Zhu Xi ( [ʈʂú ɕí] ; October 18, 1130 – April 23, 1200), formerly romanized Chu Hsi , was a Chinese calligrapher, historian, philosopher, poet, and politician of the Southern Song dynasty . Zhu was influential in the development of Neo-Confucianism . He contributed greatly to Chinese philosophy and fundamentally reshaped the Chinese worldview. His works include his editing of and commentaries to the Four Books (which later formed the curriculum of the imperial examinations in China between 1313 and 1905), his writings on the process of the 'investigation of things' ( 格物 ; géwù ), and his development of meditation as a method for self-cultivation.
61-474: Zhu was a scholar with a wide learning in the classics, commentaries, histories and other writings of his predecessors. In his lifetime, he was able to serve multiple times as a government official, although he avoided public office for most of his adult life. He also wrote, compiled and edited almost a hundred books and corresponded with dozens of other scholars. He acted as a teacher to groups of students, many of whom chose to study under him for years. He built upon
122-692: A few monastics. The most prestigious monasteries have support from rich elites, and the smallest are usually in small villages. The Chinese word 纯净素 (chún jìng sù ) meaning pure Buddhist Vegan/ Vegetarian is widely promoted and practiced in Chinese Buddhism. The practice is promoted in various Mahayana sutras, like the 楞伽阿跋多羅寶經 léngqié ābáduōluó bǎojīng . Monastics are often required to be vegetarian or Vegan and other animal products are often banned in Buddhist temples and monasteries. Other dietary restrictions may include avoiding eggs, dairy, and
183-406: A kind of sacred podium. Other important Buddhist rituals are those related to death, which is seen as a key moment for Buddhists who want to attain a good rebirth in the pure land of a Buddha (the most popular being Amitabha's pure land). The focus of these rituals is to keep the dying person free of distractions and offer spiritual support (so they can focus their minds on Amitabha Buddha through
244-422: A number of ancillary halls also house the images of lesser Buddhist divinities, giving residents and visitors alike a wide choice of objects of worship and supplication." Another common structure is a pagoda , which may contain Buddhist relics and statues or images of Buddhas and bodhisattvas. There is a conception of an "impersonal god" in Chinese Buddhism likely inspired by Shangdi . Buddhist monasticism
305-714: A thoroughly Indic foundation for Chinese Buddhist philosophy, which previously had been heavily influenced by Taoist philosophy. By the 460s Buddhism was a mainstream institution in China, and its iconography and art were widely recognized. The Dunhuang and Yungang cave complexes are a great example of early Chinese Buddhist art from this period. Another important translator was Paramārtha ( Zhēndì , 499–569 CE) who along with his team of Chinese disciples translated numerous works on Abhidharma , Yogachara philosophy, and other Mahayana texts. The work of other sixth century translators like Bodhiruci and Ratnamati also contributed to
366-630: Is a sinicized form of Mahāyāna Buddhism , which draws on the Chinese Buddhist Canon (大藏經, Dàzàngjīng , "Great Storage of Scriptures") as well as numerous Chinese traditions. Chinese Buddhism focuses on studying Mahayana sutras and Mahāyāna treatises and draws its main doctrines from these sources. Some of the most important scriptures in Chinese Buddhism include: the Lotus Sutra , the Flower Ornament Sutra ,
427-603: Is an important part of Chinese Buddhism. Chinese Buddhist monastics (both male and female) follow the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya , which is known as the Four Part Vinaya ( Sifen lü ) in China and has 250 rules for monks and 348 for nuns. Buddhist monks and nuns perform numerous religious practices and services, including offerings to altars, liturgical services, circumambulating the Buddha hall, preaching
488-405: Is the "face of Taoism" seen in later generations. In terms of Women Chastity , Cheng Yi thought, "...... If you take someone who is out of line to match your body, you are out of line. The first thing that I did was to ask Cheng Yi: " Widowhood is poor and helpless, can she remarry? Some people are afraid of freezing to death and starving to death, so they use the cold and hunger as an excuse. ，As
549-541: Is the main respect." Chinese Buddhism Chinese Buddhism or Han Buddhism ( simplified Chinese : 汉传佛教 ; traditional Chinese : 漢傳佛教 ; pinyin : Hànchuán Fójiào ; Jyutping : Hon3 Cyun4 Fat6 Gaau3 ; Pe̍h-ōe-jī : Hàn-thoân Hu̍t-kàu ) is a Chinese form of Mahayana Buddhism which draws on the Chinese Buddhist canon that includes the indigenous cultural traditions of Confucianism and Taoism (Chinese: 三教; pinyin: sān jiào) and
610-406: Is the one who goes through the top and the bottom, and becomes the way of the beginning and the end. ...... Ercheng both to a respect to receive the transmission of a thousand saints, and Yichuan is especially for the main nothing suitable for the solution, and thus repeatedly invented, so that the scholars have to hold, as a transcendent into the sage. Zhu Zi said Cheng's merit in the latter, the most
671-524: Is the use of mantras and dhāraṇī s , such as the popular Mahā Karuṇā Dhāraṇī and the Cundī Dhāraṇī . Robert Gimello has also observed that in Chinese Buddhist communities, the esoteric practices of Cundī enjoyed popularity among both the common people and the elite. Various Mahāyāna Buddhist deities are venerated in Chinese Buddhism, most of which are Buddhas and bodhisattvas. Some of
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#1732773202343732-613: The Vimalakirtī Sutra , the Nirvana Sutra , and the Amitābha Sutra . As such, Chinese Buddhism follows the classic Mahāyāna Buddhist worldview, which includes a belief in many realms of existence , the existence of many Buddhas and bodhisattvas , as well as many other kinds of divine beings, ghosts, and so on. Chinese Buddhism also upholds classic Mahayana Buddhist doctrines like karma ( 報應 ) and rebirth ( 超生 ),
793-1175: The Confucian Temple at Qufu , thereby elevating him to Confucian sainthood . Today, Zhu Xi is venerated as one of the " Twelve Philosophers " of Confucianism . Modern Sinologists and Chinese often refer to him as Zhu Wen Gong ( 朱文公 ) in lieu of his name. Confucianism Persons Topics Neo Confucianism New Confucianism Daoism Persons Topics Legalism Mohism Military and Strategy Han Buddhism Tibetan Buddhism Maoism General topics Vedic philosophy Mimamsa Vedanta Samkhya Yoga Nyaya Navya-Nyāya Vaisheshika Nāstika (heterodox) Tamil Other General topics Jainism Buddhism Traditions Topics Japanese Buddhism Japanese Confucianism Kokugaku Modern Thought Statism Kyoto School Korean Buddhism Korean Confucianism Persons Topics Donghak Modern Thought Persons Topics During
854-459: The Han dynasty (206 BCE-220 CE) and the religion was present in China at the beginning of the common era. Buddhist missionaries made use of both the overland Central Asian Silk Road and the maritime routes. Initially Buddhism was poorly understood and often confused with and mixed with Taoism. The Chinese saw many similarities between the two religions. There was also much criticism leveled at
915-567: The Kuchan scholar Kumārajīva (334–413 CE) was a key event. Unlike the previous translators, Kumārajīva was supported by the state and given the title of national preceptor. The numerous high quality translations of his translation team had a great impact on Chinese Buddhism. He is also known for introducing the Madhyamaka school of Buddhist philosophy, which would later be called Sanlun (the "Three Treatise school"). His work also established
976-680: The Longmen Grottoes , also attest to the artistic vibrancy of Chinese Buddhism at this time. A famous proponent of Buddhism during the Tang era was empress Wu Zetian (r. 690–705) and she is known for her promotion of the Longmen cave complex . She also depicted herself as a bodhisattva. The next important event in the history of Chinese Buddhism was the arrival of Subhakarasimha , Vajrabodhi , and Amoghavajra , and their establishment of Chinese Esoteric Buddhism from 716 to 720, during
1037-673: The People's Republic of China . It is also a major religion in Taiwan, Singapore, and Malaysia, as well as among the Chinese Diaspora . Buddhism was first introduced to China during the Han dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE). It was promoted by multiple emperors , especially during the Tang dynasty (618–907), which helped it spread across the country. The translation of a large body of Indian Buddhist scriptures into Chinese and
1098-629: The Song dynasty . In their early years the Cheng brothers studied under Zhou Dunyi and developed the science of nature from Mencius to Zhou Dunyi in Philosophy , establishing a system of science centered on the "Divine Principle". The most important academic proposition of the brothers is that "everything is just a heavenly principle. Cheng Hao is lively and natural, but Cheng Yi is serious and upright, sacred and inviolable, and even inhumane, which
1159-524: The bodhisattva path, and the doctrines of emptiness , buddha-nature , and the one vehicle . When it comes to Buddhist philosophy , Chinese Buddhism contains various doctrinal traditions, the most important being the Tiantai, Huayan , Sanlun , and Weishi schools of thought. These different doctrinal traditions developed their own scriptural commentaries and treatises and also various doctrinal classifications ( panjiao ), which hierarchically ordered
1220-428: The eight precepts , silent meditation, and Dharma lectures . Textual practices are also commonly practiced by monks and laypersons. These include printing, copying, propagating and reciting Buddhist scriptures, studying Buddhist texts, and attending lectures. Buddhist temples may also have special elements associated with sacred texts, such as lecture halls or dharma halls , libraries, and scripture platforms (施法壇),
1281-450: The Buddha's name ( nianfo ), which is the core practice of Pure Land Buddhism , and seated meditation ( zazen ), which is the focus of the Chan tradition. The practice of recitation of the Buddha's name is commonly done in a group setting, sometimes as part of an intensive nianfo recitation retreat, which can last for several days. These retreats might also include chanting sutras, taking of
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#17327732023431342-586: The Neo-Confucian tradition of Cheng Hao and Cheng Yi , and formally became his student in 1160. In 1179, after not serving in an official capacity since 1156, Zhu Xi was appointed Prefect of Nankang Military District ( 南康軍 ), where he revived White Deer Grotto Academy . and got demoted three years later for attacking the incompetency and corruption of some influential officials. There were several instances of receiving an appointment and subsequently being demoted. Upon dismissal from his last appointment, he
1403-861: The Song dynasty, Zhu Xi's teachings were considered to be unorthodox . Rather than focusing on the I Ching like other Neo-Confucians, he chose to emphasize the Four Books : the Great Learning , the Doctrine of the Mean , the Analects of Confucius , and the Mencius as the core curriculum for aspiring scholar officials. For all these classics he wrote extensive commentaries that were not widely recognized in his time; however, they later became accepted as
1464-631: The United States, and lectured on both Chan and Huayan teachings. Monks are required to obtain certificates from the authorities that permit them to reside in monasteries. The Buddhist Association of China is the sole official government supervisory organ of Buddhism in the country. It is directed by the United Front Work Department of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). Chinese Buddhism
1525-515: The Yogachara texts are where the "third turning" of the Dharma can be found, and thus, represent the final and ultimate teaching of the Buddha. Chinese Buddhism contains a wide array of religious practices and observances. Ritual and devotional practices are commonly seen as generating karmic merit , which can bring about positive results in this life or the next. According to Mario Poceski, for
1586-796: The arrival of Christian missionaries to China, a right which had been granted to Western powers after the Opium Wars . During the Republican period (1912–1949), there were various attempts to reform and modernize Chinese Buddhism and to respond to the various challenges of modernity. The most notable of these reformers were the Humanistic Buddhists , like Taixu and Yin Shun . Humanistic Buddhism sought to move away from ritualistic and otherworldly obsessions to embrace more worldly pursuits like education and charitable work. There
1647-661: The capital of Luoyang . His work was followed by the extensive Mahayana translations of the Kushan monk Lokakṣema (Ch. 支婁迦讖 , active c. 164 –186 CE), as well as the work of Dharmarakṣa (3rd century). During this early period, the Dharmaguptaka school was very influential in establishing Buddhism in China. This resulted in the widespread adoption of the Dharmaguptaka school's Vinaya (monastic rule) by all Chinese Buddhist schools . The arrival of
1708-564: The dead). According to Chün-fang Yü, the most popular Chinese Buddhist ritual that is most widely performed today is the Great Compassion Repentance associated with Guanyin and the Great Compassion Dharani . Keeping sets of ethical rules, like the classic Buddhist five precepts , are another key part of Buddhist practice. Taking up the ethical precepts in a ceremony, along with taking refuge in
1769-463: The dominant philosophy at the Song Court. In 1208, eight years after his death, Emperor Ningzong of Song rehabilitated Zhu Xi and honored him with the posthumous name of Wen Gong ( 文公 ), meaning "Venerable gentleman of culture". Around 1228, Emperor Lizong of Song honored him with the posthumous noble title Duke of (State) Hui ( 徽國公 ). In 1241, a memorial tablet to Zhu Xi was placed in
1830-795: The end of the Cultural Revolution . Chinese Buddhism suffered extensive repression, persecution, and destruction during the Cultural Revolution (from 1966 until Mao Zedong 's death in 1976). Maoist propaganda depicted Buddhism as one of the Four Olds , as a superstitious instrument of the ruling class and as counter-revolutionary . Buddhist clergy were attacked, disrobed, arrested, and sent to camps. Buddhist writings were burned. Buddhist temples, monasteries, and art were systematically destroyed and Buddhist lay believers ceased any public displays of their religion. During
1891-417: The establishment of a new Chinese Yogacara school , also known as the "Consciousness-Only school" (唯識宗; pinyin: Wéishí-zōng). The 6th and 7th centuries saw a flowering of new and unique Chinese Buddhist traditions, including: During the Tang dynasty, the monk Xuanzang (602–664) journeyed to India and back and wrote extensive and detailed reports of his findings, which have subsequently become important for
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1952-415: The images of these holy beings." According to Mario Poceski, Chinese Buddhist temples generally follow a traditional Chinese palace layout. They "consist of a series of halls and courtyards that are arranged symmetrically around a central axis, which usually runs from north to south. The main hall is typically a large building that is centrally located along the main axis. In larger monasteries or temples,
2013-733: The inclusion of these translations (along with Taoist and Confucian works) into a Chinese Buddhist canon had far-reaching implications for the dissemination of Buddhism throughout the East Asian cultural sphere , including Korea, Japan, and Vietnam. Chinese Buddhism also developed various unique traditions of Buddhist thought and practice, including Tiantai , Huayan , Chan Buddhism , and Pure Land Buddhism . From its inception, Chinese Buddhism has been influenced by native Chinese religions and philosophy , especially Confucianism and Taoism , but also Chinese folk religion . Buddhist missionaries began bringing Buddhism to China during
2074-546: The key figures include: Chinese Buddhist temples usually include numerous images and statues of Buddhas and bodhisattvas. They are often ritually carved and installed as part of a consecration ritual that may include chanting and scripture reading. Devotion towards these are a major part of Chinese Buddhism. As Chün-fang Yü writes, "people in China worship Buddhas and bodhisattvas in rituals, write poems and novels about them, praise them in songs and hymns, and tell stories and stage plays about them. And above all else, they worship
2135-643: The mass of Buddhist scriptures in order to advance their school's hermeneutical worldview. For example, according to master Zhiyi's "eight teachings and five periods" classification, the final and supreme teaching of the Buddha is found in the Lotus Sutra and the Nirvana Sutra . According to the Huayan masters like Fazang , the Huayan sutra contains the supreme teaching, while the Weishi school held that
2196-562: The most influential school, with close ties to the imperial government and a highly organized system of temple rank and administration system developed. It was during this time that the classic Five Houses of Chan developed. Many classic Chan texts were written during this era, such as the famed koan collections of the Linji school , like the Blue Cliff Record (1125) and The Gateless Gate (1228). Likewise, during this time,
2257-673: The new foreign religion by the Confucian elites. Centuries after Buddhism originated in India , the Mahayana Buddhism arrived in China through the Silk Route in 1st century CE via Tibet . One of the central tasks of the initial missionaries was the translation of Buddhist texts. The first surviving translations of Buddhist texts into Chinese were those of the 2nd century Parthian An Shigao (Ch. 安世高 ), who worked in
2318-549: The normalization period ( Boluan Fanzheng , 1977 to early 80s) led by Deng Xiaoping , a new revival of Chinese Buddhism began to take place. This was a period which saw the restoration of damaged Buddhist temples like Guoqing Temple and Guanghua Temple , as well as the return of monastic ordination and Buddhist institutions. Monks like Zhenchan (真禪) and Mengcan (夢參), who were trained in the Chan and Huayan traditions, traveled widely throughout China as well as other countries, such as
2379-423: The reign of Emperor Xuanzong of Tang . This Chinese form of Vajrayana Buddhism now became popular with the elites and by the time of Emperor Daizong of Tang (r. 762–779), its influence among the upper classes was significant. The Great Anti-Buddhist Persecution (841–845) under Emperor Wuzong of Tang greatly impacted and weakened the Buddhist institutions in China. Perhaps the main reason for this persecution
2440-504: The repetition of the Buddha's name). It is commonly believed that during these rituals one can experience auspicious signs, like visions of Amitabha and bright lights. Pilgrimages to well-known monasteries and sites, like the Four Sacred Buddhist Mountains ( Mount Wutai , Mount Emei , Mount Jiuhua , and Mount Putuo ) are also undertaken by monastics and lay practitioners alike. Another popular practice
2501-514: The rituals of local colloquialised folk religions. Chinese Buddhism focuses on studying Mahayana sutras and Mahāyāna treatises and draws its main doctrines from these sources. Some of the most important scriptures in Chinese Buddhism include: Lotus Sutra , Flower Ornament Sutra , Vimalakirtī Sutra , Nirvana Sutra , and Amitābha Sutra . Chinese Buddhism is the largest institutionalized religion in mainland China . Currently, there are an estimated 185 to 250 million Chinese Buddhists in
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2562-400: The scriptures, Dharma lectures, ritual meals, and chanting at mealtime, as well as confession and repentance rituals. There have been many different types of monasteries throughout Chinese Buddhist history. There are city monasteries, country monasteries, and monasteries deep in the mountains. Some monasteries may be large and rich, with thousands of monastics, while others are small with just
2623-601: The standard commentaries. The Four Books served as the basis of civil service examinations up until 1905, and education in the classics often began with Zhu Xi's commentaries as the cornerstone for understanding them. The sources of Zhu Xi's new approach to the Confucian curriculum have been found in several works of the Cheng brothers. Zhu Xi "codified the Cheng brothers' teachings and reworked them into his own philosophical program," moving "from philology to philosophy." Zhu Xi maintained that all things are brought into being by
2684-547: The standard for measuring the virtuous ladies. Zhu Xi (1130-1200) also agreed with this statement in his "Letter to Chen Shizhong": "In the past, Mr. Ichuan tried to discuss this matter, thinking that starving to death is a small matter, but losing modesty is a big matter. But when viewed by a gentleman who knows the scriptures and understands reason, he can see that it is not easy. He advocated that women should "be devoted to one another" and suppress "human desire". Jiang Chenying has summarized: "Henan Erchengzi to hold respect for
2745-477: The study of India during this period. Xuanzang also brought back many Buddhist texts and led a translation team which was responsible for many influential Chinese translations of classic Buddhist works. His efforts led to the establishment of the idealistic Yogachara (Consciousness-only) tradition in East Asia. The Tang era was one of the golden ages of Buddhism in China. During this time, a sinicized Buddhism
2806-434: The study of teaching. Its purpose to strict and respectful as scrupulous, its work began to move appearance, correct color, out of the rhetoric gas between, and pushed to the end of sex up to the sky to know the fate of the base of the work of the sage, the scholar no time and can leave." Xiong Zhichu said: "Since Yao and Shun, the saints and sages have passed on to each other without crossing one respect. The one who respects
2867-574: The teachings of the Cheng brothers and others, further developing their metaphysical theories in regards to principle ( li ) and vital force ( qi ). His followers recorded thousands of his conversations in writing. Zhu Xi, whose family originated in Wuyuan County , Huizhou (in modern Jiangxi province), was born in Fujian , where his father worked as the subprefectural sheriff. After his father
2928-556: The three jewels (Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha), is a common way of entering the Buddhist path. Another important set of ethical precepts is the " bodhisattva precepts " of the Brahmā's Net Sutra , which are often practiced by both laity and monastics. Acts of charity or social service ( 結緣 ) are also an important of part of Chinese Buddhist ethics . Another key part of Chinese Buddhism is engaging in Buddhist meditations such as chanting
2989-473: The two dominant Chan schools: Linji and Caodong . At this point in its history, Chinese Buddhism had also become quite eclectic, drawing from all the main Chinese traditions. An example of this is the figure of Hanshan Deqing , one of the great reformers of Chinese Buddhism. Like many of his contemporaries, he advocated the dual practice of the Chan and Pure Land methods. He also directed practitioners in
3050-496: The union of two universal aspects of reality: qi ( 氣 , sometimes translated as vital – or physical, material – force); and li ( 理 , sometimes translated as rational principle or law). The source and sum of li is the taiji , meaning the Supreme Ultimate. The source of qi is not so clearly stated by Zhu Xi, leading some authorities to maintain that he was a metaphysical monist and others to maintain that he
3111-700: The use of mantras as well as scripture reading. He was also renowned as a lecturer and commentator and was admired for his strict adherence to the precepts. During the Qing dynasty (1644–1911), the imperial court shifted its support to the Gelug school of Tibetan Buddhism. Chinese Buddhism suffered much during the various imperial and internal conflicts of the Qing dynasty, especially the devastating Taiping rebellion (December 1850 – August 1864), which saw many temples destroyed and scriptures burned by rebels. This era also saw
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#17327732023433172-446: The vast majority of ordinary Chinese Buddhists, "prevalent expressions of Buddhist piety were (and still are) channeled via a variety of popular modes of worship and ritual observance." Worship services can include Buddhist devotional practices like offerings to an altar (of items like incense, flowers, food, and candles), ceremonial bowing, and extensive liturgies (including repentance ceremonies, rites for good health, and memorials for
3233-452: The works of Hongzhi Zhengjue (1091–1157) developed the silent sitting method of "silent illumination". Both of these traditions of Chan practice were very influential (and remain so) on East Asian Zen Buddhism (including on Japanese Zen , Korean Seon , and Vietnamese Thiền ). The Yuan dynasty (1271–1368) patronized Tibetan Buddhism and thus, during this period there was a steady growth of this tradition in China. A common perception
3294-510: Was a metaphysical dualist . According to Zhu Xi's theory, every physical object and every person has its li and therefore has contact in its metaphysical core with the taiji . What is referred to as the human soul, mind, or spirit is understood as the taiji , or the supreme creative principle, as it works its way out in a person. Cheng brothers The Cheng brothers (Er Cheng, 二程, lit 2 Chengs) were two brothers Cheng Hao and Cheng Yi who were prominent Confucian philosophers during
3355-508: Was accused of numerous crimes and a petition was made for his execution. Much of this opposition was headed by Han Tuozhou , the Prime Minister, who was a political rival of Zhu's. Even though his teachings had been severely attacked by establishment figures, almost a thousand brave people attended his funeral. After the death of Han Tuozhou, Zhu's successor Zhen Dexiu , together with Wei Liaoweng , made Zhu's branch of Neo-Confucianism
3416-735: Was also a revival of Chinese Chan by Hsu Yun and Sheng Yen , as well as a revival of Tiantai Buddhism by Dixian and Tanxu (1875 – 1963). After the Chinese Communist Revolution , many Buddhists and monastics followed the Republican exodus to Taiwan . In the latter half of the twentieth century, many new Buddhist temples and organizations were set up by the exiles in Taiwan, including Fo Guang Shan , Dharma Drum Mountain , and Tzu Chi . These organizations also became influential back in Mainland China after
3477-512: Was forced from office due to his opposition to the government appeasement policy towards the Jurchen in 1140, Zhu Xi received instruction from his father at home. Many anecdotes attest that he was a highly precocious child. It was recorded that at age five he ventured to ask what lay beyond Heaven, and by eight he understood the significance of the Classic of Filiality ( Xiaojing ). As a youth, he
3538-547: Was inspired by Mencius' proposition that anyone could become a sage. Upon his father's death in 1143, he studied with his father's friends Hu Xian, Liu Zihui, and Liu Mianzhi. In 1148, at the age of 19, Zhu Xi passed the Imperial Examination and became a presented scholar ( jinshi ). Zhu Xi's first official dispatch position was as Subprefectural Registrar of Tong'an ( 同安縣主簿 ), which he served from 1153 - 1156. From 1153 he began to study under Li Tong, who followed
3599-608: Was that this patronage of lamas caused corrupt forms of tantra to become widespread. When the Yuan dynasty was overthrown and the Ming dynasty was established, the Tibetan lamas were expelled from the court, and this form of Buddhism was denounced as not being an orthodox path. During the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), there was a revival of the study of native Chinese traditions like Tiantai, Huayan , and Yogachara, and most monks belonged to
3660-413: Was the Chinese state's need for tax and wealth. The Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period (907–960/979), an era of great political upheaval and civil war, also negatively impacted Chinese Buddhism. Various Chinese Buddhist traditions contracted or died out during this period. The Song dynasty (960–1279) saw the flourishing of Chinese Buddhist culture. During the Song, Chan Buddhism grew to become
3721-459: Was widely accepted and practiced throughout the empire, with many monasteries and temples. Buddhism was popular with all social classes and was very influential on Chinese culture, being more popular and having more followers than Taoism. Buddhist themes can be found in much of the literature of this period, such as in the works of famous poets like Wang Wei (701–761) and Bo Juyi (772 – 846). The various artistic complexes from this period, such as
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