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113-743: This specific conflict between the Sovereign Duchy of Brittany and the Kingdom of France can be divided into a series of military and diplomatic episodes between 1465 and 1491, until Anne of Brittany married Charles VIII of France and the eventual end of Breton independence. The first Treaty of Guérande (1365) settled the War of the Breton Succession . For decades, two families, the Blois-Penthièvre and Montfort , contested

226-534: A Breton defeat; while the Breton army was still reassembling, the French army laid siege to Fougères. The city was regarded as one of the best defended, guarded by 2,000 to 3,000 men. By mid-July the Breton army was finally assembled, but it was too late to help Fougères, which had capitulated on the 19th, after a week of siege against the blows of powerful French artillery. The French army then moved on to Dinan , while

339-639: A French King, by a previous Breton Duke, John V, who had paid homage — deprived the Penthièvre of their rights to Ducal succession after their "treachery" in 1420, the year Henry V of England , a supporter of the Montforts, conquered Paris. These rights were to be reviewed by 1447, but the sense of urgency had changed as the French King had recovered Paris (1446) and Normandy (1447) from the English and

452-732: A French judgment of confiscation was issued against all the goods of Louis of Orleans. Also in this period of conflict; For the Bretons: For the French: Maximilian's attention was however diverted by a rebellion in his territory of Flanders , supported by the French Marshal d'Esquerdes. In all of this, the various allies of the Duke of Brittany competed for the hand of Anne of Brittany : were all candidates. The war resumed in late March 1488. La Trémoille assembled

565-719: A March 27 Anglo-Spanish treaty in Medina del Campo . Within the Duchy however, different ambitions clashed: The Breton Chancellor Philippe de Montauban, Dunois, the Prince of Orange, Raoul de Lornay took the heiress with them, first to Redon, then fled to Nantes, without entering it, the city being held by the Marshal of Rieux. Finally, the Duchess's party took refuge in Rennes, and despite

678-450: A critical step towards a parliamentary form of government. Arthur II's reign is also distinguished by his two marriages, the first to Mary of Limoges and the second to Yolande of Dreux, Queen of Scotland . Arthur II's son by Mary of Limoges, John III became Duke but failed to produce a living heir, despite three marriages. John III's succession efforts were focused on his attempts to deny his half brother, John of Montfort from inheriting

791-608: A direct vassal of France. However, in 1202, 15-year-old Arthur was captured by the English while besieging Mirebeau . By 1203, the imprisoned Arthur was transferred to Rouen , under the charge of William de Braose , the court favorite of King John. Arthur vanished mysteriously in April 1203. Arthur's legal successor was Eleanor of Brittany . However John of England had Eleanor captured and imprisoned at Corfe Castle in Dorset . Recognizing that John of England could have Eleanor married to

904-670: A lengthy and uncertain siege after the last siege of Nantes, chose to bypass Rennes, and attacked Saint-Malo , which surrendered on 14 August. On August 20, peace was concluded in Anjou . The Treaty of Sablé committed the Bretons on several points, including the Duke's promise not to marry his daughters without the consent of the King of France. Francis II, Duke of Brittany, died on September 9 and Anne of Brittany became Duchess in January of

1017-523: A pact with the disinherited Hoel, Count of Nantes, to divide Brittany between them. But at the same time, Hoel was under threat of rebellion in Nantes, sponsored by Geoffrey Fitzempress, and he could not send any aid to Eudas. Conan IV landed in Brittany and took Rennes, while his ally Raoul de Fougères captured and imprisoned Eudas. Conan IV was formally enthroned as Duke of Brittany in Rennes. While Conan IV

1130-595: A provocation and violation of the Treaty of Sablé. On 2 January 1491, Alain d'Albret changed allegiance, signing the Treaty of Moulins with the French King: promising the city of Nantes to him. He seized the castle of Nantes on 19 March. On April 4, Easter Sunday, the French King entered the city, which offered no resistance, having been evacuated by the Breton Marshal of Rieux. The French army at this stage had

1243-515: A purely personal union . The majority of the nobility of the Duchy and the middle class land owners were generally satisfied with this marriage because peace had returned and the tax burden was greatly reduced. A plot (which included those aggrieved by the settlement occurred: Some officers of the Duchy; captains and citizens hoping for ambitious positions, led by the Viscount of Rohan in collusion with England) in 1492 failed. The Breton fleet, on

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1356-634: A regent for her son John V. The House of Montfort's difficulties in maintaining the Ducal crown continued when John V, Duke of Brittany succeeded his father. By 1417, the Duke of Brittany were styled "rulers by the Grace of God". The intrigues and contests between the House of Montfort and the House of Penthièvre continued well after the Breton War of Succession. John IV's successor, John V, Duke of Brittany,

1469-498: A result of the various republican forms of French government since 1792, the duchy was replaced by the French system of départements (or departments ) which continues under the Fifth Republic of France . In modern times the departments have also joined into administrative regions although the administrative region of Brittany does not encompass the entirety of the medieval duchy. The Duchy of Brittany that emerged in

1582-581: A son, Geoffrey, who died young, Conan III , and a daughter Hawise. Hawise was married to count Baldwin VII of Flanders . In 1098, Alan IV joined the First Crusade , leaving Brittany under the regency of his wife Ermengarde of Anjou until his return early in the 12th century. Ermengarde ruled from Nantes rather than Rennes, as it was closer to her home county of Anjou. Alan IV returned from Crusade in 1101. In 1112, Alan IV's son Conan III inherited Brittany on

1695-585: A strength of 50,000 troops. Brittany was therefore regarded by the French as conquered: In July, Rennes was besieged, where Anne's party with 12,000 men resisted, but with few provisions. By October 27, 1491, Charles VIII convened the Estates of Brittany in Vannes, to counsel Anne in accordance to French conditions. A preliminary interview in Laval requested the following: After the siege of Rennes, marriage with

1808-404: A strong army including his English ally, and was able to re-establish his rule. The deposed Joan of Penthièvre joined in the efforts to return John IV to Brittany to defend the Duchy against the advances of Charles V. John IV had three wives but only his third wife, Joan of Navarre, Queen of England , bore him children. John IV died on 1 November 1399. Joan remained a widow for four years acting as

1921-403: A time for his son John I . When John I reached his majority, Peter I ceded him the Ducal crown and left Brittany on Crusade. John I married Blanche of Navarre . Upon the death of his sister Yolande of Brittany, John I seized the countship of Penthièvre for himself. John I in turn was succeeded by his son John II . John II married Beatrice of England and ruled until 1305. In the 14th century,

2034-726: A unifying role . Their numbers included Herve of Leon, the viscount of Leon, who was briefly the Earl of Wiltshire. The third group were those nobles associated with the Richmond-Penthièvre family. Odo of Penthièvre was a principal antagonist of Conan II. Under William I, three of Odo of Penthièvre's sons ( Alan , Stephen and Brien ) were granted substantial lands in England, including the Honour of Richmond , lands in Suffolk, and

2147-690: A vassal loyal to England, who would rule Brittany through her, Philip II formally recognized Constance's infant daughter Alix as hereditary Duchess of Brittany. Initially Alix's father Guy of Thouars acted as regent. Philip II of France was maneuvering to keep Brittany within his sphere of influence. The marriage of the infant Alix to Capetian cadet Pierre Mauclerc in 1213, began the new House of Dreux . After Guy of Thouars' regency, Alix ruled as nominal duchess with her husband Pierre as Duke jure uxoris . In 1214, King John sent an expedition into France, in part to establish Eleanor as his puppet duchess, but after his defeat also recognized Alix and Peter as rulers of

2260-586: A version of the former Carolingian kingdom. The Duchy of Brittany emerged after Alan Barbetorte's return to the region from England in 936. Barbetorte claimed the titles of the Count of Cornouaille and Nantes and, as Alan II, reigned as the new Brittonum dux . Using a network of small, defended towns and monastic sites, Alan pushed back the Viking advances. On 1 August 939, with the aid of Judicael Berengar , Count of Rennes, and Hugh I, Count of Maine , he defeated

2373-409: Is located at 29 km (18 mi) northeast of Rennes and 49 km (30 mi) south of Mont Saint-Michel . The bordering communes are Mézières-sur-Couesnon , Saint-Jean-sur-Couesnon , Saint-Georges-de-Chesné , Mecé , Livré-sur-Changeon , Liffré , Gosné , Ercé-près-Liffré , and Gahard . The area is most notable for the 1488 Battle of Saint-Aubin-du-Cormier , the decisive conflict of

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2486-424: The guerre folle between the Duke of Brittany, at the time still independent, and the French king. The Duke Of Brittany Francois II was openly pro England and sought to resist the King of France’s repeated attempts to put an end to Brittany’s independence. Brittany’s forces were defeated, paving the way for the subsequent integration of Brittany into the French kingdom (through the forced marriage of Duchess Anne to

2599-603: The Battle of Conquereuil on 27 June 992. He was succeeded by his oldest son Geoffrey I . Blois threatened Conan's succession. Duke Geoffrey I, a member of the House of Nantes, entered into a dynastic alliance with Richard II, Duke of Normandy in a diplomatic double marriage between the two houses. The church-sanctioned marriage ceremonies were held at Mont Saint-Michel . Geoffrey I married Hawise of Normandy , Richard II's sister; and Richard II married Judith of Brittany , Geoffrey I's sister and Conan I's daughter. The 11th century

2712-731: The Britonnes tribes in Roman Britain. Between the late 4th and the early 7th centuries, many of these Britonnes migrated to the Armorican peninsula, blending with the local people to form the later Britons, who eventually became the Bretons . The reasons for these migrations remain uncertain. These migrations from Britain contributed to Brittany's name. Brittany fragmented into small, warring regna , kingdoms, each competing for resources. The Frankish Carolingian Empire conquered

2825-470: The Mad War , at the end of May 1487, nearly 15,000 French troops entered Brittany. The army of the Duke of Brittany was concentrated towards Malestroit and included 600 cavalry and nearly 16,000 infantry, mainly peasants. The advance of French troops was rapid: Ancenis , Châteaubriant , La Guerche , and Redon fell to the French. Ploërmel attempted to resist, but fell after three days of bombardment and

2938-659: The Treaty of Wallingford , Stephen was forced to recognize Henry FitzEmpress as his heir, with Matilda abdicating her claim in her son's favour. The treaty exposed Brittany to retaliatory incursions from Henry FitzEmpress and his brother Geoffery FitzEmpress . On the death of Bertha in early 1156, her son, Conan IV , expected to inherit the ducal throne. However, he was denied his inheritance by his stepfather Odo, Viscount of Porhoët (also known as Odo II), Bertha's second husband; Odo II refused to relinquish his authority over Brittany. To consolidate his hold on power, Odo II entered into

3051-608: The Atlantic Ocean to the west, and the English Channel to the north. It was also less definitively bordered by the river Loire to the south, and Normandy , and other French provinces, to the east. The Duchy was established after the expulsion of Viking armies from the region around 939. The Duchy, in the 10th and 11th centuries, was politically unstable, with the dukes holding only limited power outside their own personal lands. The Duchy had mixed relationships with

3164-414: The Breton War of Succession ensued; the title of Duke passed to the House of Montfort. John II died in 1305 and was succeeded by this son, Arthur II as Duke. Arthur II ruled independently of the French crown. His reign included several administrative innovations including the creation of several "battles" or districts meant to provide a stronger defense, and the creation of the Estates of Brittany , marking

3277-470: The Breton civil war, and was forced into exile in England for a second time in 1373 where he lived in the court of Edward III . The House of Montfort's victory strengthened the position of England in Brittany . One of the effects of the Breton War of Succession was to intensify the rivalries between England and France with Brittany as the contested prize. The Houses of Penthièvre and Montfort were united in

3390-611: The Breton region lost independence and became a province of France. During the Middle Ages, the Kings of France considered that the Duchy of Brittany was feudally a part of their Kingdom of France (i.e. it was within the traditional borders of the realm, and the King of France was deemed to be overlord of the Duchy). In practice, however, the Duchy of Brittany was a largely independent sovereign state. The independent sovereign nature of

3503-524: The Broërec, and Nantes. Ducal power was non-existent in Panthièvre and Léon, and even in the rest of Brittany the duke's powers did not extend beyond his own personal lands. The barons in Brittany did not feel that they were in any way vassals of the duke, owing him service in exchange for their lands, and only attended the ducal courts when they felt it was in their own interests to do so. However,

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3616-639: The Catholic Church began preferring legitimate heirs born in church-sanctioned marriage over out-of-wedlock issue. This rivalry led to war between Normandy and Brittany. The 1064–1065 war between Brittany and Normandy (the Breton-Norman War) was sparked after Duke William supported the rebellion against Conan II led by Rivallon I of Dol . In 1065, before his invasion of Anglo-Saxon England , William of Normandy warned his rivals in Brittany and Anjou to abstain from any attacks on his duchy, on

3729-540: The Ducal Crown in the 15th century, possibly as an alteration of the rules of inheritance by the then Duke of Brittany Francis II. The wars with France eventually cost Ducal Brittany its independence, while the Parlement ensured a degree of autonomy that would continue through the reign of Louis XIV of France . That Francis II's sole heir was his daughter Anne assured an inheritance contest on his death that would pit

3842-429: The Ducal Crown. He attempted to name the King of France as heir in an act that defied all precedents to maintain Brittany as an independent sovereign state. The Breton nobles predictably rejected the attempt and Brittany's independence continued. John III died in 1341 without a succession plan. John III's half-brother, John of Montfort, claimed the title of Duke, but his claim was rejected by the King of France who favored

3955-556: The Ducal bloodline, now held by the House of Montfort. When Anne died, Brittany passed to her daughter and heiress, Claude, rather than remaining with the King of France, her father. Saint-Aubin-du-Cormier Saint-Aubin-du-Cormier ( French pronunciation: [sɛ̃.t‿obɛ̃ dy kɔʁmje] ; Gallo : Grand'Saent Aubin , Breton : Sant-Albin-an-Hiliber ) is a commune in the Ille-et-Vilaine department in Brittany in northwestern France . Saint-Aubin-du-Cormier

4068-509: The Duchess released in 1198. Once back in Brittany, Constance had her marriage to Ranulph annulled in 1199 (there was no issue from this marriage). Later that year, Constance took Guy of Thouars as her 'second' husband at Angers . Throughout these years, Constance advised her son Arthur towards a French alliance, pursuing the policy of her late husband Geoffrey II, despite his designation as Richard I's heir. In Constance bore Guy of Thouars two or three daughters. The first born, Alix of Thouars ,

4181-516: The Duchy began to come to an end upon the death of Francis II, Duke of Brittany. The Duchy was inherited by his daughter, Anne, but King Charles VIII of France, determined to bring the territory under royal control, had her marriage annulled and then forced her to marry him in a series of actions that were acknowledged by the Pope. As a result, the Kingdom of France and the Duchy of Brittany were placed in

4294-479: The Duchy vied for power during the Breton War of Succession , with different factions supported by England and France. The independent sovereign nature of the Duchy began to come to an end upon the death of Francis II in 1488. The Duchy was inherited by his daughter, Anne , but King Charles VIII of France had her existing marriage annulled and then married her himself. As a result, the King of France acquired

4407-517: The Duchy. Eleanor was kept captive in England until her death in 1241, ending the line of Geoffrey II. In 1235, the stage was set for the next century's Breton War of Succession when Peter I dispossessed the heir of the Penthièvre Dynasty in order to give the countship of Penthièvre to his second child, Yolande . Beginning in the 13th century, the Duchy of Brittany experienced nearly a century of peace. Peter I continued as Regent for

4520-427: The Duke of Brittany (later dukes would eventually reunite Nantes to Brittany). Henry II of England continued to stoke revolts and rebellions in Brittany against Conan IV. In response, Conan IV took the Breton counties of Tréguier and Guingamp from his uncle Count Henri, a supporter of Henry II of England. Richmond was returned to Conan IV later that year in an agreement reached with Henry II of England. By 1160 Conan

4633-458: The Duke of Brittany, who sought a truce, La Trémoille attacked Le Loroux-Bottereau , which fell easily. On June 1, a truce concluded the negotiations. It favoured the French, whose troops remained mobilised along the border, while Breton nobles and peasants returned home. La Trémoille anticipated the end of the truce, and on 17 June, he put his army on the march towards its next target, Fougères . The breakdown of negotiations on July 9 precipitated

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4746-474: The Earl of Suffolk. In 1075 he was among the leaders of a "Breton revolt". Ralph escaped returning to Brittany where he also revolted against the Breton Duke before eventually reconciling with the duchy. To the south and west of England, William granted lands to groups of Breton nobles who were more fractious than united, whether in Brittany or in England. This group had no one singular leader who could serve

4859-477: The Earldoms of Richmond and Cornwall. Also in 1066, Hawise succeeded her brother Conan II as hereditary Duchess of Brittany. She married Hoël of Cornouaille. Hoel ruled as Hoel II, Duke of Brittany and started the House of Kernev which continued to rule Brittany until 1156 (see below). Hoël inherited a divided Brittany which was split into six largely independent regions: Rennes, Panthièvre, Léon, Cornouaille,

4972-579: The Frankish model. The greatest influence on the later Duchy, however, was the formation of a unitary Brittany kingdom in the 9th century. In 831 Louis the Pious appointed Nominoe , the Count of Vannes, ruler of the Bretons, imperial missus , at Ingelheim in 831. After the death of Louis in 840, Nominoe rose to challenge the new emperor, Charles the Bald , emboldened in part by new Viking raids on

5085-471: The French army of 15,000 troops in Pouancé and easily took Château de Marcillé-Robert on 28 March. On April 7, Francis II ordered the muster of Breton troops in Rennes. On April 15, the French army laid siege to Châteaubriant, which fell eight days later. La Trémoille then moved to Ancenis where he laid siege on the night of the 12th to 13th. The city fell to French artillery on May 19. As negotiations began with

5198-477: The King and Queen and, in 1498 when Charles VIII died childless, the title Duke of Brittany remained with Anne, rather than passing to the heir of France, Louis XII. Anne of Brittany returned to Brittany and began to re-establish an independent sovereign rule. However, the new French king, Louis XII married Anne himself, and so the King of France was once more Duke of Brittany jure uxoris . Legally, Brittany still remained distinct, and its future remained dependent on

5311-458: The King of France was accepted on November 15, by the Treaty of Rennes: it guaranteed 120,000 livres to the Duchess, and 120,000 livres to the Ducal treasury, to pay off the mercenaries to leave the Duchy. The engagement took place on 23 November at Rennes, and the marriage on December 6 at the Château de Langeais . The conflict was settled by various treaties, by which the King of France obtained

5424-570: The King of France. Francis II worked to seek a husband for Anne who would be strong enough to defend Brittany from further influence from the French Crown. Duchesse Anne of Brittany was initially betrothed to Edward, Prince of Wales , the son of Edward IV of England , but upon the king's death his son disappeared and the English throne passed to Richard III of England . Anne was then married to Maximillian I of Austria . However, relations between Brittany and France deteriorated and Francis II

5537-444: The Marshal of the Breton army Jean IV de Rieux , began his march in the hope of relieving Fougères, but was reluctant to fight a pitched battle. On July 28, at the Battle of Saint-Aubin-du-Cormier , the Breton troops and their allies were decisively defeated: five to six thousand Bretons died, against 1,500 of the French. Following this defeat, Dinan surrendered in early August, but Rennes decided to resist. La Trémoille, wished to avoid

5650-412: The Penthièvre forfeited their lands in 1420 after they had kidnapped and isolated Duke John V ). At the end of the reign of the current Duke Francis II, the two families had no male heirs: Francis II had two daughters, and the last Penthièvre were women. Therefore, the following claimants existed: The Estates of Brittany , who had no right or power in the succession question, as this had been given to

5763-806: The Viking Godfried left the Seine with his fleet, sailed around the Breton peninsula and sacked Nantes. Erispoe entered into an alliance with the leader of another Viking fleet, Sidroc, who betrayed him, resulting in Erispoe's defeat at the hands of the Vikings. A weakened Erispoe ruled until 857 when he was assassinated and then followed as Breton ruler by his cousin and rival, Salomon , the Count of Rennes and Nantes . Viking raids continued. Alan I successfully defeated one wave of Vikings around 900, expanding

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5876-400: The Vikings in the Battle of Trans-la-Forêt , completing their expulsion from Brittany. Alan's duchy was smaller than the previous Kingdom of Brittany, as, despite gaining Magues and Tiffauges in the south, the dukes no longer ruled over the regions of Cotentin , Avranchin , and Mayenne . Alan paid homage to Louis IV of France for Brittany in 942. Despite some older Celtic influences,

5989-510: The abdication of his father, who retired to the monastery of Redon . By 1113, Conan III married Maude, an illegitimate daughter of King Henry I of England . With Maude he had three children, Hoel , Bertha , and Constance. During his reign he strengthened the rule of the duchy. During the dynastic struggle between Stephen of England (Stephen of Blois) and the dispossessed Empress Matilda , Conan III allied himself with King Stephen. Empress Matilda's unpopular marriage with Geoffrey V of Anjou

6102-469: The aid of foreign mercenaries, and the decisive support from Cornouaille and Léon , who broke the blockade. The French troops were held in check, and lifted the siege on 6 August. The French King still managed to take Vitré on September 1, then Saint-Aubin-du-Cormier and finally Dol-de-Bretagne . Early in 1488, most Breton towns, however, were recovered by the Ducal army. Only Clisson , La Guerche , Dol , Saint-Aubin-du-Cormier , and Vitré remained in

6215-483: The centuries. France, however operated under strict Salic law, requiring a male heir. The French requirement was solved upon Claude's marriage to Francis I of France . The birth of Claude's sons Francis (who became Francis III, Duke of Brittany , as well as the Dauphin of France) and Henry II of France represented a resolution to these contrasting succession issues but accelerated the loss of Brittany's independence and

6328-420: The collapse of their empire in northern France in 1204. The French Crown maintained its influence over the Duchy for the rest of the 13th century. Monastic orders supported by the Breton aristocracy spread across the Duchy in the 11th and 12th centuries, and in the 13th, the first of the mendicant orders established themselves in Brittany's major towns. Civil war broke out in the 14th century, as rival claimants for

6441-480: The competing claims of Joan of Penthièvre and her husband Charles of Blois , who also claimed the Ducal title. The Breton War of Succession between the claimants ensued when John of Montfort refused to cede his rights in their favor. The Breton War of Succession was fought from 1341 to 1364 between these two Breton houses, the House of Blois Châtillon and the House of Montfort . Charles of Blois Châtillon claimed

6554-547: The ducal regency entrusted to Alan's brother Odo, Count of Penthièvre . However, by the time Conan II reached his majority at age sixteen, around 1048, Odo refused to relinquish power. During the dynastic conflict between uncle and nephew, Hoel of Cornouaille supported Odo in suppressing Conan's inheritance. Odo was Hoèl's brother-in-law as he was married to Hoel's sister Agnes of Cornouaille. By 1057, Conan II captured and imprisoned Odo. He came to terms with Hoèl of Cornouaille later that year. Conan II faced numerous threats posed by

6667-507: The duchy continued to experience political instability and he was unable to sustain his line. Drogo died in 958. Two of Alan II's illegitimate sons, Hoël and Guerich, attempted to act as Counts of Nantes and preserve their claim to duchy but were eventually unsuccessful. In 990 Juhel Berengar's son Conan I , the grandson of Pascweten, became Duke and the title passed to the House of Rennes . Conan I ruled for only two years and died fighting against his brother-in-law Fulk III, Count of Anjou at

6780-591: The duchy. With this surprise move, Bertha became his heiress and successor as hereditary Duchess of Brittany. However, Hoel was to retain the county of Nantes. Duchess Bertha, as dowager countess of Richmond, continued Brittany's alliance with Stephen's England against the Angevins. However this strategy became untenable after 1153, when Stephen's son Eustace died suddenly. Eustace's death provided an opportunity for Matilda's son, Henry FitzEmpress , to land an invasion army in England and press for his mother's claims. In

6893-692: The early 10th century was influenced by several earlier polities. Prior to the expansion of the Roman Empire into the region, Gallic tribes had occupied the Armorican peninsula, dividing it into five regions that then formed the basis for the Roman administration of the area, and which survived into the period of the Duchy. These Gallic tribes – termed the Armorici in Latin – had close relationships with

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7006-501: The empire. Charles the Bald created the Marches of Neustria to defend Western Francia from the Bretons and the Vikings. Erispoe fought Charles the Bald, who felt that a quick attack would successfully challenge the new Breton leader. Erispoe won a victory at the Battle of Jengland and, under their Treaty of Angers in 851, Brittany's independence was secured. The new kingdom proved fragile and collapsed under Viking attack. In 853

7119-414: The eventual disappearance of the Ducal title as an independent sovereign Ducal crown. Anne of Brittany's second marriage making her Queen Consort of France continued into the 16th century; and she died in 1514. Queen Claude of France, reigned as duchess of Brittany from 1514, but under her husband king Francis was not able to maintain an independent government in the Duchy of Brittany. Claude's son Francis I

7232-530: The following year. An amnesty was then given to Lescun, Dunois, and most of the vanquished. The french had also captured Louis of Orleans and was imprisoned in a fortress but would be pardoned by Charles VIII three years later. On 10 February 1489, the Treaty of Redon was signed between the Duchy of Brittany and England : On 14 February, two pacts between Austria-Spain and Austria-England were also signed in Dordrecht , against France; they were complemented by

7345-404: The grounds that his mission bore the papal banner. However, Conan II rebuffed the warning and declared that he would press any advantage against William. While William plotted to take the English crown, Conan consolidated his authority in Brittany and planned to take advantage of William's absence to invade Normandy. First, however, he needed to neutralize Anjou, another historic rival. Once Anjou

7458-507: The hands of the French. On January 20, 1488, the Dukes of Orleans and Brittany were declared rebels by the Parlement of Paris . They and their accomplices were no longer considered rebellious vassals, but subjects guilty of high treason. In spring, the Duke of Orleans retook for his Breton ally Vannes , Auray , and Ploërmel . The viscounty of Rohan was forced to capitulate. On April 24,

7571-524: The historic rivalry between Brittany and Normandy resurfaced at the close of the 11th century. By 1075, Hoèl returned to the traditional Breton policy of opposing Norman expansion with an alliance with the young king Philip I of France . Ralph de Gael, in exile in Brittany after the unsuccessful 1075 rebellion in England, led incursions into Normandy from his base in Dol. In 1076, King William of England retaliated by leading an army into Brittany to eject Ralph, but

7684-419: The independence of Brittany. In 1499, the birth of Anne of Brittany's sole heir with Louis XII of France, her daughter Claude of France , introduced a new succession issue in Brittany and France. In Brittany, with the provisions of the Treaty of Guerande set aside by the Estates of Brittany, Claude could claim to be Duchess of Brittany in her own right, as several Duchesses by right of inheritance had done over

7797-599: The instability by reinforcing the power of the Norman ducal house providing Robert I's two youngest brothers with land and title. However, by October 1, 1040, Alan III was killed by poison while besieging a rebel castle in Vimoutiers . Tension increased in Normandy following his death, with Count Gilbert dying shortly thereafter. A rival faction in the guardianship of Normandy emerged, one that would intervene in Brittany, suppressing Alan III's heir, Conan II , from claiming his inheritance. At around eight years of age, Conan II succeeded his father Alan III as Duke of Brittany, with

7910-439: The kingdom to include not only the Breton territories of Léon , Domnonée , Cornouaille , and the Vannetais, but also the Frankish counties of Rennes, Nantes , Coutances , and Avranches , as well as the western parts of Poitou and Anjou . Alan I's military success resulted in a period of peace from Viking invasions and few raids from the Vikings were recorded from 900 through to 907. After Alan I's death in 907, Brittany

8023-413: The negotiations that followed Alan IV was forced into marriage with King William I's second daughter Constance of England . The marriage ceremonies may have taken place in Bayeux in Normandy. William of Malmesbury wrote that Constance was unpopular at the Breton court because of her 'severe and conservative' manner. William of Malmesbury also alleged that Alan IV had Constance poisoned to death, but this

8136-494: The neighbouring Duchy of Normandy , sometimes allying itself with Normandy, and at other times, such as the Breton–Norman War , entering into open conflict. Henry II of England invaded Brittany in the mid-12th century and became Count of Nantes in 1158 under a treaty with Duke Conan IV . Henry's son, Geoffrey , became Duke through his marriage to Constance , the hereditary Duchess. The Angevins remained in control until

8249-401: The new duchy was in many ways similar to the other, post-Carolingian states forming across the region. Over the coming decades, a network of powerful local lords emerged across Brittany, occupying motte and bailey castles and owing a loose feudal loyalty to the duke. The east of Brittany was the first to change, but the practices spread over the next fifty years to the more remote regions of

8362-508: The north- and south-west. Alan II was also allied to Theobald I of Blois , the count of Chartres . Alan II had married Theobald's sister, Adelaide, giving Theobald influence all the way to Rennes. However Alan II's death left a void in Brittany leaving it vulnerable to encroachment by either the Normans or the Angevins. In turn the recently widowed Fulk II, Count of Anjou , Theobald's ally, married Alan II's widow. Upon his death, Alan II

8475-439: The orders of Anne of Brittany , also now fought on the side of the French fleet, as shown in the Battle of Saint-Mathieu in 1512. Duchy of Brittany The Duchy of Brittany ( Breton : Dugelezh Breizh , [dyˈɡɛːlɛs ˈbrɛjs] ; French : Duché de Bretagne ) was a medieval feudal state that existed between approximately 939 and 1547. Its territory covered the northwestern peninsula of Europe, bordered by

8588-454: The outrage of the French King on February 10, Anne was crowned. The Breton treasury at this point was empty, the revenues of the domain were low: the Ducal jewels and plates had been sold. If this was not enough, loans on cities were forced (Francis II had already used this expedient). The chancellery required advances and loans (the Prince of Orange gave over 200,000 pounds, the Duke of Orleans 45,000). Monetary devaluation, which started in 1472

8701-461: The parties agreed to the Peace of Frankfurt, signed by Maximilian of Austria and the King of France on 22 July. France retained Brest , and other places acquired since the Treaty of Sablé : Dinan , Fougères , Saint-Aubin-du-Cormier , and Saint-Malo . Brittany dismissed its mercenaries. Peace lasted for a year, but both sides kept themselves armed. In the summer of 1490, a peasant revolt broke out:

8814-562: The peasants of Cornouaille, led by John the Old, assembled and plundered the city of Quimper . The revolt was put down by Spanish mercenaries at Pratanros . On July 4, the Estates of Brittany met in Vannes. They ratified new imposts and granted new taxes. These additional resources allowed them to pay: These gifts represented four times the annual budget of the Duchy, and were paid in installments. On 19 December 1490, Anne married Maximilian of Austria in Rennes by proxy. The French regarded this

8927-412: The personal union of their marriage, and the King of France also held the title of Duke of Brittany jure uxoris . During their marriage, Charles VIII prohibited Anne of Brittany from using the title Duchess of Brittany, and imposed a Royal Governor from the House of Penthièvre on the Duchy. Legally, however, the Duchy remained separate from France proper; the two titles were linked only by the marriage of

9040-675: The policy of interweaving the Breton succession with the Plantagenet 's succession. Upon her father's abdication in 1166, Constance became duchess, although Henry II held the Duchy until Constance married Geoffrey. Geoffrey and Constance ruled jointly until 1186, when Geoffrey was stamped to death in a riding accident during a tournament in Paris. Constance thereafter ruled the Duchy on her own. Henry II of England next arranged for Constance to marry Ranulph de Blondeville, 6th Earl of Chester on 3 February 1188 or 1189. Henry II died in 1189 and

9153-535: The power of the House of Montfort against conflicting treaty obligations to the House of Penthièvre in Brittany, and the House of Valois in France, and would also be a test of the Breton tradition of semi-Salic law in which a daughter could be the principal inheritor. The position of the King of France dominated these events through two wars. After the first war, under the Treaty of Verger , the marriage of Francis II's sole surviving issue, Anne, would need to be approved by

9266-413: The pro-Norman faction in Brittany, including revolts sponsored by William, Duke of Normandy for whom Conan's father had served as Guardian. William supported challengers to Conan's authority, encouraging them to rebel against the Breton duke, his cousin. William continued courting the family of Odo, who was imprisoned. In response, Conan promoted his own legitimate claim as Duke of Normandy over William, as

9379-462: The refugees were Mathedoi, the Count of Poher , and his son Alan Barbetorte , the grandson of Alan I; they fled to England and lived in exile in the courts of Edward the Elder and Edward's son and successor Æthelstan . The Viking occupation of Brittany lasted until about 936. Little recorded history of this period is available until Alan Barbetorte returned in 937 to expel the Vikings and reestablish

9492-410: The region during the 8th century, starting around 748 taking the whole of Brittany by 799. The Carolingians tried to create a unitary administration around the centres of Rennes , Nantes , and Vannes using the local rulers, but the kings of Brittany's hold on the region remained tenuous. Carolingian technology and culture began to influence Brittany, and the church in Brittany also began to emulate

9605-511: The renunciation of the rights of the different possible heirs, and regulated various aspects of the succession, including the payment of debts of the Duchy. From a political standpoint, Brittany was therefore united to France, definitively according to chroniclers in the reign of Louis XII (only in 1532 according to the Breton writers and modern authors), then annexed and gradually assimilated. It lost its autonomy (under Charles VIII), before retrieving some of it in 1492 and 1499. This was, initially,

9718-471: The rights of both branches to a single person. To secure his family against these pretensions, Francis II had his daughters recognized by the Estates of Brittany as heiresses of the Sovereign Duchy, and had Anne crowned Duchess in Rennes, against the provisions of the Treaty of Guérande (1365) . In light of this uncertainty, various parties decided to force the issue to their advantage. During

9831-459: The sense of their opposition to the attempted annexation of Brittany by Charles V of France as a consequence of this Breton civil war. The French king sent the Constable of France , Bertrand de Guesclin , into Brittany with the goal of uniting it to the French crown. When the Breton nobles rebelled against this proposed unification, John IV was able to return from England, assisted once again by

9944-470: The succession of the Sovereign Duchy of Brittany. The latter would eventually prevail. The rights of the two families, however, were recognised in the following manner: This treaty did not exclude daughters from the succession or the transmission of rights, stating that the Duchy "will not return to women as long as there were male heirs". Both families had over time disrespected the treaty when it suited them; Various Montforts: ( John IV , Francis II ) while

10057-491: The terms of their surrender, Joan was allowed to keep Penthièvre and retained the title Duchess of Brittany for life. Under the Treaties of Guerande, semi-Salic succession was agreed under which, if the reigning member of the House of Montfort died without legitimate male issue, the eldest direct legitimate male descendant of Joan would inherit the Ducal crown of Brittany. John IV, Duke of Brittany ruled with difficulty after

10170-422: The title Duchess of Brittany. However, upon his death, Anne returned to Brittany and took steps to return the Duchy to independent rule under herself as Duchess. The children of Charles and Anne did not reach adulthood and this presented a new Breton succession problem as well as one for France. Both succession issues were solved upon Anne's marriage to Louis XII of France but at the cost of restoring and furthering

10283-555: The title Duke of Brittany from 1341 to his death. During the war, John of Montfort was imprisoned in Paris. Hostilities abated for a short time, and he was freed under the Treaty of Malestroit in 1341. He died in 1345, leaving his son John as the Montfort claimant to the ducal title. John's widowed Duchess Consort, Joanna of Flanders , acted as regent for her son John and continued the war in his name. The House of Montfort emerged victorious with substantial help from English allies Under

10396-491: The title of Duke of Brittany – jure uxoris . The Ducal crown became united with the French crown in 1532 through a vote of the Estates of Brittany , after the death of Queen Claude of France , the last sovereign duchess. Her sons Francis III, Duke of Brittany and then Henry II of France would in any case have created a personal union on the death of their father. Following the French Revolution, and as

10509-593: The upcoming campaign to claim the English crown., perhaps in part because the Breton commanders in Duke William's army were the second-sons of Breton lords, such as Alain Le Roux (son of Eudas of Penthièvre). The Bretons within the Conquest army represented at least three major groupings, two of which would become relevant to the long-term future of the duchy. One group was represented by Ralph de Gael , briefly

10622-608: The west of the Angevin controlled territory exposed a wide frontier for Stephen to exploit against Matilda. In 1138, Conan III's daughter, Bertha, was married to Alan of Penthièvre , a supporter of King Stephen. For his support, Stephan created Conan's son-in-law Alan as 1st Earl of Richmond in the second creation, a title previously held by Alan's uncle Alain Le Roux. Later, when Alan died in 1146, Bertha returned home to Brittany from England. On his death-bed in 1148, Conan III disinherited his son Hoel, Count of Nantes from succession to

10735-482: Was consolidating his inheritance in 1156, Geoffrey FitzEmpress successfully took Nantes from Hoel. Upon Geoffrey's death in 1158, Conan IV seized Nantes, reuniting the Duchy once again. However, Henry II, now King of England, seized the Earldom of Richmond, Conan's paternal inheritance. Henry demanded the return of Nantes, and when he obtained control of it from Conan IV, became the Count of Nantes, without obligation to

10848-575: Was exacerbated. Finally, various communities wanted to redeem their imposts (they had paid one time a hundred times the annual amount, and were later released). Austria and Spain sent mercenaries in March and April (respectively 1,500 and 2,000 men who joined Anne of Brittany ) and England (6,000 men sent to Rieux). They were employed to retake Rohan towns in Lower Brittany ( Lannion , Tréguier , Morlaix from May to October). On 3 December 1489,

10961-439: Was followed by Catherine of Thouars (1201-c. 1240) and maybe Margaret of Thouars (1201-c. 1216/1220). Constance died due to complications during the delivery. In the 13th century England's alliance with Brittany collapsed under King John of England . When Richard I died in 1199, Philip agreed to recognize Arthur of Brittany as count of Anjou, Maine, and Poitou, in exchange for Arthur swearing fealty to him, and thereby becoming

11074-483: Was forced into the last Franco-Breton war, which he lost. At the end of the second war between Francis II and Charles VIII of France, the so-called Mad War , Anne of Brittany's first marriage to Maximillian was declared illegal on the basis that the French King had not approved it under the terms of the Treaty of Verger. Anne was married to Charles VIII of France in a ceremony that was validated by Pope Innocent VIII . Once they were married, Charles did not allow Anne to use

11187-445: Was forced to yield to Henry. In the peace negotiations which followed, Conan was obliged to marry Henry's cousin, Margaret of Scotland , in 1160. Later, Conan IV was faced with additional revolts from barons, possibly sponsored by Henry II. Conan appealed to Henry II for aid to end the revolts. For his aid Henry II insisted on the betrothal of Conan's only daughter and heiress Constance to Henry's son Geoffrey Plantagenet , continuing

11300-479: Was forced upon her by her father Henry I. It reflected the historic rivalry between Brittany, Normandy, and Anjou. Conan III sought to counter Angevin influence and preserve Breton independence. In his alliance with Stephen, Conan III looked for greater influence with Stephen, who needed allies on the continent to out-flank Matilda. Matilda was able to consolidate power in Normandy and Anjou. Brittany's position to

11413-458: Was invested as duke of Brittany. But this act meant next to nothing to advance Breton independence. Some members of the House of Penthièvre were appointed as royal governors of Brittany by the French. Their failure to reassert their Ducal rights successfully hastened the merger of the Ducal crown into the Kingdom of France. At this time the title Duke of Brittany began to lose independent sovereign status and began to become only titular in character;

11526-514: Was kidnapped by the grandson of Joan of Penthièvre . He was freed through the efforts of his wife the Duchess of Brittany, Joan of France and the remaining wealth of the Penthièvre family was confiscated. John V was succeeded first by his son Francis I . Since Francis I had no male heir, he was followed by a younger son of John V, Peter II . When Peter II died without issue, the Ducal Crown passed to his uncle Arthur III . He was, in turn, succeeded by his nephew Francis II . The reign of Francis II

11639-481: Was marked by a failed alliance with Normandy. William the Conqueror challenged the Breton dukes, and they formed an alliance with the French king. The death of Geoffrey I, in 1008, allowed Richard II to intervene directly in Brittany during the minority of his nephew, Alan III , against rebellious counts who attempted to take advantage of the youthful duke. The guardianship would be reciprocated later when Alan III

11752-421: Was met with a rare defeat by an allied army of Bretons and French forces. In the peace negotiations which followed William offered his second daughter Constance in marriage to the Breton heir Alan IV , though nothing came of the betrothal at the time. By 1086, Alan IV was forced to abandon his duchy after an invasion launched by William I of England. However, a peace settlement was reached that same year and in

11865-421: Was named as one of the primary guardians of William of Normandy . By designating Alan III as a guardian of William, Robert I was "involving a close family member who would not compete with his heir". In his guardianship of Duke William, Alan III was allied with Count Gilbert and Robert II, Archbishop of Rouen , William's uncles. However, when Archbishop Robert died in 1037 instability surfaced. Alan III countered

11978-518: Was notable in many respects including two wars against Charles VIII of France , both of which were lost, the establishment of the Parlement of Rennes , and the death of all of his children save for his daughter Anne of Brittany . Francis II's rule as Duke was also marked by continued intrigues with the House of Penthièvre. Joan of Penthièvre's later descendants, the Brosse line of the House of Penthièvre through Jean de Brosse , were denied their claims to

12091-471: Was now close to the borders of Brittany. After Charles VII crushed the English at Formigny (1450), a previous Duke of Brittany wrote to the Penthievre indicating he had cancelled the conditional renunciation of the Penthièvre to the Ducal estate: Some contenders tried to secure support: Charles VIII and John II gained some from different Breton nobility. Various matrimonial projects also aimed to combine

12204-481: Was overrun once again by Vikings. Fulk the Red , Count of Anjou, is said to have occupied Nantes from 907 to 919 when he abandoned it to the invading Vikings. In 919, the great Viking fleet of Rognvaldr landed in Nantes, quickly coming to dominate the region. This invasion accelerated the exodus of Bretons, including that of the machtierns , "the local hereditary officers upon whom the civil administration depended". Among

12317-412: Was pacified he planned to advance into Maine and then into Normandy. However, during his 1066 siege of Angers, Conan was found dead after wearing poisoned riding gloves. Duke William was widely suspected of organizing the assassination. William the Conqueror successfully invaded England in 1066 with an army that included some Bretons. William was able to attract Bretons into his expeditionary army for

12430-603: Was succeeded by Richard I as King of England. Lacking a male heir, King Richard I of England officially proclaimed his nephew, Constance's son, Arthur I of Brittany , as his heir presumptive in a treaty signed with Philip Augustus and Tancred of Sicily . To promote her son's position and inheritance, Constance, Duchess of Brittany included Arthur in the government of Brittany in 1196. The same year, Constance's marriage with Ranulph deteriorated, with Ranulph imprisoning Constance. Her imprisonment sparked rebellion across Brittany on her behalf. Ranulph bowed to growing pressure and had

12543-488: Was succeeded by his son Drogo . Drogo's rule set the precedent for the role of a regent during the minority of a ducal heir. Throughout his reign, Drogo was under the shared regency of his uncle the Count of Blois, Theobald I (who entrusted the administration of the duchy to Wicohen, Archbishop of Dol , and the Count of Rennes Juhel Berengar as administrators), and his stepfather, the Fulk II, Count of Anjou. Under Drogo,

12656-408: Was taken on 1 June. With this bad news, and political infighting between the Breton nobles, the Ducal army broke up. About 4,000 troops remained, unable to rescue Ploërmel. Francis II fled to Vannes , and finally to Nantes . In Nantes, a defence was organised. By June 19, French troops laid siege to that city. The siege was prolonged due to an effective Breton defence, the faithfulness of the people,

12769-420: Was unverified However, Orderic Vitalis wrote that as duchess, Constance did all she could to further the welfare of the Bretons, who grieved deeply at her death in 1090. In 1092, Alan IV donated property to Redon Abbey by charter, and by 1093, married his second wife, Ermengarde of Anjou as part of a political alliance with Fulk IV, Count of Anjou to counter Anglo-Norman influence. With Ermengarde, he had

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