They regulate almost every aspect of biological behavior and allow cells to carry out physiological processes and responses to perturbations. Understanding
3082-517: The firm may exploit. Second, the proactive stance of competitor profiling will allow the firm to anticipate the strategic response of their rivals to the firm's planned strategies, the strategies of other competing firms, and changes in the environment. Third, this proactive knowledge will give the firms strategic agility. Offensive strategy can be implemented more quickly in order to exploit opportunities and capitalize on strengths. Similarly, defensive strategy can be employed more deftly in order to counter
3149-654: The full contents of a Windows system's live memory including a binary-level, graphical reverse engineering of all running processes. Another classic, if not well-known, example is that in 1987 Bell Laboratories reverse-engineered the Mac OS System 4.1, originally running on the Apple Macintosh SE , so that it could run it on RISC machines of their own. Reverse engineering of software can be accomplished by various methods. The three main groups of software reverse engineering are Software classification
3216-418: The important circuitry and separates it from the uninteresting background and insulating materials. Finally, the wires can be traced from one layer to the next, and the netlist of the circuit, which contains all of the circuit's information, can be reconstructed. Reverse engineering is often used by people to copy other nations' technologies, devices, or information that have been obtained by regular troops in
3283-491: The industry. It might also indicate a new pricing strategy such as penetration , price discrimination , price skimming , product bundling , joint product pricing, discounts, or loss leaders. It may also indicate a new promotion strategy such as push, pull, balanced, short term sales generation, long term image creation, informational, comparative, affective, reminder, new creative objectives, new unique selling proposition , new creative concepts, appeals, tone, and themes, or
3350-491: The initial. Then, the schematics for the circuit are finally generated using an appropriate tool. In 1990, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) defined (software) reverse engineering (SRE) as "the process of analyzing a subject system to identify the system's components and their interrelationships and to create representations of the system in another form or at a higher level of abstraction" in which
3417-483: The legal protection of computer programs, which superseded an earlier (1991) directive, governs reverse engineering in the European Union . The unauthorised reproduction, translation, adaptation or transformation of the form of the code in which a copy of a computer program has been made available constitutes an infringement of the exclusive rights of the author. Nevertheless, circumstances may exist when such
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#17327903487573484-428: The legitimate interests of the rightholder or which conflicts with a normal exploitation of the program. Competitor analysis Competitive analysis in marketing and strategic management is an assessment of the strengths and weaknesses of current and potential competitors . This analysis provides both an offensive and defensive strategic context to identify opportunities and threats. Profiling combines all of
3551-460: The new PCB. The quality of these images that is necessary for suitable reverse engineering is proportional to the complexity of the PCB itself. More complicated PCBs require well lighted photos on dark backgrounds, while fairly simple PCBs can be recreated simply with just basic dimensioning. Each layer of the PCB is carefully recreated in the software with the intent of producing a final design as close to
3618-500: The problem of protocol reverse-engineering can be partitioned into two subproblems: message format and state-machine reverse-engineering. The message formats have traditionally been reverse-engineered by a tedious manual process, which involved analysis of how protocol implementations process messages, but recent research proposed a number of automatic solutions. Typically, the automatic approaches group observe messages into clusters by using various clustering analyses , or they emulate
3685-582: The protocol implementation tracing the message processing. There has been less work on reverse-engineering of state-machines of protocols. In general, the protocol state-machines can be learned either through a process of offline learning , which passively observes communication and attempts to build the most general state-machine accepting all observed sequences of messages, and online learning , which allows interactive generation of probing sequences of messages and listening to responses to those probing sequences. In general, offline learning of small state-machines
3752-423: The reconstruction of the PCB if it performs some crucial task, as well as finding alternatives which provide the same function, or in upgrading the old PCB. Reverse engineering PCBs largely follow the same series of steps. First, images are created by drawing, scanning, or taking photographs of the PCB. Then, these images are ported to suitable reverse engineering software in order to create a rudimentary design for
3819-450: The relevant sources of competitor analysis into one framework in the support of efficient and effective strategy formulation, implementation, monitoring and adjustment. Competitive analysis is an essential component of corporate strategy. It is argued that most firms do not conduct this type of analysis systematically enough. Instead, many enterprises operate on what is called "informal impressions, conjectures, and intuition gained through
3886-583: The reverse engineering process can simply be a redocumentation of legacy systems . Even when the reverse-engineered product is that of a competitor, the goal may not be to copy it but to perform competitor analysis . Reverse engineering may also be used to create interoperable products and despite some narrowly-tailored United States and European Union legislation, the legality of using specific reverse engineering techniques for that purpose has been hotly contested in courts worldwide for more than two decades. Software reverse engineering can help to improve
3953-652: The same thing for the Windows API , and OpenOffice.org is one party doing that for the Microsoft Office file formats. The ReactOS project is even more ambitious in its goals by striving to provide binary (ABI and API) compatibility with the current Windows operating systems of the NT branch, which allows software and drivers written for Windows to run on a clean-room reverse-engineered free software ( GPL ) counterpart. WindowsSCOPE allows for reverse-engineering
4020-452: The sample, after etching, cannot be put into the exact same position relative to the SEM each time. Therefore, the stitched versions will not overlap in the correct fashion, as on the real circuit. Usually, three corresponding points are selected, and a transformation applied on the basis of that. To extract the circuit structure, the aligned, stitched images need to be segmented, which highlights
4087-431: The second case, there is no source code available for the software, and any efforts towards discovering one possible source code for the software are regarded as reverse engineering. The second usage of the term is more familiar to most people. Reverse engineering of software can make use of the clean room design technique to avoid copyright infringement. On a related note, black box testing in software engineering has
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#17327903487574154-430: The structure and the dynamic behavior of gene networks is therefore one of the paramount challenges of systems biology, with immediate practical repercussions in several applications that are beyond basic research. There are several methods for reverse engineering gene regulatory networks by using molecular biology and data science methods. They have been generally divided into six classes: Often, gene network reliability
4221-555: The system vulnerabilities. Reverse engineering is also being used in cryptanalysis to find vulnerabilities in substitution cipher , symmetric-key algorithm or public-key cryptography . There are other uses to reverse engineering: As computer-aided design (CAD) has become more popular, reverse engineering has become a viable method to create a 3D virtual model of an existing physical part for use in 3D CAD , CAM , CAE , or other software . The reverse-engineering process involves measuring an object and then reconstructing it as
4288-642: The threat of rival firms from exploiting the firm's own weaknesses. Firms practising systematic and advanced competitor profiling may have a significant advantage. A comprehensive profiling capability is a core competence required for successful competition. A common technique is to create detailed profiles on each of the major competitors. These profiles give an in-depth description of the competitor's background, finances, products, markets, facilities, personnel, and strategies. This involves: Scanning competitor's ads can reveal much about what that competitor believes about marketing and their target market. Changes in
4355-413: The tidbits of information about competitors every manager continually receives." As a result, traditional environmental scanning places many firms at risk of dangerous competitive blindspots due to a lack of robust competitor analysis. It is important to conduct the competitor analysis at various business stages to provide the best possible product or service for customers. One common and useful technique
4422-439: The time required to understand the source code, thus reducing the overall cost of the software development. Reverse engineering can also help to detect and to eliminate a malicious code written to the software with better code detectors. Reversing a source code can be used to find alternate uses of the source code, such as detecting the unauthorized replication of the source code where it was not intended to be used, or revealing how
4489-567: The understanding of the underlying source code for the maintenance and improvement of the software, relevant information can be extracted to make a decision for software development and graphical representations of the code can provide alternate views regarding the source code, which can help to detect and fix a software bug or vulnerability. Frequently, as some software develops, its design information and improvements are often lost over time, but that lost information can usually be recovered with reverse engineering. The process can also help to cut down
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