Misplaced Pages

#630369

59-767: The Zuni ( Zuni : A:shiwi ; formerly spelled Zuñi ) are Native American Pueblo peoples native to the Zuni River valley. The Zuni people today are federally recognized as the Zuni Tribe of the Zuni Reservation, New Mexico , and most live in the Pueblo of Zuni on the Zuni River, a tributary of the Little Colorado River , in western New Mexico , United States . The Pueblo of Zuni

118-718: A Keresan-Zuni grouping. J. P. Harrington wrote one unpublished paper with the title "Zuñi Discovered to be Hokan" (Campbell 1997). As Zuni is a language in the Pueblo linguistic area , it shares a number of features with Hopi , Keresan, and Tanoan (and to a lesser extent Navajo ) that are probably due to language contact . The development of ejective consonants in Zuni may be due to contact with Keresan and Tanoan languages which have complete series of ejectives. Likewise, aspirated consonants may have diffused into Zuni. Other shared traits include: final devoicing of vowels and sonorant consonants, dual number , ceremonial vocabulary, and

177-516: A church compound in 1632, and established a second mission in Halona. Shortly afterwards, the Zuni destroyed the missions, killing two priests, and then retreated to Dowa Yalanne , where they remained for the next three years. The Spanish built another mission in Halona in 1643. Before the Pueblo Revolt of 1680, the Zuni lived in six villages. After the revolt, until 1692, they took refuge in

236-457: A defensible position atop Dowa Yalanne , a steep mesa 5 km (3.1 miles) southeast of the present Pueblo of Zuni; Dowa means "corn", and yalanne means "mountain". After the establishment of peace and the return of the Spanish , the Zuni relocated to their present location, returning to the mesa top only briefly in 1703. By the end of the 17th century, only Halona was still inhabited of

295-429: A doubled initial letter instead of Newman's doubling of the digraphs – ⟨chch⟩ , ⟨lhlh⟩ , ⟨shsh⟩ – and ⟨kkw⟩ and ⟨tts⟩ are used instead of Newman's ⟨qq⟩ and ⟨zz⟩ . Antonio de Espejo Antonio de Espejo (c. 1540–1585) was a Spanish explorer who led an expedition, accompanied by Diego Perez de Luxan, into what

354-640: A few "poor Turkish bows and poorer arrows". Further north, the Indians were better armed and more aggressive. Some of the Pueblo towns were large, Espejo described Zia as having 1,000 houses and 4,000 men and boys. In their farming, the Pueblos used irrigation "with canals and dams, built as if by Spaniards". The only Spanish influence that Espejo noted among the Pueblos was their desire for iron. They would steal any iron article they could find. Espejo confirmed that

413-503: A pattern. The technique is normally used with turquoise , sometimes with coral and occasionally with other stones in creating necklaces, bracelets, earrings and rings. Petit point is made in the same fashion as needlepoint, except that one end of each stone is pointed, and the other end is rounded. Religion is central to Zuni life. Their traditional religious beliefs are centered on the three most powerful of their deities : Earth Mother, Sun Father, and Moonlight-Giving Mother. The religion

472-716: A similar lifestyle. Next, Espejo came upon the Jobosos who were few in number, shy, and ran away from the Spaniards. All of these ethnic groups had previously been impacted by Spanish slave raids." Near the junction (La Junta) of the Conchos and the Rio Grande, Espejo entered the territory of the Patarabueyes who attacked his horses, killing three. Espejo succeeded in making peace with them. The Patarabueyes, he said, and

531-516: A spy, or for being "greedy, voracious and bold". This was Spain's first contact with any of the Pueblo peoples. Francisco Vásquez de Coronado expedition followed in the wake of Niza's Seven Cities of Cibola claim. Sponsored once again by Mendoza, Coronado led 230 soldiers on horseback, 70 foot soldiers, several Franciscan priests and Mexican natives. The Spanish met 600 Zuni warriors near Hawikuh in July 1540, inflicting several casualties, and capturing

590-443: A traditional people who live by irrigated agriculture and raising livestock. Gradually the Zuni farmed less and turned to sheep and cattle herding as a means of economic development. Their success as a desert agri-economy is due to careful management and conservation of resources, as well as a complex system of community support. Many contemporary Zuni also rely on the sale of traditional arts and crafts . Some Zuni still live in

649-498: A village they executed 16 Indians who mocked them and refused them food. The Spanish quickly departed the Rio Grande and explored eastward, journeying through the Galisteo Basin near the future city of Santa Fe and reaching the large pueblo at Pecos , called Ciquique. When Antonio de Espejo set out to New Mexico as a relief for Chamuscado-Rodriguez, he left with many men including one man that would be vital in documenting

SECTION 10

#1732772516631

708-418: Is katsina -based, and ceremonies occur during winter solstice , summer, harvest, and again in winter. Priesthood includes three priests (north, above and below), and Pekwin (the above priest) determines the religious calendar. A religious society is associated with each of the six kivas, and each boy is initiated into one of these societies. Shalako is a series of ceremonial dances that take place throughout

767-563: Is 55 km (34 mi) south of Gallup, New Mexico . The Zuni tribe lived in multi level adobe houses. In addition to the reservation, the tribe owns trust lands in Catron County, New Mexico , and Apache County, Arizona . The Zuni call their homeland Halona Idiwan’a or Middle Place. The word Zuni is believed to derive from the Western Keres language ( Acoma ) word sɨ̂‧ni , or a cognate thereof. Archaeology suggests that

826-481: Is considered a language isolate . The Zuni have, however, borrowed a number of words from Keres , Hopi , and O’odham pertaining to religion and religious observances. A number of possible relationships of Zuni to other languages have been proposed by various researchers, although none of these have gained general acceptance. The main hypothetical proposals have been connections with Penutian (and Penutioid and Macro-Penutian), Tanoan , and Hokan phyla , and also

885-421: Is ground, sifted, mixed with water, rolled into a coil, shaped into a vessel or other design, and scraped smooth with a scraper. A thin layer of finer clay, called slip, is applied to the surface for extra smoothness and color. The vessel is polished with a stone after it dries. It is painted with home-made organic dyes, using a traditional yucca brush. The shape and painted images depend on the intended purpose of

944-723: Is now New Mexico and Arizona in 1582–83. The expedition created interest in establishing a Spanish colony among the Pueblo Indians of the Rio Grande valley. Espejo was born about 1540 in Cordova, Spain , and arrived in New Spain in 1571 along with the Chief Inquisitor, Pedro Moya de Contreras , who was sent by the Spanish king to establish an Inquisition . Espejo and his brother became ranchers on

1003-520: Is still spoken by a significant number of children and, thus, is comparatively less threatened with language endangerment . Edmund Ladd reported in 1994 that Zuni is still the main language of communication in the pueblo and is used in the home (Newman 1996). The Zuni name for their own language, Shiwiʼma ( shiwi "Zuni" + -ʼma "vernacular"; pronounced [ˈʃiwiʔma] ) can be translated as "Zuni way", whereas its speakers are collectively known as ʼA꞉shiwi ( ʼa꞉(w)- "plural" + shiwi "Zuni"). Zuni

1062-478: Is used to avoid using adult names, which have religious meanings and are very personal. There are twenty letters in the Zuni alphabet. This orthography was largely worked out by Curtis Cook. Linguists and anthropologists have created and used their own writing system for Zuni before the alphabet was standardized. One was developed for Zuni by linguist Stanley Newman (Newman 1954). This practical orthography essentially followed Americanist phonetic notation with

1121-714: The Keresan languages . The most clearly articulated hypothesis is Newman's (1964) connection to Penutian, but even this was considered by Newman (according to Michael Silverstein ) to be a tongue-in-cheek work due to the inherently problematic nature of the methodology used in Penutian studies (Goddard 1996). Newman's cognate sets suffered from common problems in comparative linguistics , such as comparing commonly borrowed forms (e.g. "tobacco"), forms with large semantic differences (e.g. "bad" and "garbage", "horse" and "hoof"), nursery forms, and onomatopoetic forms (Campbell 1997). Zuni

1180-572: The Seven Cities of Cibola , a legendary 16th century wealthy empire. In 1539, Moorish slave Estevanico led an advance party of Fray Marcos de Niza 's Spanish expedition. Sponsored by Antonio de Mendoza who wanted Niza to "explain to the natives of the land that there is only one God in heaven, and the Emperor on earth to rule and govern it, whose subjects they all must become and whom they must serve." The Zuni reportedly killed Estevanico as

1239-473: The Anasazi abandoned larger settlements for smaller ones, or established new ones along the Rio Grande. The Zuni did move from the eastern portion of their territory to the western side, and built six new villages, Halona, Hawikuh, Kiakima, Matsaki, Kwakina, and Kechipaun. Halona was located 97 km north Zuni Salt Lake, and the Zuni traded in salt, corn and turquoise . Hawikuh was claimed by Niza to be one of

SECTION 20

#1732772516631

1298-465: The Pueblos when Chamuscado led his soldiers back to the heartland of New Spain. Along with fourteen soldiers, a priest, about 30 indigenous servants and assistants, and 115 horses he departed from San Bartolome, near Santa Barbara, on November 10, 1582. Espejo followed the same route as Chamuscado and Rodriguez, down the Conchos River to its junction (La Junta) with the Rio Grande and then up

1357-544: The Rio Grande to the Pueblo villages. Along the Conchos River, Espejo encountered the Conchos people who he described as "naked people ... who support themselves on fish, mesquite , mescal , and lechuguilla ( agave )". Further downriver, he found Conchos who grew corn, squash, and melons. Leaving the Conchos behind, Espejo next encountered the Passaguates "who were naked like the Conchos" and seemed to have had

1416-818: The Southwest, Zuni employs switch-reference . Newman (1965, 1996) classifies Zuni words according to their structural morphological properties (namely the presence and type of inflectional suffixes), not according to their associated syntactic frames. His terms, noun and substantive , are therefore not synonymous. Zuni uses overt pronouns for first and second persons. There are no third person pronouns. The pronouns distinguish three numbers (singular, dual and plural) and three cases (subject, object and possessive). In addition, some subject and possessive pronouns have different forms depending on whether they appear utterance-medially or utterance-finally (object pronouns do not occur utterance-medially). All pronoun forms are shown in

1475-492: The Spaniards and the pueblo people including gift giving, discovery of pueblos, reactions from the pueblo people upon Spaniard arrival, and conversations between the Indians and the Spaniards. Diego was only in Texas and New Mexico for 10 months, but his observations that he detailed in his journal, have been made useful by many historians as they have used it to make illustrations of what Texas and New Mexico used to look like, and

1534-526: The Spanish escaped. The Spanish recaptured the women briefly, but they had to fight their way free. A Spanish soldier was wounded. In aiding the escape of the women, the Acomans and the Spanish exchanged volleys of harquebus fire, stones, and arrows. The Spanish, thus, were placed on notice that the hospitality of the Pueblos had limits. The Spanish then returned to the Rio Grande Valley where at

1593-541: The Zuni have been farmers in the general area for 3,000 to 4,000 years. It is now thought that the Ancestral Zuni people inhabited the Zuni River valley from the last millennium B.C., when they began using irrigation to farm maize on at least household-sized plots. Zuni culture is associated with Mogollon and Ancestral Pueblo peoples cultures, who lived in the deserts of New Mexico, Arizona , Utah , and southern Colorado for over two millennia. White Mound

1652-470: The Zuni way of life, exploiting them by photographing and revealing sacred traditions and ceremonies. During the early 2000s, the Zuni opposed the development of a coal mine near the Zuni Salt Lake , a site sacred to the Zuni and under Zuni control. The mine would have extracted water from the aquifer below the lake and would also have involved construction between the lake and the Zuni. The plan

1711-736: The Zuni.". In 1821, the Franciscans ended their missionary efforts. In 1848, U.S. Army Lt. Col. Henderson P. Boyakin signed a treaty with Zuni and Navajo leaders stating the Zuni "shall be protected in the full management of all their rights of Private Property and Religion...[by] the authorities, civil and military, of New Mexico and the United States." Observing the Zuni in the 1850s, Balduin Möllhausen noted "In all directions, fields of wheat and maize, as well as gourds and melons, bore testimony to their industry." The Zuni Reservation

1770-569: The beginning of words where it is not written. Additionally, in Tedlock's system, long vowels are written doubled instead of with a length mark ⟨꞉⟩ as in Newman's system (e.g. ⟨aa⟩ instead of ⟨a꞉⟩ ) and ⟨h⟩ and ⟨kw⟩ are used instead of ⟨j⟩ and ⟨q⟩ . Finally, Tedlock writes the following long consonants – ⟨cch, llh, ssh, tts⟩ – with

1829-499: The events that took place on the expedition. This man was Diego Perez de Luxan, he wrote journals about Espejo's findings in New Mexico and proved to be very important years later because of the rarity of documentation from the expedition. Diego was only on the expedition from 1582 - 1583. In his journal, Diego wrote a detailed description of the terrain that Espejo and his crew explored throughout New Mexico. This includes mountains,

Zuni people - Misplaced Pages Continue

1888-419: The following table: There is syncretism between dual and plural non-possessive forms in the first and second persons. Utterances with these pronouns are typically disambiguated by the fact that plural pronouns agree with plural-marked verb forms. Zuni adults are often known after the relationship between that adult and a child. For example, a person might be called "father of so-and-so", etc. The circumlocution

1947-596: The general path, pueblos, rivers, etc. Also in his journals, he wrote about some aspects of Indian culture through the Tigua who were located at the Rio Grande; Perez de Luxan wrote that the Tigua utilize masks in celebration and ceremonial use. The first record of the names of six different pueblos a part of the Zuni nation and 5 different pueblos in Moqui were written in Luxan's journal. Luxan described many interactions between

2006-535: The main article, " Zuni ethnobotany ". Zuni have developed knowledge of local plants that are used for medical practices and religious rites. Traditionally, Zuni women made pottery for storing food and water. They used symbols of their clans for designs. Clay for the pottery is sourced locally. Prior to its extraction, the women give thanks to the Earth Mother ( Awidelin Tsitda ) according to ritual. The clay

2065-580: The mines near present-day Jerome, Arizona , but was unimpressed by their potential. He heard from the local Indians, probably Yavapai , of a large river to the west, undoubtedly a reference to the Colorado . Among the Hopi and the Zuni, Espejo met several Spanish-speaking Mexican Indians who had been left behind by, or escaped from, the Coronado expedition more than 40 years earlier. The priest, several of

2124-466: The night on or around the winter solstice . They are closed to non-native individuals unless there is a personal invitation by a tribal member. The ceremony also blesses the houses that were built during the year. The blessing takes the form of singing that accompanies six dancers who are dressed in Shalako outfits. These outfits can be as high as eight feet; the dancers wearing them represent "couriers of

2183-518: The northern frontier of New Spain. In 1581, Espejo and his brother were charged with murder. His brother was imprisoned and Espejo fled to Santa Barbara, Chihuahua , the northernmost outpost of New Spain. He was there when the Chamuscado-Rodriguez expedition returned from New Mexico. Espejo, a wealthy man, assembled and financed an expedition for the ostensible purpose of ascertaining the fate of two priests who had remained behind with

2242-643: The old-style Pueblos, while others live in modern houses. Their location is relatively isolated, but they welcome respectful tourists. The Zuni Tribal Fair and rodeo is held the third weekend in August. The Zuni also participate in the Gallup Inter-Tribal Ceremonial, usually held in early or mid-August. The A:shiwi A:wan Museum and Heritage Center is a tribal museum that showcases Zuni history, culture, and arts. The Zuni utilize many local plants in their culture. For an extensive list, see

2301-453: The original six villages. Yet, satellite villages were settled around Halona, and included Nutria, Ojo Caliente, and Pescado. Of the three Zuni missions, only the church at Halona was rebuilt after the reconquest. According to Nancy Bonvillain , "Indeed, by the late eighteenth century, Spanish authorities had given up hope of dominating the Zuni and other western Pueblo Indians, and in 1799 only seven Spanish people were recorded as living among

2360-426: The other people near La Junta were also called "Jumanos" . -- the first use of the name for these people who would be prominent on the frontier for nearly two centuries. To add to the confusion, they were also called Otomoacos and Abriaches. Espejo saw five settlements of Jumanos with a population of about 10,000 people. They lived in low, flat-roofed houses and grew corn, squash, and beans and hunted and fished along

2419-469: The pottery. To fire the pottery, the Zuni used animal dung in traditional kilns . Today, Zuni potters might use electric kilns. While the firing was usually a community enterprise, silence or communication in low voices was considered essential in order to maintain the original "voice" of the "being" of the clay, and the purpose of the end product. Sales of pottery and traditional arts provide a major source of income for many Zuni people today. An artisan may be

Zuni people - Misplaced Pages Continue

2478-446: The presence of a labialized velar [kʷ] (Campbell 1997). The 16 consonants of Zuni (with IPA phonetic symbol when different from the orthography) are the following: The vowels are the following: Zuni syllables have the following specification: Word order in Zuni is fairly free with a tendency toward SOV. There is no case-marking on nouns. Verbs are complex, compared to nouns, with loose incorporation. Like other languages in

2537-621: The purpose of rituals and trade, and more recently for sale to collectors. The Zuni are known for their fine lapidary work. Zuni jewelers set hand-cut turquoise and other stones in silver. Today jewelry-making thrives as an art form among the Zuni. Many Zuni have become master stone-cutters. Techniques used include mosaic and channel inlay to create intricate designs and unique patterns. Two specialties of Zuni jewelers are needlepoint and petit point . In making needlepoint, small, slightly oval-shaped stones with pointed ends are set in silver bezels, close to one another and side by side to create

2596-473: The rain deities come to bless new homes". The dancers move from house to house throughout the night; at dawn Saiyatasha performs a final prayer and the ceremony is complete. In the novel Brave New World , a Zuni native named John comes to grip with sexual realities in the New State and how they differ from his own culture. Zuni language Unlike most indigenous languages in the United States, Zuni

2655-399: The river downstream. After descending the river about 300 miles from Ciquique the soldiers met Jumano Indians near Pecos, Texas , who guided them across country, up Toyah Creek, and cross country to La Junta. From here they followed the Conchos River upstream to San Bartolome, their starting place, arriving September 20, 1583. The priest and his companions had also returned safely. Espejo was

2714-667: The river. They gave Espejo well-tanned deer and bison skins. Leaving the Jumano behind, he passed through the lands of the Caguates or Suma , who spoke the same language as the Jumanos, and the Tanpachoas or Mansos . He found the Rio Grande Valley well populated all the way up to the present site of El Paso, Texas . Upstream from El Paso, the expedition traveled 15 days without seeing any people. In February 1583, Espejo arrived at

2773-480: The routes that Espejo's expedition took. Diego Perez de Luxan has also been recognized as the first person to document certain landscapes, one being El Malpais. Rather than return to the now unfriendly Rio Grande Valley, Espejo decided to return to Mexico via the Pecos River which he called "Rio de Las Vacas" because of the large number of bison the Spaniards encountered during the first six days they followed

2832-470: The soldiers, and the Indian assistants decided, despite Espejo's entreaties, to return to Mexico. It is possible that the priest was offended by the high-handed tactics of Espejo in dealing with the Pueblos. Espejo and eight soldiers stayed behind to look for silver and other precious metals. The little force had a skirmish with the Indians of Acoma Pueblo , apparently because two women slaves or prisoners of

2891-569: The sole financial support for her immediate family as well as others. Many women make pottery or, more rarely, clothing or baskets. Brown, black and red ornamentation can be found on traditional Zuni pots that are first covered with white slip. Common motifs are spiral scrolls edged with triangles, deer, as well as frogs, dragonflies and other symbols associated with rain and water. In addition to pots, Zuni produce owl figurines that are covered with white slip and painted with black and red motifs before firing. Zuni also make fetishes and necklaces for

2950-658: The substitution of some uncommon letters with other letters or digraphs (two-letter combinations). A further revised orthography is used in Dennis Tedlock's transcriptions of oral narratives . See the table below for a comparison of the systems. In Newman's orthography (used in his dictionary, Newman 1958), the symbols, ⟨ch, j, lh, q, sh, z, /, :⟩ replaced Americanist ⟨č, h, ł, kʷ, š, c, ʔ, ˑ ⟩ (used in Newman's grammar, Newman 1965). Tedlock's orthography uses ⟨ʼ⟩ instead of Newman's ⟨/⟩ except at

3009-517: The territory of the Piros, the most southerly of the Pueblo villagers. From there the Spanish continued up the Rio Grande. Espejo described the Pueblo villages as "clean and tidy". The houses were multi-storied and made of adobe bricks. "They make very fine tortillas," Espejo commented, and the Pueblos also served the Spanish turkeys, beans, corns, and pumpkins. The people "did not seem to be bellicose". The southernmost Pueblos had only clubs for weapons plus

SECTION 50

#1732772516631

3068-580: The townspeople. These Querechos were Navajo . The closely related Apache of the Great Plains during this period were also called Querechos. Espejo also visited the Zuni and Hopi and heard stories of silver mines further west. With four men and Hopi guides he went in search of the mines, reaching the Verde River in Arizona, probably in the area of Montezuma Castle National Monument . He found

3127-408: The two priests had been killed by the Indians in the pueblo of Puala, near present-day Bernalillo . As the Spanish approached the Pueblo the inhabitants fled to the nearby mountains. The Spanish continued their explorations, east and west of the Rio Grande apparently with no opposition from the Indians. Near Acoma, they noted that a people called Querechos lived in the mountains nearby and traded with

3186-432: The village. Coronado continued to the Rio Grande, but several priests and soldiers stayed an additional two years. The Chamuscado and Rodríguez Expedition followed in 1581, and Antonio de Espejo in 1583. Juan de Oñate visited Zuni territory in 1598 and 1604 looking for copper mines, but without success. Francisco Manuel de Silva Nieto established a mission at Hawikuh in 1629 with two Franciscan priests. They completed

3245-617: Was abandoned in 2003 after several lawsuits. The Zuni traditionally speak the Zuni language , a language isolate that has no known relationship to any other Native American language. Linguists believe that the Zuni have maintained the integrity of their language for 6,000-to-7,000 years. The Zuni do, however, share a number of words from Keresan , Hopi , and Pima pertaining to religion. The Zuni continue to practice their traditional religion with its regular ceremonies and dances, and an independent and unique belief system. The Zuni were and are

3304-608: Was also included under Morris Swadesh 's Penutioid proposal and Joseph Greenberg 's very inclusive Penutian sub-grouping – both without convincing arguments (Campbell 1997). Zuni was included as being part of the Aztec-Tanoan language family within Edward Sapir 's heuristic 1929 classification (without supporting evidence). Later discussions of the Aztec-Tanoan hypothesis usually excluded Zuni (Foster 1996). Karl-Heinz Gursky published problematic unconvincing evidence for

3363-499: Was created by the United States federal government in 1877, and enlarged by a second Executive order in 1883. Frank Hamilton Cushing , an anthropologist associated with the Smithsonian Institution , lived with the Zuni from 1879 to 1884. He was one of the first non-native participant-observers and ethnologists at Zuni. In 1979, it was reported that some members of the Pueblo consider he had wrongfully documented

3422-580: Was one such settlement of pit houses, farming, and storerooms, built around 700 A.D. , followed by the village of Kiatuthlanna around 800 A.D., and Allantown around 1000 A.D. These Mogollon villages included kivas . Likewise, Zuni ancestors were in contact with the Ancestral Puebloans at Chaco Canyon around 1100. The Zuni settlement called Village of the Great Kivas, was built around 1100, and included nine kivas. The Zuni region, however,

3481-447: Was probably only sparsely populated by small agricultural settlements until the 12th century when the population and the size of the settlements began to increase. The large villages of Heshot Ula, Betatakin, and Kiet Siel were established by 1275. By the 13th century villages were built on top of mesas, including Atsinna on Inscription Rock. In the 14th century, the Zuni inhabited a dozen pueblos containing between 180 and 1,400 rooms, while

#630369