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75-600: Zengcheng District ( alternately romanized as Tsengshing ) is one of 11 urban districts of the prefecture-level city of Guangzhou , the capital of Guangdong Province , China. Zengcheng County was established under the Qin following their conquest of the area , formerly held by the Baiyue tribes. Under the Ming , the northern area of the county was separated to form Longmen County , administered from Huizhou . The county

150-546: A conference held in 1906 in Shanghai . Instead, the conference formally adopted Nanking syllabary. This decision allowed the post office to continue to use various romanizations that it had already selected. Wade–Giles romanization is based on the Beijing dialect , a pronunciation standard since the 1850s. The use of Nanking syllabary did not suggest that the post office considered Nanjing pronunciation to be standard. Rather, it

225-619: A distinct descendant dialect form of Zhangzhou Hokkien has developed. In Penang , Kedah and Perlis , it is called Penang Hokkien while across the Strait of Malacca in Medan , an almost identical variant is known as Medan Hokkien . Many Chinese Filipinos profess ancestry from Hokkien-speaking areas; Philippine Hokkien is also largely derived from the Quanzhou dialect, particularly Jinjiang and Nan'an dialects with some influence from

300-460: A group are more mutually intelligible , but it is less so amongst the forementioned group, Quanzhou dialect, and Zhangzhou dialect. Although the Min Nan varieties of Teochew and Amoy are 84% phonetically similar including the pronunciations of un-used Chinese characters as well as same characters used for different meanings, and 34% lexically similar , , Teochew has only 51% intelligibility with

375-543: A long-time customs manager, was appointed postal secretary in 1901. Appointing a French national to the top position fulfilled an 1898 commitment by China to "take into account the recommendations of the French government" when selecting staff for the post office. Until 1911, the post office remained part of the Chinese Maritime Customs Service , which meant that Hart was Piry's boss. To resolve

450-743: A number of romanizations, including Tongyong Pinyin and postal romanization. Hokkien Taiwanese Hokkien is one of the national languages in Taiwan . Hokkien is also widely spoken within the overseas Chinese diaspora in Singapore , Malaysia , the Philippines , Indonesia , Cambodia , Myanmar , Hong Kong , Thailand , Brunei , Vietnam , and elsewhere across the world. Mutual intelligibility between Hokkien dialects varies, but they are still held together by ethnolinguistic identity. In maritime Southeast Asia , Hokkien historically served as

525-572: A rebellion of the She people . In 885, (during the reign of Emperor Xizong of Tang ), the two brothers Wang Chao and Wang Shenzhi , led a military expedition force to suppress the Huang Chao rebellion. Waves of migration from the north in this era brought the language of Middle Chinese into the Fujian region, which gave Hokkien and all the other Min languages its literary readings . During around

600-707: A stamp that gave the city of origin in Latin letters, often romanized using Giles's system. In 1896, the Customs Post was combined with other postal services and renamed the Chinese Imperial Post . As a national agency, the Imperial Post was an authority on Chinese place names. When the Wade–Giles system became widespread, some argued that the post office should adopt it. This idea was rejected at

675-627: A true representation of the varieties of Chinese orthoepy as evinced by the Post Office's repeated desire to transcribe according to "local pronunciation" or "provincial sound-equivalents". At the Commission on the Unification of Pronunciation in 1913, the idea of a national language with a standardized trans-regional phonology was approved. A period of turmoil followed as President Yuan Shikai reversed course and attempted to restore

750-485: A variety of family activities and events, suitable for visitors of all ages to participate. Owing to the distance from Guangzhou's city center, many locals consider themselves distinct from the other Guangzhounese. They also speak separate Yue and Hakka dialects. Notable people: Postal Map romanization Postal romanization was a system of transliterating place names in China developed by postal authorities in

825-517: Is a tendency to call these Taiwanese language for historical reasons. It is spoken by more Taiwanese than any Sinitic language except Mandarin, and it is known by a majority of the population; thus, from a socio-political perspective, it forms a significant pole of language usage due to the popularity of Holo-language media. Douglas (1873/1899) also noted that Formosa ( Taiwan ) has been settled mainly by emigrants from Amoy (Xiamen), Chang-chew (Zhangzhou), and Chin-chew (Quanzhou). Several parts of

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900-1069: Is also a great mixture of emigrants from Swatow [ Shantou ] . In modern times though, a mixed dialect descended from the Quanzhou , Amoy, and Zhangzhou dialects , leaning a little closer to the Quanzhou dialect, possibly due to being from the Tung'an dialect, is spoken by Chinese Singaporeans , Southern Malaysian Chinese , and Chinese Indonesians in Riau province and the Riau Islands . Variants include Southern Peninsular Malaysian Hokkien and Singaporean Hokkien in Singapore. Among Malaysian Chinese of Penang, and other states in northern mainland Malaysia and ethnic Chinese Indonesians in Medan, with other areas in North Sumatra , Indonesia,

975-548: Is also heavily based on Tung'an dialect while incorporating some vowels of Zhangzhou dialect, whereas Southern Peninsular Malaysian Hokkien , including Singaporean Hokkien , is based on the Tung'an dialect, with Philippine Hokkien on the Quanzhou dialect, and Penang Hokkien & Medan Hokkien on the Zhangzhou dialect. There are some variations in pronunciation and vocabulary between Quanzhou and Zhangzhou dialects. The grammar

1050-720: Is also preserved in the Nan'an dialect ( 色 , 德 , 竹 ) but are pronounced as -iak in Quanzhou Hokkien. * Haklau Min ( Hai Lok Hong , including the Haifeng and Lufeng dialect), Chaw'an / Zhao'an (詔安話), Longyan Min , and controversially, Taiwanese , are sometimes considered as not Hokkien anymore, besides being under Southern Min (Min Nan). On the other hand, those under Longyan Min , Datian Min , Zhenan Min have some to little mutual intelligibility with Hokkien, while Teo-Swa Min ,

1125-531: Is generally the same. Additionally, extensive contact with the Japanese language has left a legacy of Japanese loanwords in Taiwanese Hokkien. On the other hand, the variants spoken in Singapore and Malaysia have a substantial number of loanwords from Malay and to a lesser extent, from English and other Chinese varieties, such as the closely related Teochew and some Cantonese . Meanwhile, in

1200-454: Is important to its meaning. A basic sentence follows the subject–verb–object pattern (i.e. a subject is followed by a verb then by an object ), though this order is often violated because Hokkien dialects are topic-prominent . Unlike synthetic languages , seldom do words indicate time , gender and plural by inflection. Instead, these concepts are expressed through adverbs, aspect markers, and grammatical particles, or are deduced from

1275-716: Is noted for production of the lychee . There are currently 6 subdistricts and 7 towns. On 28 August 2012 one new subdistrict ( Yongning ) and one new town ( Xiancun ) were established from carving out of Xintang. Twin Dragon Resort opened to public in December 2014. The resort has a total area of 163 acres, and it consists of two theme parks, East Village and West Village. Located in the heart of Erlongshan subtropical rainforest, Twin Dragon Resort has exceptional natural resources and marvelous landscapes. To experience traditional Chinese culture, Twin Dragon Resort also offers

1350-717: Is the Romance of the Litchi Mirror , with extant manuscripts dating from 1566 and 1581. In the early 17th century, Spanish friars in the Philippines produced materials documenting the Hokkien varieties spoken by the Chinese trading community who had settled there in the late 16th century: These texts appear to record a primarily Zhangzhou-descended dialect with some attested Quanzhou and Teo-Swa features, from

1425-465: The Beijing dialect that is taught in the Chinese education system. After the Kuomintang (KMT) party came to power in 1927, the capital was moved from Peking ('northern capital') to Nanking ('southern capital'). Peking was renamed to "Peiping" ('northern peace'). The Customs Post, China's first government-run post office, opened to the public and began issuing postage stamps in 1878. This office

1500-746: The English and Chinese Dictionary of the Amoy Dialect . Due to possible conflation between the language as a whole with its Xiamen dialect , many proscribe referring to the former as "Amoy", a usage that is more commonly found in older media and some conservative institutions. In the classification used by the Language Atlas of China , the Quanzhang branch of Southern Min consists of the Min varieties originating from Quanzhou, Zhangzhou, Xiamen and

1575-587: The Fujian region, which in ancient times was originally Minyue country, populated with non-Chinese Baiyue , causing the region for the first time in ancient times to incorporate Old Chinese dialects of which would later become Min Chinese . The massive migration of Han Chinese into Fujian region mainly occurred after the Disaster of Yongjia . The Jìn court fled from the north to the south, causing large numbers of Han Chinese to move into Fujian region. They brought

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1650-766: The Fuzhou language ( Eastern Min ), Pu-Xian Min , Northern Min , Gan Chinese or Hakka . The term Hokkien was first used by Walter Henry Medhurst in his 1832 Dictionary of the Hok-këèn Dialect of the Chinese Language, According to the Reading and Colloquial Idioms , considered to be the earliest English-based Hokkien dictionary and the first major reference work in POJ, though its romanization system differs significantly from modern POJ. In this dictionary,

1725-456: The Minnan region . The Hokkien spoken in most areas of the three counties of southern Zhangzhou have merged the coda finals -n and -ng into -ng. The initial consonant j ( dz and dʑ ) is not present in most dialects of Hokkien spoken in Quanzhou, having been merged into the d or l initials. The -ik or -ɪk final consonant that is preserved in the native Hokkien dialects of Zhangzhou and Xiamen

1800-582: The Old Chinese spoken in the Central Plain of China from the prehistoric era to the 3rd century into Fujian that later became Min, which later split off into its respective branches, of which Hokkien descends from the Southern Min branch of it. In 677 (during the reign of Emperor Gaozong of Tang ), Chen Zheng , together with his son Chen Yuanguang , led a military expedition to suppress

1875-446: The Philippines , there are also a few Spanish and Filipino ( Tagalog ) loanwords, while it is also currently a norm to frequently codeswitch with English , Tagalog, and in some cases other Philippine languages , such as Cebuano , Hiligaynon , Bicol Central , Ilocano , Chavacano , Waray-waray , Kapampangan , Pangasinense , Northern Sorsogonon , Southern Sorsogonon , etc. Tong'an, Xiamen, Taiwanese, Singaporean dialects as

1950-799: The Qing dynasty , as one of the five ports opened to foreign trade by the Treaty of Nanking . In 1873, Carstairs Douglas published the Chinese–English Dictionary of the Vernacular or Spoken Language of Amoy, With the Principal Variations of the Chang-chew and Chin-chew Dialects , where the language was referred to as the "Language of Amoy" or as the "Amoy Vernacular" and by 1883, John Macgowan would publish another dictionary,

2025-470: The Sanxiang dialect of Zhongshan Min , and Qiong - Lei Min also have historical linguistic roots with Hokkien, but are significantly divergent from it in terms of phonology and vocabulary, and thus have almost little to no practical face-to-face mutual intelligibility with Hokkien. The Xiamen dialect is a variant of the Tung'an dialect. Majority of Taiwanese , from Tainan , to Taichung , to Taipei ,

2100-502: The cha-po͘-kiáⁿ and cha-bó͘-kiáⁿ pronunciation differ only in the second syllable in consonant voicing and in tone . Unlike Mandarin, Hokkien retains all the final consonants corresponding to those of Middle Chinese. While Mandarin only preserves the [n] and [ŋ] finals, Hokkien also preserves the [m] , [p] , [t] and [k] finals and has developed the glottal stop [ʔ] . The vowels of Hokkien are listed below: (*)Only certain dialects The following table illustrates some of

2175-499: The lingua franca amongst overseas Chinese communities of all dialects and subgroups , and it remains today as the most spoken variety of Chinese in the region, including in Singapore , Malaysia , Philippines , Indonesia , and Brunei . This applied to a lesser extent to mainland Southeast Asia . As a result of the significant influence and historical presence of its sizable overseas diaspora, certain considerable to ample amounts of Hokkien loanwords are also historically present in

2250-517: The relations of Western nations with China , and was one of the most frequently learned dialects of Hokkien by Westerners during the second half of the 19th century and the early 20th century. The Modern Representative form of Hokkien spoken around the Taiwanese city of Tainan heavily resembles the Tung'an dialect. All Hokkien dialects spoken throughout the whole of Taiwan are collectively known as Taiwanese Hokkien, or Holo locally, although there

2325-556: The 200 years of rule by the Qing dynasty , especially in the last 120 years after immigration restrictions were relaxed, and even as immigrants during the period of Japanese rule . The Taiwanese dialect mostly has origins with the Tung'an , Quanzhou and Zhangzhou variants, but since then, the Amoy dialect, also known as the Xiamen dialect, has become the modern prestige representative for

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2400-656: The American press adopted pinyin in 1979. The International Organization for Standardization followed suit in 1982. Postal romanization remained official in Taiwan until 2002, when Tongyong Pinyin was adopted. In 2009, Hanyu Pinyin replaced Tongyong Pinyin as the official romanization (see Chinese language romanization in Taiwan ). While street names in Taipei have been romanized via Hanyu Pinyin, municipalities throughout Taiwan, such as Kaohsiung and Tainan , presently use

2475-593: The Amoy Dialect" , and Rev. Carstairs Douglas 's 1873 dictionary, "Chinese-English Dictionary of the Vernacular or Spoken Language of Amoy, with the Principal Variations of the Chang-Chew and Chin-Chew Dialects" , and its 1899 New Edition with Rev. Thomas Barclay . Hokkien has one of the most diverse phoneme inventories among Chinese varieties, with more consonants than Standard Mandarin and Cantonese . Hokkien varieties retain many pronunciations that are no longer found in other Chinese varieties. These include

2550-552: The Amoy dialect. There are also Hokkien speakers scattered throughout other parts of Indonesia—including Jakarta and the island of Java —Thailand, Myanmar , East Malaysia , Brunei, Cambodia , and Southern Vietnam, though there is notably more Teochew and Swatow background among descendants of Chinese migrants in Peninsular Malaysia , Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, and Southern Vietnam. Variants of Hokkien dialects can be traced to 2-4 main principal dialects of origin:

2625-701: The Dutch possessions [Indonesia] , are crowded with emigrants, especially from the Chang-chew [Zhangzhou] prefecture; Manila and other parts of the Philippines have great numbers from Chin-chew [Quanzhou] , and emigrants are largely scattered in like manner in Siam [Thailand] , Burmah [Myanmar] , the Malay Peninsula [peninsular Malaysia] , Cochin China [Southern Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos] , Saigon [ Ho Chi Minh City ] , &c. In many of these places there

2700-617: The English-speaking communities, the term Hokkien ( [hɔk˥kiɛn˨˩] ) is etymologically derived from the Hokkien pronunciation of Fujian ( Hok-kiàn ), the province from which the language hails. In Southeast Asia and the English press, Hokkien is used in common parlance to refer to the Southern Min dialects of southern Fujian, and does not include reference to dialects of other Sinitic branches also present in Fujian such as

2775-495: The Japanese ousted A. M. Chapelain, the last French head of the Chinese post. The post office had been under French administration almost continuously since Piry's appointment as postal secretary in 1901. In 1958, Communist China announced that it was adopting the pinyin romanization system. Implementing the new system was a gradual process. The government did not get around to abolishing postal romanization until 1964. Even then,

2850-517: The Post Office, quietly ordered a return to Nanking syllabary "until such time as uniformity is possible." Although the Soothill-Wade period was brief, it was a time when 13,000 offices were created, a rapid and unprecedented expansion. At the time the policy was reversed, one third of all postal establishments used Soothill-Wade spelling. The Ministry published a revised pronunciation standard based strictly on Jilu Mandarin in 1932. In 1943,

2925-454: The Tong'an Hokkien|Tung'an dialect (Cheng 1997) whereas Mandarin and Amoy Min Nan are 62% phonetically similar and 15% lexically similar. In comparison, German and English are 60% lexically similar. Hainanese , which is sometimes considered Southern Min, has almost no mutual intelligibility with any form of Hokkien. Hokkien is an analytic language ; in a sentence, the arrangement of words

3000-516: The Wade–Giles method of transliteration. This system had been created by Thomas Francis Wade in 1867. It is based on pronunciation in Beijing. Giles's dictionary also gives pronunciation in the dialects of various other cities, allowing the reader to create locally based transliteration. From January 1893 to September 1896, local postal services issued postage stamps that featured the romanized name of

3075-511: The Wade–Giles system to be specific to English. Atlases explaining postal romanization were issued in 1907, 1919, 1933, and 1936. The ambiguous result of the 1906 conference led critics to complain that postal romanization was idiosyncratic. According to modern scholar Lane J. Harris: What they have criticized is actually the very strength of postal romanization. That is, postal romanization accommodated local dialects and regional pronunciations by recognizing local identity and language as vital to

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3150-456: The city is Pehking . The irregular oo in "Soochow" is to distinguish this city from Xuzhou in northern Jiangsu. The other postal romanizations are based on "Southern Mandarin", the historical court dialect based on the Nanjing dialect , which used to be the imperial lingua franca of the late Ming and early Qing court. Pinyin spellings are based on Standard Chinese , a form based on

3225-521: The city they served using local pronunciation. An imperial edict issued in 1896 designated the Customs Post a national postal service and renamed it the Chinese Imperial Post . The local post offices in the Treaty Ports were incorporated into the new service. The Customs Post was smaller than other postal services in China, such as the British. As the Imperial Post, it grew rapidly and soon became

3300-474: The context. Different particles are added to a sentence to further specify its status or intonation . A verb itself indicates no grammatical tense . The time can be explicitly shown with time-indicating adverbs. Certain exceptions exist, however, according to the pragmatic interpretation of a verb's meaning. Additionally, an optional aspect particle can be appended to a verb to indicate the state of an action. Appending interrogative or exclamative particles to

3375-501: The decision to use Nanking syllabary was not intended to suggest that the post office recognized any specific dialect as standard. The Lower Yangtze Mandarin dialect spoken in Nanjing makes more phonetic distinctions than other dialects. A romanization system geared to this dialect can be used to reflect pronunciation in a wider variety of dialects. Southern Mandarin is widely spoken in both Jiangsu and Anhui . In Giles' idealization,

3450-424: The dominant player in the market. In 1899, Hart, as inspector general of posts, asked postmasters to submit romanizations for their districts. Although Hart asked for transliterations "according to the local pronunciation", most postmasters were reluctant to play lexicographer and simply looked up the relevant characters in a dictionary. The spellings that they submitted generally followed the Wade–Giles system, which

3525-556: The eastern counties of Longyan ( Xinluo and Zhangping ). Hokkien is spoken in the southern seaward quarter of Fujian, southeastern Zhejiang , as well as the eastern part of Namoa in China; Taiwan; Metro Manila , Metro Cebu , Metro Davao and other cities in the Philippines ; Singapore; Brunei; Medan , Riau and other cities in Indonesia ; and from Perlis , Kedah , Penang and Klang in Malaysia. Hokkien originated in

3600-486: The island are usually found to be specially inhabited by descendants of such emigrants, but in Taiwan, the various forms of the dialects mentioned prior are a good deal mixed up. The varieties of Hokkien in Southeast Asia originate from these dialects. Douglas (1873) notes that Singapore and the various Straits Settlements [such as Penang and Malacca ] , Batavia [Jakarta] and other parts of

3675-562: The language in China. Both Amoy and Xiamen come from the Chinese name of the city ( 厦门 ; Xiàmén ; Ē-mûi ); the former is from Zhangzhou Hokkien, whereas the latter comes from Mandarin. There are many Min Nan speakers among overseas Chinese communities in Southeast Asia, as well as in the United States ( Hoklo Americans ). Many ethnic Han Chinese emigrants to the region were Hoklo from southern Fujian, and brought

3750-475: The language to what is now Myanmar, Vietnam , Indonesia (the former Dutch East Indies ) and present day Malaysia and Singapore (formerly Malaya and the British Straits Settlements ). Most of the Min Nan dialects of this region have incorporated some foreign loanwords. Hokkien is reportedly the native language of up to 80% of the ethnic Chinese people in the Philippines, among which is known locally as Lán-nâng-uē ("Our people's speech"). Hokkien speakers form

3825-411: The languages it has had historical contact with in its sprachraum , such as Thai . Kelantan Peranakan Hokkien , in northern Malaya of Malaysia , and Hokaglish , spoken sporadically across the Philippines (especially Metro Manila ), are also mixed languages , with Hokkien as the base lexifier . Hokkien speakers in different regions refer to the language as: In parts of Southeast Asia and in

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3900-436: The largest group of overseas Chinese in Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia and the Philippines. Southern Fujian is home to four principal Hokkien dialects: Chiangchew , Chinchew , Tung'an , and Amoy , originating from the cities of Quanzhou, Zhangzhou, historical Tung'an County ( 同安縣 , now Xiamen and Kinmen ) and the Port of Amoy , respectively. In the late 1800s, the Amoy dialect attracted special attention, because Amoy

3975-606: The late 17th century when sea bans were lifted, the Port of Xiamen , which overshadowed the old port of Yuegang , became Fujian's main port where trade was legalized. From then, the Xiamen dialect, historically "Amoy", became the main principal dialect spoken overseas, such as in Taiwan under Qing rule , British Malaya , the Straits Settlements ( British Singapore ), British Hong Kong , Spanish Philippines (then later American Philippines ), Dutch East Indies ,and French Cochinchina , etc. Historically, Xiamen had always been part of Tung'an County until after 1912. The Amoy dialect

4050-454: The late 19th and early 20th centuries. For many cities, the corresponding postal romanization was the most common English-language form of the city's name from the 1890s until the 1980s, when postal romanization was replaced by pinyin , but the system remained in place on Taiwan until 2002. In 1892, Herbert Giles created a romanization system called the Nanking syllabary . The Imperial Maritime Customs Post Office would cancel postage with

4125-443: The more commonly seen sound shifts between various dialects. Pronunciations are provided in Pe̍h-ōe-jī and IPA . According to the traditional Chinese system, Hokkien dialects have 7 or 8 distinct tones, including two entering tones which end in plosive consonants. The entering tones can be analysed as allophones , giving 5 or 6 phonemic tones . In addition, many dialects have an additional phonemic tone ("tone 9" according to

4200-488: The old port of Yuegang (modern-day Haicheng , an old port that is now part of Longhai ). Chinese scholars produced rhyme dictionaries describing Hokkien varieties at the beginning of the 19th century: Rev. Walter Henry Medhurst based his 1832 dictionary, "A Dictionary of the Hok-këèn Dialect of the Chinese Language" , on the latter work. Other popular 19th century works are also like those of Rev. John Macgowan's 1883 dictionary, "English and Chinese Dictionary of

4275-411: The original two being, the Quanzhou ( 泉州 ; Choân-chiu / Chôaⁿ-chiu ) and Zhangzhou ( 漳州 ; Chiang-chiu / Cheng-chiu ) dialects, and in later centuries Xiamen/Amoy ( 廈門 ; Ē-mn̂g / Ēe-mûi ) and Tong'an ( 同安 ; Tâng-oaⁿ ) as well. The Amoy and Tong'an dialects are historically mixtures of Quanzhou and Zhangzhou dialects , since they are the geographic and linguistic midpoint between the two, while

4350-466: The post office did not adopt pinyin, but merely withdrew Latin characters from official use, such as in postal cancellation markings. Mapmakers of the time followed various approaches. Private atlas makers generally used postal romanization in the 1940s, but they later shifted to Wade–Giles. The U.S. Central Intelligence Agency used a mix of postal romanization and Wade–Giles. The U.S. Army Map Service used Wade–Giles exclusively. The U.S. government and

4425-437: The rest of the Hokkien dialects spoken in Taiwan and Southeast Asia are respectively derived from varying proportions of the above principal dialects in southern Fujian. During the Three Kingdoms period of ancient China, there was constant warfare occurring in the Central Plains of China. Ethnic Han Chinese gradually migrated from Henan to the mouth of the Yangtze to the coasts of Zhejiang and later began to enter into

4500-498: The retention of the /t/ initial, which is now /tʂ/ (pinyin zh ) in Mandarin (e.g. 竹 ; 'bamboo' is tik , but zhú in Mandarin), having disappeared before the 6th century in other Chinese varieties. Along with other Min languages, which are not directly descended from Middle Chinese , Hokkien is of considerable interest to historical linguists for reconstructing Old Chinese. Hokkien has aspirated , unaspirated as well as voiced consonant initials. For example,

4575-425: The romanization issue, Piry organized an Imperial Postal Joint-Session Conference in Shanghai in the spring of 1906. This was a joint postal and telegraphic conference. The conference resolved that existing spellings would be retained for names already transliterated. Accents, apostrophes, and hyphens would be dropped to facilitate telegraphic transmission. The requirement for addresses to be given in Chinese characters

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4650-402: The southern area of Fujian province, an important center for trade and migration, and has since become one of the most common Chinese varieties overseas. The major pole of Hokkien varieties outside of Fujian is nearby Taiwan, where immigrants from Fujian arrived as workers during the 40 years of Dutch rule , fleeing the Qing dynasty during the 20 years of Ming loyalist rule , as immigrants during

4725-414: The speaker consistently makes various phonetic distinctions not made in Beijing dialect (or in the dialect of any other specific city). Giles created the system to encompass a range of dialects. For the French-led post office, an additional advantage of the system was that it allowed "the romanization of non-English speaking people to be met as far as possible," as Piry put it. That is to say, Piry considered

4800-427: The teaching of Literary Chinese . Yuan died in 1916 and the Ministry of Education published a pronunciation standard now known as Old National Pronunciation for Guoyu in 1918. The post office reverted to Wade's system in 1920 and 1921. It was the era of the May Fourth Movement , when language reform was the rage. The post office adopted a dictionary by William Edward Soothill as a reference. The Soothill-Wade system

4875-403: The traditional reckoning), used only in special or foreign loan words. This means that Hokkien dialects have between 5 and 7 phonemic tones. Tone sandhi is extensive. There are minor variations between the Quanzhou and Zhangzhou tone systems. Taiwanese tones follow the patterns of Amoy or Quanzhou, depending on the area of Taiwan. Hokkien is spoken in a variety of accents and dialects across

4950-415: The word Hok-këèn was used. In 1869, POJ was further revised by John Macgowan in his published book A Manual Of The Amoy Colloquial . In this book, këèn was changed to kien as Hok-kien ; from then on, "Hokkien" is used more often. Historically, Hokkien was also known as " Amoy ", after the Zhangzhou Hokkien pronunciation of Xiamen ( Ēe-mûi ), the principal port in southern Fujian during

5025-450: The word 開 ; khui ; 'open' and 關 ; kuiⁿ ; 'close' have the same vowel but differ only by aspiration of the initial and nasality of the vowel. In addition, Hokkien has labial initial consonants such as m in 命 ; miā ; 'life'. Another example is 查埔囝 ; cha-po͘-kiáⁿ / ta-po͘-kiáⁿ / ta-po͘-káⁿ ; 'boy' and 查某囝 ; cha-bó͘-kiáⁿ / cha̋u-kiáⁿ / cha̋u-káⁿ / chő͘-kiáⁿ ; 'girl', which for

5100-565: Was an attempt to accommodate a variety of Mandarin pronunciations with a single romanization system. The spelling "Amoy" is based on pronunciation of Xiamen in the neighboring Zhangzhou dialect of Hokkien 廈門 ; Ēe-mûi , which historically contributed to the formation of the local Amoy dialect of Hokkien in Xiamen . "Peking" is carried over from the d'Anville map which also came from older texts, such as Italian Jesuit Martino Martini 's De Bello Tartarico Historia (1654) and Novus Atlas Sinensis (1655). In Nanking syllabary,

5175-427: Was dropped. For new transliterations, local pronunciation would be followed in Guangdong as well as in parts of Guangxi and Fujian . In other areas, a system called Nanking syllabary would be used. Nanking syllabary is one of several transliteration systems presented by Giles to represent various local dialects. Nanjing had once been the capital and its dialect was, like that of Beijing, a pronunciation standard. But

5250-464: Was one of the five ports opened to foreign trade by the Treaty of Nanking , but before that it had not attracted attention. The Amoy dialect is adopted as the 'Modern Representative Min Nan'. The Amoy dialect cannot simply be interpreted as a mixture of the Zhangzhou and Quanzhou dialects, but rather it is formed on the foundation of the Tung'an dialect with further inputs from other sub-dialects. It has played an influential role in history, especially in

5325-561: Was part of the Imperial Maritime Customs Service , led by Irishman Robert Hart . By 1882, the Customs Post had offices in twelve Treaty Ports : Shanghai , Amoy , Chefoo , Chinkiang , Chungking , Foochow , Hankow , Ichang , Kewkiang , Nanking , Weihaiwei , and Wuhu . Local offices had postmarking equipment so mail was marked with a romanized form of the city's name. In addition, there were companies that provided local postal service in each of these cities. A Chinese-English Dictionary by Herbert Giles, published in 1892, popularized

5400-588: Was promoted to city status in 1993. In 2006, a western section of Zengcheng was severed to form Guangzhou's Luogang District , which was renamed Huangpu in 2014. On 12 February of the same year, Zengcheng was annexed to Guangzhou as a district. A riot of migrant workers occurred in Zengcheng in 2011. Zengcheng's mild climate, fertile land, annual average temperature of 22.02 degrees and average yearly rainfall of 1,967 millimetres (77.4 in) make it suitable for tropical and subtropical crop growth. The district

5475-507: Was the main prestige form of Hokkien known from the late 17th century to the Republican era. Due to this, dictionaries, bibles and other books about Hokkien from recent centuries and even to this day in certain places, like schools and churches, of certain countries, the Hokkien language is still known as "Amoy". Several playscripts survive from the late 16th century, written in a mixture of Quanzhou and Chaozhou dialects. The most important

5550-603: Was the standard method of transliteration at this time. The post office published a draft romanization map in 1903. Disappointed with the Wade-based map, Hart issued another directive in 1905. This one told postmasters to submit romanizations "not as directed by Wade, but according to accepted or usual local spellings." Local missionaries could be consulted, Hart suggested. However, Wade's system did reflect pronunciation in Mandarin-speaking areas. Théophile Piry,

5625-484: Was used for newly created offices. Existing post offices retained their romanizations. Critics described the Ministry's standard, now called Old National Pronunciation , as a mishmash of dialects, bookish, and reminiscent of previous dynasties. While drawing phonetic features from Beijing dialect, many phonological features of Southern Mandarin had been retained. In December 1921, Henri Picard-Destelan , co-director of

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