Canaan
93-641: Judean provisional government Supported by: Radical factions: 10,000–20,000 Zealots and Idumeans killed Major conflicts The First Jewish–Roman War (66–74 CE), sometimes called the Great Jewish Revolt ( Hebrew : המרד הגדול , romanized : ha-Mered Ha-Gadol ) or the Jewish War , was the first of three major rebellions by the Jews against the Roman Empire fought in
186-623: A Judean provisional government was formed in Jerusalem led by former High Priest Ananus ben Ananus , Joseph ben Gurion and Joshua ben Gamla . Yosef ben Matityahu ( Josephus ) was appointed as the rebel commander in Galilee and Eleazar ben Hanania as the commander in Edom . Later, in Jerusalem, an attempt by Menahem ben Yehuda , leader of the Sicarii , to take control of the city failed. He
279-454: A national symbol in the early years of Israel 's nationhood. Masada has been described as "a lozenge-shaped table-mountain " that is "lofty, isolated, and to all appearance impregnable". Historically, the fortress could be reached only by a single pathway that was too narrow for men to walk abreast. This pathway was named "the Snake" for the way it twists and zig-zags to the summit. Masada
372-541: A Jewish rebel leader captured by the Romans , in whose service he became a historian. According to Josephus the long siege by the troops of the Roman Empire led to the mass suicide of the Sicarii rebels and resident Jewish families of the Masada fortress. In modern times, the story of the siege was revived as the Masada myth , a selectively constructed narrative based on Josephus's account. The mythical narrative became
465-470: A basket around to collect money as if Florus was poor. Florus reacted to the unrest by sending soldiers into Jerusalem the next day to raid the city and arrest a number of the city leaders, who were later whipped and crucified , despite many of them being Roman citizens . Shortly, outraged Judean nationalist factions took up arms and the Roman military garrison of Jerusalem was quickly overrun by rebels. Fearing
558-454: A despotic rule over the city. Simon bar Giora was invited into Jerusalem to stand against the Zealot faction of John and quickly took control of much of the city. Infighting between the factions of bar Giora and John followed through 69. The siege of Jerusalem turned into a stalemate. Unable to breach the city's defenses, Roman armies established a permanent camp just outside the city, digging
651-425: A large sum of money from Jerusalem's temple and put down any resistance by deploying a locally recruited auxiliary force. When he did seize 17 talents , he justified the measure as a matter of reclaiming unpaid back taxes. Both this measure and the subsequent upheavals it provoked were not unusual: similar incidents had occurred in the past. When rioting broke out, some Jerusalemites armed themselves in self-defense,
744-577: A leading role. Josephus Matthias (Yosef ben Matityahu) was appointed the commander in Galilee and Golan , while Josephus Simon (Yosef ben Shimon) was appointed commander of Jericho , John the Issene (Yohanan Issean) commander of Jaffa, Lydda, Ammeus-Nikopolis and the Tamna area. Elazar Ananias (Eliezar ben Hananiya) the joint commander in Edom together with Jesus ben Sapphas (Joshua ben Zafia), with Niger
837-643: A lesser extent, the Jewish world at large. With the influx of pilgrims and wealth from the Roman and Parthian Empires, which concentrated vast wealth in Jerusalem, the Second Temple had developed into a massive economy by the first century, but the destruction of the city and the temple brought this to an end. Additionally, according to Josephus and other scholars, the Romans confiscated and auctioned off all Jewish land or all land held by Jews who had participated in
930-687: A major role also played by the peasantry led by bar Giora and a Zealot faction led by Eleazar ben Simon , as well as elements of the Sicarii. Victorious Judean troops then took an initiative and attempted to expand their control to the Hellenistic city of Ascalon , assembling an army commanded by Niger the Perean , Yohanan the Issean, and Shila the Babylonian and laying siege to the city. Despite
1023-505: A number of auxiliary units and Jewish prisoners of war, totaling some 15,000 men and women, of whom an estimated 8,000 to 9,000 were fighting men, to lay siege to the 960 people in Masada. The Roman legion surrounded Masada and built a circumvallation wall, before commencing construction of a siege ramp against the western face of the plateau, moving thousands of tons of stones and beaten earth to do so. Josephus does not record any attempts by
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#17327661547251116-417: A seven-month siege, Titus used the collapse of several of the city walls to breach Jerusalem, ransacking and burning nearly the entire city. The Romans began by attacking the weakest spot: the third wall. It was built shortly before the siege so it did not have as much time invested in its protection. They succeeded towards the end of May and shortly afterwards broke through the more important second wall. During
1209-436: A trench around the circumference of its walls and building a wall as high as the city walls themselves around Jerusalem. Anyone caught in the trench attempting to flee the city would be captured and crucified in lines on top of the dirt wall facing into Jerusalem, with as many as 500 crucifixions occurring in a day. The two Zealot leaders, John of Gischala and Simon Bar Giora, only ceased hostilities and joined forces to defend
1302-427: A wall of timber", allowing the Romans to breach the wall of the fortress on April 16, 73 AD. When the Romans entered the fortress, they found it to be "a citadel of death". The Jewish rebels had set all the buildings but the food storerooms ablaze and had killed each other, declaring "a glorious death ... preferable to a life of infamy". According to Josephus, "The Jews hoped that all of their nation beyond
1395-531: A weapon did, and that both sexes showed equal determination, preferring death to a life that involved expulsion from their country. Josephus puts the number of the besieged at nearly 1 million. Many pilgrims from the Jewish diaspora who, undeterred by the war, had trekked to Jerusalem to be present at the Temple during Passover became trapped in Jerusalem during the siege and perished. In the summer of 70, following
1488-496: A younger group of priests called for the expulsion of all foreigners from the city, while many elders spoke out for caution and diplomacy. In the end, charismatic insurgents accompanied by armed bands entered Jerusalem, initiating a period of revolt against Rome but also internecine fighting amongst themselves. Attempts were made to garner support from the governor of Syria at the time, Cestius . This plea for help failed to garner any support, however. The consequent riot which erupted
1581-498: Is "incomplete and inaccurate" and contradicted by the "skeletons in the cave, and the numerous separate fires". Cohen speculates that "some Jews killed themselves, some fought to the death, and some attempted to hide and escape. The Romans were in no mood to take prisoners and massacred all whom they found." According to Kenneth Atkinson, there is no "archaeological evidence that Masada's defenders committed mass suicide." According to archaeologist Eric H. Cline , Josephus' narrative
1674-413: Is impossible because the Romans would have immediately pressed their advantage, leaving no time for Eleazar's speech or the mass suicides. Instead, Cline proposes that the defenders were massacred by Romans. The siege of Masada and the resulting Masada myth is often revered in modern Israel as "a symbol of Jewish heroism". According to Klara Palotai, "Masada became a symbol for a heroic 'last stand' for
1767-439: Is unlikely that many Jews survived in Jerusalem or the surrounding area. Many of the Jewish rebels were scattered or sold into slavery. He refutes Josephus' estimates of a death toll of 1.1 million as implausible. According to his calculations, the total population of Judea at that time was around 1 million, with approximately half being Jews. Moreover, he points out that sizeable Jewish communities continued to exist in
1860-645: The Eastern Mediterranean , the initially semi-independent Herodian dynasty was officially merged into the Roman Empire in the year 6 CE. The transition of the client kingdom into a Roman province brought a great deal of tension, and a Jewish uprising by Judas of Galilee erupted as a response to the Census of Quirinius . After the death of Herod the Great and the deposition of Herod Archelaus ,
1953-525: The Herodian tetrarchy . Another aspect of Herod's legacy was economic hardship. Labor workers, which had been employed at Herod's large-scale construction sites, became impoverished. After Herod's death, the poor economy led to riots. Herod's void of leadership made the region vulnerable to riots and can be considered an anticipatory cause of the Great Revolt. Following increasing Roman domination of
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#17327661547252046-819: The Isthmus of Corinth in Greece. He records that the Romans captured captives who were 17 years old and older and sent them to forced labor in Egypt. The youngest captives were sold into slavery. According to Moshe David Herr's estimation, one-third of the Jewish population in Judaea perished during the revolt. This figure encompasses those who died in battles with the Romans, during intra-Jewish civil strife, and in massacres perpetrated by gentiles in mixed cities. Additionally, victims succumbed to famine and epidemics, particularly in Jerusalem during its long siege. About another tenth of
2139-541: The Sadducees , who were primarily composed of members from the Jerusalem aristocracy, might have ceased to exist after the revolt. Nevertheless, there are no direct sources explicitly confirming their disappearance, and hints in later rabbinic and patristic literature suggest the possibility of continued Jewish sectarianism, including Sadducee and Essene-related groups, in the following centuries. The revolt affected Judaea's economic and social environment, as well as, to
2232-696: The Euphrates would join together with them to raise an insurrection", but in the end there were only 960 Jewish Zealots who fought the Roman army at Masada. When these Zealots were trapped on top of Masada with nowhere to run, Josephus tells us that the Zealots believed "it [was] by the will of God, and by necessity, that [they] are to die." The Masada site was extensively excavated between 1963 and 1965 by an expedition led by Israeli archaeologist and former military Chief-of-Staff Yigael Yadin . According to Shaye Cohen , archaeology shows that Josephus' account
2325-495: The Greek population and Caligula by having statues of the emperor placed in Jewish synagogues . As a result, extensive religious riots broke out in the city. Caligula responded by removing Flaccus from his position and executing him. In 39, Agrippa accused Herod Antipas , the tetrarch of Galilee and Perea , of planning a rebellion against Roman rule with the help of Parthia . Herod Antipas confessed, and Caligula exiled him. Agrippa
2418-468: The Jewish Temple clerks, Eleazar ben Hanania , ceased prayers and sacrifices for the Roman emperor at the Temple. Protests over taxation joined the list of grievances and random attacks on Roman citizens and perceived 'traitors' occurred in Jerusalem. When Florus removed the 17 talents from the treasury the city fell into unrest and some of the Jewish population began to openly mock Florus by passing
2511-430: The Jewish elite gave up without a fight, including Sepphoris and Tiberias, although others had to be taken by force. Of these, Josephus provides detailed accounts of the sieges of Tarichaea , Yodfat (Jotapata) and Gamla ; Gischala , the stronghold of Zealots, was also taken by force, as Zealot leaders abandoned it in the midst of the siege, heading with the bulk of their force for Jerusalem. By 68, Jewish resistance in
2604-542: The Jewish population in Judaea was captured by the Romans, and their fate was often tragic, with many enduring harsh treatment, execution, or forced labor. Strong young men were compelled to serve as gladiators in stadiums and circuses across the empire, while others were sent to brothels or sold as slaves . Vespasian settled 800 Roman veterans in Motza , which became a Roman settlement known as Colonia Amosa or Colonia Emmaus . He strengthened Roman control over
2697-538: The Jewish population with whom the Sicarii were in conflict. Shortly thereafter, following the Roman siege of Jerusalem and subsequent destruction of the Second Temple , additional members of the Sicarii and many Jewish families fled Jerusalem and settled on the mountaintop, with the Sicarii using it as a refuge and base for raiding the surrounding countryside. According to modern interpretations of Josephus,
2790-600: The Jewish rebels slaughtered all the surrendered soldiers, except for Metilius who was forced to convert to Judaism. According to fourth-century church fathers Eusebius and Epiphanius of Salamis , Jerusalem's Christians fled to Pella before the beginning of the war. As a result of the unrest in Judaea, Gallus assembled the Syrian legion XII Fulminata , reinforced with units of III Gallica , IV Scythica , and VI Ferrata , plus auxiliaries and allies—a total of approximately 30,000–36,000 troops—in order to restore order in
2883-461: The Jews petitioned the governor of Syria to get the official removed, Roman Judea being essentially a "satellite of Syria". The years 7–26 CE were relatively calm, but after 37 the province again began to be a source of trouble, this time for Emperor Caligula . The cause of tensions in the east of the empire was complicated, involving the spread of Greek culture , Roman Law and the rights of Jews in
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2976-407: The Jews who were in favour of rebellion, and those who were not. A huge loss of life occurred, including that of the former High Priest Ananias . The Roman garrison on Jerusalem's western border became besieged and was unable to assist those who opposed rebellion. Eventually, led by their commander Metilius, the garrison surrendered in exchange for unhindered passage from the city, but, led by Eliezar,
3069-472: The Judean and Samarian highlands. The Jews who were driven out of Galilee rebuilt Joppa (Jaffa) which had been destroyed by Gallus. Surrounded by the Romans, they rebuilt the city walls and used a light flotilla to demoralize commerce and interrupt the grain supply to Rome from Alexandria. In his The Jewish War , Josephus wrote: They also built themselves a great many piratical ships, and turned pirates upon
3162-487: The Perean the war hero during the Gallus campaign under their command. Menasseh was appointed for Perea and John Ananias (Yohanan ben Hananiya) to Gophna and Acrabetta. An attempt by Menahem ben Yehuda , leader of the Sicarii, to take control of Jerusalem failed. He was executed, and the remaining Sicarii were ejected from the city to their stronghold Masada , previously taken from a Roman garrison. Headquartered in Masada,
3255-461: The Revolt use an archaic Hebrew script and Jewish symbols including pomegranate buds, lulavs , etrogs , and phrases including "Shekel of Israel," and "The Freedom of Zion" (חרות ציון Herut Zion), as political statements intended to rally support for independence. The provisional government became obsolete in the year 68, when inter-rebel strife led to the killing of most of its members. According to
3348-547: The Romans instituted procurators (technically prefects before 41 CE) to rule the Judeans. In the beginning, the Roman procurators respected the laws and customs of the Jewish people, allowing them to rest on the Sabbath, granting them exemption from pagan rituals, and even minting coins without images despite the fact that elsewhere the coins bore images. When confronted with a procurator who disrespected their laws and customs,
3441-481: The Sicarii modified some of the structures they found at Masada. These include a building that was modified to function as a synagogue. It may in fact have been a synagogue to begin with, although it did not contain a mikvah or the benches found in other early synagogues. It is one of the oldest synagogues in Israel . In 72 AD, the Roman governor of Judaea, Lucius Flavius Silva , led Roman legion X Fretensis ,
3534-540: The Sicarii terrorized nearby Judean villages such as Ein Gedi . Simon bar Giora was also expelled from Jerusalem, and his faction took refuge in Masada and stayed there until the winter of 67–68. Emperor Nero sent General Vespasian to crush the rebellion. Vespasian, along with legions X Fretensis and V Macedonica , landed at Ptolemais in April 67. There he was joined by his son Titus , who arrived from Alexandria as
3627-427: The Sicarii to counterattack the besiegers during this process, a significant difference from his accounts of other sieges of the revolt. The ramp was completed in the spring of 73, after probably two to three months of siege. A giant siege tower with a battering ram was constructed and moved laboriously up the completed ramp, while the Romans assaulted the wall, discharging "a volley of blazing torches against ...
3720-483: The Sicarii were an extremist splinter group of the Zealots and were equally antagonistic to both Romans and other Jewish groups. It was the Zealots, in contrast to the Sicarii, who carried the main burden of the rebellion, which opposed Roman rule of Judea . According to Josephus, on Passover, the Sicarii raided Ein Gedi , a nearby Jewish settlement, and killed 700 of its inhabitants. Archaeology indicates that
3813-519: The State of Israel and played a major role for Israel in forging national identity." To Israel, it symbolized the courage of the warriors of Masada, the strength they showed when they were able to keep hold of Masada for almost three years, and their choice of death over slavery in their struggle against an aggressive empire. Masada had become "the performance space of national heritage", the site of military ceremonies. Palotai states how Masada "developed
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3906-588: The Zealots and thus, with Idumeans entering Jerusalem and fighting by the side of the Zealots, the heads of the Judean provisional government, Ananus ben Ananus and Joseph ben Gurion, were killed with severe civilian casualties in the notorious Zealot Temple Siege , where Josephus reports 12,000 dead. Receiving the news of the carnage in Jerusalem, Simon bar Giora left Masada and began pillaging Idumea, setting his headquarters in Na'an ; he met little resistance and joined forces with Idumean leaders, including Jacob ben Susa. In
3999-497: The city was destroyed by fire and the Jewish community was thrown into turmoil by the devastation of its political and religious leadership. King Herod the Great ruled Jerusalem from 37 BCE – 4 BCE as a vassal king for the Roman Empire, having been appointed "King of the Jews" by the Roman Senate . Herod was known as a tyrant, mostly because of his campaign to kill anyone who could claim the throne. Herod had all relatives of
4092-569: The city when the Romans began to construct ramparts for the siege. During the infighting inside the city walls, a stockpiled supply of dry food was intentionally burned by the Zealots to induce the defenders to fight against the siege, instead of negotiating peace; as a result many city dwellers and soldiers died of starvation during the siege. Tacitus , a contemporary historian, notes that those who were besieged in Jerusalem amounted to no fewer than 600,000, that men and women alike and every age engaged in armed resistance, that everyone who could pick up
4185-523: The classes closely associated with Jerusalem and the Temple. The aristocratic oligarchy, consisting of the families of the High Priesthood and their affiliates , who wielded significant political, social, and economic influence and amassed great wealth, suffered a total collapse. The conventional understanding posits that the Essenes , whose settlement at Qumran was destroyed during the war, and
4278-639: The coast, where it was ambushed and defeated at the Battle of Beth Horon , a result which shocked the imperial leadership. The defeat of the Romans in Beth Horon is considered one of the worst military defeats of the Roman Empire by a rebel province throughout its history. Some 6,000 Roman troops were killed and many more wounded in the battle, with Legio XII Fulminata losing its aquila , as Gallus abandoned his troops in disarray, fleeing to Syria. Judean militias included Sadducee and Pharisee factions, with
4371-510: The defeat of Gallus in Beth Horon, the People's Assembly was called under the spiritual guidance of Simeon ben Gamliel and thus the Judean provisional government was formed in Jerusalem. Former High Priest Ananus ben Ananus (Hanan ben Hanan) was appointed one of the government heads and began reinforcing the city, with other prominent figure of Joseph ben Gurion, with Joshua ben Gamla taking
4464-480: The delivery of the city to the Romans. When the Edomites arrived, the Zealots opened the gates of Jerusalem to them, and the Edomites slaughtered ben Hanan (Ananus ben Ananus) and his forces. After freeing the Zealots from the Temple, the Edomites and Zealots massacred the common people. Remnants of the rebel government summoned the peasant faction headed by Simon bar Giora to Jerusalem , in order to stand against
4557-499: The direct control of the government. The Kingdom of Adiabene however did provide direct support to it, dispatching significant supplies and some 500 armed men in support. Siege of Masada The siege of Masada was one of the final events in the First Jewish–Roman War , occurring from 72 to 73 CE on and around a hilltop in present-day Israel. The siege is known to history via a single source, Flavius Josephus ,
4650-484: The downtrodden masses, and Roman and Jewish religious tensions . The crisis escalated because of anti-taxation protests and clashes between Jews and pagans in mixed cities. The Roman governor Gessius Florus seized money from the Second Temple 's treasury and arrested numerous senior Jewish figures. This prompted widespread rebellion in Jerusalem that culminated in the capture of the Roman garrison by rebel forces as
4743-436: The empire . Caligula did not trust the prefect of Egypt, Aulus Avilius Flaccus . Flaccus had been loyal to Tiberius, had conspired against Caligula's mother, and had connections with Egyptian separatists. In 38, Caligula sent Agrippa to Alexandria unannounced to check on Flaccus. According to Philo , the visit was met with jeers from the Greek population, who saw Agrippa as the king of the Jews. Flaccus tried to placate both
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#17327661547254836-663: The field commentaries of the Roman commanders. According to Josephus, Masada was first constructed by the Hasmoneans . Between 37 and 31 BC Herod the Great fortified it as a refuge for himself in the event of a revolt. In 66 AD, at the beginning of the First Jewish–Roman War, a group of Jewish extremists called the Sicarii overcame the Roman garrison of Masada and settled there. The Sicarii were commanded by Eleazar ben Ya'ir , and in 70 AD they were joined by additional Sicarii and their families expelled from Jerusalem by
4929-567: The final stages of the Roman attack, Zealots still held the Temple while the Sicarii held the upper city. The Second Temple , one of the last fortified bastions of the rebellion, was destroyed on Tisha B'Av (29 or 30 July 70). All three walls of Jerusalem were eventually destroyed as well as the Temple and the citadels; the city was burned, with most survivors taken into slavery; some of those overturned stones and their place of impact can still be seen. John of Giscala surrendered at Agrippa II's fortress of Jotapata while Simon Bar Giora surrendered at
5022-400: The fortress. According to Josephus, when the Romans finally broke through the walls of this citadel in 73, they discovered that 960 of the 967 defenders had committed suicide. The Roman suppression of the revolt had a significant demographic impact on the Jews of Judaea, as many perished in battle and from siege conditions, and multiple cities, towns and villages were destroyed. The destruction
5115-529: The head of Legio XV Apollinaris , as well as by the armies of various local allies including that of King Agrippa II . Fielding more than 60,000 soldiers, Vespasian began operations by subjugating Galilee. Judean rebels in Galilee were divided into two camps, with forces loyal to the central government in Jerusalem commanded by Josephus and representing the wealthy and priesthood classes, whereas local Zealot militias largely consisted of poor fishermen, farmers and refugees from Roman Syria. Many towns associated with
5208-537: The historian Josephus , Ananus incited the people to rise up against the Zealots who were in control of the Temple . The forces of Ananus besieged the Zealots who held the Temple. When John of Gischala led the Zealots to believe that Ananus had contacted the Roman general Vespasian for assistance in retaking control of all Jerusalem, the Zealots, driven to desperation, asked the Idumeans for assistance in preventing
5301-532: The insurrection. Judean provisional government (66%E2%80%9368) State of Israel (1948–present) The Judean provisional government was a short-lived de facto governing entity in Judea , which was established during the Great Jewish Revolt in the year 66 CE by Judean rebel forces of the Pharisee and Sadducee parties. It aimed to create and govern a full Jewish state , although its influence
5394-443: The leadership of Judah ben Ari , whom he swiftly defeated. Because of illness, Bassus did not live to complete his mission. Lucius Flavius Silva replaced him and moved against the last Judean stronghold, Masada, in the autumn of 72. He used Legio X , auxiliary troops, and thousands of Jewish prisoners, for a total of 10,000 soldiers. After his orders for surrender were rejected, Silva established several base camps and circumvallated
5487-413: The mainly Sadducee Jerusalemites and the Zealot rebel factions that soon erupted into bitter infighting. In 69, Vespasian marched on Rome and crowned himself as emperor, leaving Titus to besiege Jerusalem in 70 CE . Following a brutal seven-month siege, during which Zealot infighting resulted in the burning of the entire food supplies of the city, the Romans finally succeeded in breaching the defenses in
5580-783: The neighbouring province. The Syrian legion captured Narbata and also took Sepphoris , which surrendered without a fight. The Judean rebels who withdrew from Sepphoris took refuge at Atzmon hill but were defeated following a short siege. Gallus later reached Acre in western Galilee and then marched on Caesarea and Jaffa , where he massacred some 8,400 people. Continuing his military campaign, Gallus took Lydda and Afek (Antipatris) and engaged Jerusalemite rebels in Geva , where he lost nearly 500 troops to Judean rebels led by Simon bar Giora , reinforced by allied volunteers from Adiabene . The Syrian legion then invested Jerusalem but for uncertain reasons and despite initial gains withdrew back towards
5673-468: The north had been crushed, and Vespasian made Caesarea Maritima his headquarters and methodically proceeded to cleanse the coastline of the country, avoiding direct confrontation with the rebels at Jerusalem. Based on questionable numbers from Josephus, it has been estimated that the Roman vanquishing of Galilee resulted in 100,000 Jews killed or sold into slavery. Vespasian remained camped at Caesarea Maritima until spring 68, preparing for another campaign in
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#17327661547255766-642: The order were carried out, delayed implementing it for nearly a year. Agrippa finally convinced Caligula to reverse the order. In 46 an insurrection by the Jews broke out in Judea province. The Jacob and Simon uprising was instigated by the two eponymous brothers and lasted between 46-48. The revolt, which concentrated in the Galilee, began as sporadic insurgency and in 48 was put down by Roman authorities, and both brothers were executed. The relatively conciliatory Roman policy in Judea changed when Gessius Florus became procurator in 64. Nero had ordered Florus to extract
5859-418: The pillage of Ascalon's countryside, the campaign was a disaster for the Judeans, who failed to take the city and lost some 8,000 militia men to the small defending Roman garrison. Many Jewish residents of Ascalon were butchered by their Greco-Syrian and Roman neighbours as well in the aftermath. The failure to take Ascalon changed the tactics of Judean forces from open engagement to fortified warfare. Following
5952-473: The previous Hasmonean dynasty executed. This included his wife Mariamne I , the daughter of a Hasmonean king, and all of her family members. Herod also created a new line of nobility that would have loyalties to only him, known as the Herodians . He appointed high priests from families that were not connected to the past dynasty. After Herod's death, several relatives made claims to the region, beginning with
6045-619: The pro-Roman King Herod Agrippa II and Roman officials fled. To quell the unrest, Cestius Gallus , the legate of Syria , brought in the Syrian army, consisting of the Legion XII Fulminata and auxiliary troops. Despite initial advances and the conquest of Jaffa , the Syrian Legion was ambushed and defeated by Jewish rebels at the Battle of Beth Horon with 6,000 Romans massacred and the Legion's aquila lost. In 66,
6138-561: The province by giving Caesarea colony status and Neapolis city status, and by garrisoning Legio X Fretensis in Jerusalem permanently. Despite the heavy losses and the destruction of the Temple, Jewish life continued to thrive in Judea. However, continuing dissatisfaction with Roman rule eventually led to the Bar Kokhba revolt of 132–136, which appears to have resulted in the destruction and depopulation of Judea proper. According to historical sources and archaeological evidence, Jerusalem
6231-469: The province of Judaea , resulting in the destruction of Jewish towns, the displacement of its people, and the appropriation of land for Roman military use, as well as the destruction of the Jewish Temple and polity. The revolt began in 66 CE, during the twelfth year of the reign of Nero , originating in the oppressive rule of Roman governors , the widening gaps between the wealthy aristocracy and
6324-527: The radical Zealots taking control of large parts of the fortified city. A brutal civil war then erupted, with the Zealots and the Sicarii executing anyone advocating surrender. Following a false message that the Judean provisional government had come to terms with the Roman Army, delivered by the Zealots to the Idumeans, a major force of some 20,000 armed Idumeans arrived to Jerusalem. It was allowed in by
6417-403: The rampaging Zealots. While the charismatic Bar Giora took over much of the city, he did not attempt to restore the government, rather ruling by himself in a despotic manner. Bitter fighting between Zealot factions and Bar Giora continued until the Roman siege of 70 CE. The rebel Judean government was not recognized at any time by the Roman Empire and in fact enjoyed limited recognition amongst
6510-471: The rebel factions. The Jerusalem-based rebel government had little authority in the Galilee, where locals were not satisfied with the fact that a non-local, Joseph ben Matityahu, was appointed a regional commander, marginalizing John of Gischala and Justus of Tiberias , who rejected his authority. Furthermore, the Judean-based Zealots, the peasantry and most Idumean factions were never under
6603-482: The region even after the war, including in Judea, despite the severe damages incurred. According to Schwartz, the reported figure of 97,000 captives taken during the war is much more reliable. This would suggest that a sizeable segment of the population was either driven out of the country or, at the very least, displaced. The social ramifications of the war were profound, leading to the complete disappearance or loss of status of entire social strata. The most impacted were
6696-569: The regions, Judea proper experienced the most severe destruction, yet some cities, like Lod , Yavne , and their surroundings, remained relatively undamaged. The most severe devastation was concentrated in the Judaean Mountains , culminating in the complete destruction of Jerusalem, resulting in an estimated loss of more than 90% of its population. Josephus reports that the Romans took numerous slaves with them. He says that Vespasian sent 6,000 Jewish prisoners of war from Galilee to work on
6789-503: The seas near to Syria, and Phoenicia, and Egypt, and made those seas unnavigable to all men. Zealot leaders of the collapsed northern revolt, headed by John of Giscala , managed to escape from Galilee to Jerusalem with the bulk of their forces. Packed with militants of many factions, including remains of forces loyal to the Judean provisional government and significant Zealot militia headed by Eleazar ben Simon , and largely cut off by Roman forces, Jerusalem quickly descended into anarchy with
6882-420: The siege of Jerusalem, reports "We have heard that the total number of the besieged of every age and both sexes was six hundred thousand. [...] Both men and women showed the same determination; and if they were to be forced to change their home , they feared life more than death", which indicates that the besieged believed that those who survived the siege would be displaced. Seth Schwartz writes that it
6975-631: The site where the Temple once stood. The Temple treasures, including the Menorah and the Table of the Bread of God's Presence , which had previously only ever been seen by the High Priest of the Temple, were paraded through the streets of Rome during Titus' triumphal procession , along with some 700 Judean prisoners who were paraded in chains, among them John of Giscala and Simon Bar Giora. John of Giscala
7068-415: The spring of 68, Vespasian began a systematic campaign to subdue various rebel-held strongholds in Judea proper, recapturing Afeq, Lydda, Javneh, and Jaffa that spring. He continued into Idumea and Perea and to the Judean and Samarian highlands, where Bar Giora's faction was causing major concern to the Romans. The Roman Army took Gophna, Akrabta, Bet-El, Ephraim, and Hebron by July 69. While the war in Judea
7161-399: The struggle for independence both because they were devoid of the name, reign year and image of the Roman emperor, and because they were made of silver. Silver coinage was the privilege of Imperial mints; the bronze coins that provinces were allowed to mint were a symbol of the subjugation of provinces to Rome. There is broad scholarly agreement that coins issued by the Judean government during
7254-524: The summer of 70. Following the fall of Jerusalem, Titus departed for Rome, leaving the Legion X Fretensis to defeat the remaining Jewish strongholds, including Herodium and Machaerus . The Roman campaign ended with their success at the siege of Masada in 72–74. The Roman suppression of the revolt had a significant impact on the local population, with many rebels perishing in battle, displaced, or being sold into slavery. The temple of Jerusalem and much of
7347-421: The usurper Vitellius , who had already deposed Otho. Titus advanced his Roman legions on Jerusalem, conquering towns and creating a wave of Judean refugees. The rebels avoided direct confrontation and were mostly interested in their own control and survival. The Zealot factions were weakened by civil war within the city but could still field significant troops. John, a Zealot leader, assassinated Eleazar and began
7440-497: The whole Tamna area. Eleazar ben Hanania was appointed the joint commander in Edom together with Joshua ben Zafia, with Niger the Perean, a hero during the Gallus campaign, under their command. Menasseh was appointed to cover Perea and Yohanan ben Hananiya allocated Gophna and Acrabetta. According to Cecil Roth , the new government began almost immediately to mint silver coins which, although they were "not distinguished either in design or execution," were of symbolic importance in
7533-432: The worst, the pro-Roman King Herod Agrippa II and his sister Berenice fled Jerusalem to Galilee. Judaean militias later moved upon Roman citizens of Judaea and pro-Roman officials, cleansing the country of any Roman symbols. Among other events, the Sicarii rebel faction surprised the Roman garrison of Masada and took over the fortress. Initially, the outbreak of violence had been an internal factional conflict between
7626-523: Was completely destroyed during the war. Josephus claims that 1,100,000 people were killed during the siege of Jerusalem, 97,000 were captured and enslaved, and many others fled to areas around the Mediterranean . A significant portion of the deaths was from illnesses and hunger brought about by the Romans. "A pestilential destruction upon them, and soon afterward such a famine, as destroyed them more suddenly." Roman historian Tacitus , when describing
7719-468: Was concentrated in Jerusalem . The government functioned until the Zealot Temple siege in the year 68 CE, when most of its leaders were massacred in the inter-rebel struggle. Following the Battle of Beth Horon which saw the defeat of Gallus in 66 CE , an assembly of the people was called under the spiritual guidance of Simeon ben Gamliel , and thus the Judean provisional government
7812-532: Was executed, and the remaining Sicarii were ejected from the city. Simon bar Giora , a peasant leader, was also expelled by the new government. The Roman general Vespasian was given four legions and tasked by Nero with crushing the rebellion. Assisted by forces of Agrippa, Vespasian invaded Galilee in 67 and within several months had claimed the major Jewish strongholds of Galilee, Jodapatha and Tarichaea . Driven from Galilee, Zealot rebels and thousands of refugees arrived in Jerusalem, creating tensions between
7905-435: Was formed in Jerusalem . Ananus ben Ananus , the former High Priest of Israel , was appointed one of the heads of the government and began reinforcing the city, with Joshua ben Gamla also taking a leading role. Yosef ben Matityahu was appointed the commander in Galilee and Golan , while Yosef ben Shimon was appointed commander of Jericho . John the Issene was appointed commander of Jaffa, Lydda, Ammeus-Nikopolis and
7998-593: Was in progress, great events were occurring in Rome. In the middle of 68, Nero's increasingly erratic behavior finally lost him all support for his position. The Roman Senate , the Praetorian Guard , and several prominent army commanders conspired for his removal. When the Senate declared Nero an enemy of the people , he fled Rome and committed suicide with the help of a secretary. The newly installed emperor Galba
8091-514: Was murdered after just a few months by his rival Otho , triggering a civil war that came to be known as the Year of the Four Emperors . In 69, though previously uninvolved, the popular Vespasian was also hailed emperor by the legions under his command. He decided, upon gaining further widespread support, to leave Titus to finish the war in Judea while he returned to Rome to claim the throne from
8184-513: Was named as the place where David rested after fleeing from his father-in-law, King Saul . Flavius Josephus , a Jew born and raised in Jerusalem , is the only historian to provide a detailed account of the First Jewish–Roman War and the only person who recorded what happened on Masada. After being captured during the Siege of Yodfat and then freed by Vespasian , Josephus chronicled the Roman campaign. Josephus presumably based his narration on
8277-526: Was not uniform across the country; certain areas suffered more extensive devastation than others. The Jewish population in several mixed cities was eliminated. In Galilee, according to Josephus, two of the four largest cities, Tarichaea (probably Magdala ) and Gabara , were destroyed, while Sepphoris and Tiberias reconciled with the Romans and experienced minimal harm. The scope of destruction also varied in Transjordan and in central Judaea. Among all
8370-554: Was rewarded with his territories. Riots again erupted in Alexandria in 40 between Jews and Greeks. Jews were accused of not honoring the emperor. Disputes occurred also in the city of Jamnia. Jews were angered by the erection of a clay altar and destroyed it. In response, Caligula ordered the erection of a statue of himself in the Jewish Temple of Jerusalem . The governor of Syria, Publius Petronius , fearing civil war if
8463-477: Was sentenced to life imprisonment while Simon Bar Giora was executed. The triumph was commemorated with the Arch of Titus , which depicts the Temple's treasures being paraded. With the fall of Jerusalem, some insurrection still continued in isolated locations in Judea, lasting as long as 73. During the spring of 71, Titus set sail for Rome. Sextus Lucilius Bassus was appointed as military governor, whose assigned task
8556-412: Was the first in a series of revolts and led to the formation of several revolutionary factions. The revolt was further intensified when Florus attempted to stop the riots, which actually incited more revolutionary zeal. According to Josephus , the violence which began at Caesarea in 66 was provoked by Greeks of a certain merchant house sacrificing birds in front of a local synagogue. In reaction, one of
8649-562: Was to undertake the "mopping-up" operations in Judea. He used X Fretensis to besiege and capture the few remaining fortresses that still resisted. Bassus took Herodium and then crossed the Jordan to capture the fortress of Machaerus on the shore of the Dead Sea and then continued into the forest of Jardus on the northern shore of the Dead Sea to pursue some 3,000 Judean rebels under
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