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56-409: The geographical region of Brittany that constituted the holdings of Penthièvre correlate closely with the territories that constituted the early Breton kingdom of Domnonée . The history of the title Count of Penthièvre included frequent dispossessions and restorations. Henri d'Avaugour, heir of this family, was dispossessed of the countship in 1235. The Duke of Brittany , Pierre Mauclerc , founder of

112-410: A putain publique ("public whore") and made ridiculous remarks about their difference in age (he was 18 years younger at a time when such large age differences between spouses were not at all uncommon). In November 1567, upon the death of Anne de Montmorency , Henry assumed the role of Lieutenant-General of France, placing him in nominal control of France's military. Henry served as a leader of

168-532: A bribe, but this would increase to 100,000 each. On 16 May 1573, Polish nobles chose Henry as the first elected monarch of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth . The Lithuanian nobles boycotted this election, however, and it was left to the Lithuanian ducal council to confirm his election. The commonwealth elected Henry, rather than Habsburg candidates, partly in order to be more agreeable to

224-521: A clash of cultures between the Polish and the French. The young king and his followers were astonished by several Polish practices and disappointed by the rural poverty and harsh climate of the country. The Poles, on the other hand, wondered if all Frenchmen were as concerned with their appearance as their new king appeared to be. In many aspects, Polish culture had a positive influence on France. At Wawel,

280-577: A descendant of Louis IX (Saint Louis). The possibility of a Protestant on the throne led to the War of the Three Henrys . Under pressure from the duke of Guise, Henry III issued an edict suppressing Protestantism and annulling Henry of Navarre's right to the throne. Henry III, stung by the open disobedience of Guise, attempted a coup in May 1588 and sent royal Swiss troops into several neighbourhoods. This had

336-557: A leader of the Catholic League , was made governor of Brittany by the king in 1582. Invoking the hereditary rights of his wife, Marie de Luxembourg, he endeavoured to make himself independent in that province from 1589 onwards, and organized a government at Nantes , proclaiming their young son, Philippe de Lorraine-Mercœur, (d. 1590), "prince and duke of Brittany". He allied with Spain and defeated Henry IV of France 's attempts to subjugate Brittany until 20 March 1598 when Mercœur

392-641: A protector of Catholicism, and tried to arrange his marriage to Mary, Queen of Scots ; however neither project took off. While still Duke of Anjou, he helped plot the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre of 1572. Though Henry did not participate directly, historian Thierry Wanegffelen sees him as the royal most responsible for the massacre, which involved the targeted killing of many Huguenot leaders. Henry III's reign as King of France, like those of his elder brothers Francis and Charles, would see France in constant turmoil over religion. Henry continued to take an active role in

448-417: A secret message to deliver. The king signaled for his attendants to step back for privacy, and Clément whispered in his ear while plunging a knife into his abdomen. Clément was then killed on the spot by the guards. At first, the king's wound did not appear fatal, but he enjoined all the officers around him, in case he did not survive, to be loyal to Henry of Navarre as their new king. The following morning, on

504-486: Is so logically strategic with the man who goes to pieces when one of them dies." Katherine Crawford, by contrast, emphasizes the problems Henry's reputation encountered because of his failure to produce an heir and the presence of his powerful mother at court, combined with his enemies' insistence on conflating patronage with favouritism and luxury with decadence. In 1570, discussions commenced arranging for Henry to court Queen Elizabeth I of England . Elizabeth, almost 37,

560-585: The Château of Blois , he invited Guise to the council chamber where the duke's brother Louis II, Cardinal of Guise , already waited. The duke was told that the king wished to see him in the private room adjoining the royal bedroom. There, royal guardsmen murdered the duke, then the cardinal. To make certain that no contender for the French throne was free to act against him, the king had the duke's son imprisoned. The duke of Guise had been very popular in France, and

616-476: The Duke of Anjou and Alençon , a party of Catholic and Protestant aristocrats who jointly opposed the absolutist ambitions of the king). Henry III was himself a politique , arguing that a strong and centralised yet religiously tolerant monarchy would save France from collapse. After the death of Henry's younger brother Francis, Duke of Anjou , and when it became apparent that Henry would not produce an heir,

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672-578: The Order of the Holy Spirit to commemorate his becoming first King of Poland and later King of France on the Feast of Pentecost and gave it precedence over the earlier Order of St. Michael , which had lost much of its original prestige by being awarded too frequently and too readily. The Order would retain its prestige as the premier chivalric order of France until the end of the French monarchy. Henry

728-698: The Ottoman Empire (a traditional ally of France through the Franco-Ottoman alliance ) and strengthen a Polish-Ottoman alliance that was in effect. In addition to this, Henry was not a powerful ruler in his own right, as he was only a Prince, nor did France border the Commonwealth, so he wouldn't have the capacity to strip the Polish Nobility of their historic rights . A Polish delegation went to La Rochelle to meet with Henry, who

784-606: The 4th century by Christian Briton immigrants; it greatly expanded in the wake of subsequent waves of refugees from the Saxon invasions of Britain . Domnonée retained close political links between the Celtic territories in Great Britain ( Wales , Cornwall , Devon ), and the newly created Brittany. Many kings, princes, clerics and other leaders came over from Great Britain. The sea was a unifying rather than divisive factor. In

840-522: The Breton House of Dreux, gave it as dowry to his daughter, Yolande, on her marriage in 1238 to Hugh XI of Lusignan , Count of La Marche . John I, Duke of Brittany , Yolande's brother, seized the countship on her death in 1272. After the Breton War of Succession the title was dispossessed twice by the reigning Dukes of Brittany, once by John V and another time by Francis II . In 1337 Joan

896-590: The Brosse family through his mother, Charlotte de Brosse (1506-1540), great-granddaughter of Nicole de Blois through her son Jean (d. 1502) and grandson Rene (1470-1524). The countship was erected for him into a duchy in the peerage of France in 1569. Afterwards it was held by Sebastian's daughter, Marie de Luxembourg, (1562-1623), who also became Duchess of Mercœur by marriage. Philippe Emmanuel, Duke of Mercœur , brother-in-law of Henry III of France (last living male-line grandson of Claude, Duchess of Brittany ), and

952-466: The French people. The portrait of a self-indulgent homosexual, incapable of fathering an heir to the throne, proved useful in efforts by the Catholic League to secure the succession for Cardinal Charles de Bourbon after 1585. However, French Renaissance scholar Gary Ferguson considers such interpretations to be unconvincing: "It is difficult to reconcile the king whose use of favourites

1008-682: The French throne when his brother, Charles IX , died without issue. France was at the time plagued by the Wars of Religion , and Henry's authority was undermined by violent political factions funded by foreign powers: the Catholic League (supported by Spain and the Pope ), the Protestant Huguenots (supported by England and the Dutch) and the Malcontents (led by Henry's own brother

1064-459: The French were introduced to new technologies of septic facilities, in which litter (excrement) was taken outside the castle walls. On returning to France, Henry wanted to order the construction of such facilities at the Louvre and other palaces. Other inventions introduced to the French by the Polish included a bath with regulated hot and cold water as well as dining forks. In 1578, Henry created

1120-694: The Huguenots. His action resulted in Henry I, Duke of Guise , forming the Catholic League . After much posturing and negotiations, Henry was forced to rescind most of the concessions that had been made to the Protestants in the edict. After 1582, Henry became convinced of the need for fiscal reform to break the cycle of expedients upon which he had relied. To this end he summoned an Assembly of Notables which met from November 1583 to February 1584. While he failed to convince them of his most radical tax plans,

1176-529: The Kings of the Bretons, and Domnonia itself was elevated as a result. Henry III of France Henry III ( French : Henri III, né Alexandre Édouard ; Polish : Henryk Walezy ; Lithuanian : Henrikas Valua ; 19 September 1551 – 2 August 1589) was King of France from 1574 until his assassination in 1589, as well as King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania from 1573 to 1575. As

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1232-508: The Lame, Duchess of Brittany , brought Penthièvre to her husband, Charles de Châtillon, Count of Blois . Joan was the daughter of Guy de Penthièvre, the younger full brother of John III . When John III died a dispute emerged regarding the inheritance of the Duchy of Brittany. John III had tried to prevent the inheritance of the duchy by his half brother John of Montfort . Joan and Charles claimed

1288-545: The Polish delegation handed over the "certificate of election to the throne of Poland-Lithuania". Henry also gave up any claims to succession and he "recognized the principle of free election" under the Henrician Articles and the pacta conventa . It was not until January 1574 that Henry was to reach the borders of Poland. On 21 February, Henry's coronation was held in Kraków . In mid-June 1574, upon learning of

1344-634: The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Henry chafed at the restrictions on monarchic power under the Polish-Lithuanian political system of " Golden Liberty ". The Polish-Lithuanian parliament had been urged by Anna Jagiellon , the sister of the recently deceased king Sigismund II Augustus, to elect him based on the understanding that Henry would wed Anna afterward. At a ceremony before the Parlement of Paris on 13 September,

1400-625: The Treaty of Guerande (1365), Joan recognized John IV as the undisputed duke. When John went into exile in England in 1373, Charles V of France named his brother Louis, Duke of Anjou lieutenant-general of Brittany. Louis was also a son-in-law of Joan de Penthièvre. Under the Second Treaty of Guerande (1381), it was agreed that, in the event the House of Montfort failed to produce a male heir,

1456-584: The Wars of Religion developed into a succession crisis, the War of the Three Henrys . Henry III's closest heir was his distant cousin, King Henry III of Navarre , a Protestant. The Catholic League, led by Henry I, Duke of Guise , sought to exclude Protestants from the succession and championed the Catholic Charles, Cardinal of Bourbon , as Henry III's heir. Henry had the Duke of Guise murdered in 1588 and

1512-545: The Wars of Religion, and in 1572/1573 led the siege of La Rochelle , a massive military assault on the Huguenot-held city. At the end of May 1573, Henry learned that the Polish szlachta had elected him King of Poland (a country with a large Protestant minority at the time) and political considerations forced him to negotiate an end to the siege. Negotiators reached an agreement on 24 June 1573, and Catholic troops ended

1568-440: The behest of Jacques, Duke of Nemours , to run away from court to be a figurehead for the ultra-Catholics. However, the plot was uncovered before any action could be taken. Henry was known as a flaneur , who relished leisurely strolls through Paris and partook in the sociability in the busiest of neighbourhoods. He revelled in fairs, music, bilboquet and court masques . His extravagance in court entertainments cut him off from

1624-685: The citizenry turned against Henry for the murders. The Parlement instituted criminal charges against the king, and he was compelled to join forces with his heir, the Protestant Henry of Navarre, by setting up the Parliament of Tours . By 1589 Henry's popularity hit a new low. Preachers were calling for his assassination and labelling him a tyrant. The people of Paris disdained him for his court extravagances, allowing corruption to grow rife, high taxes and having relied extensively on Italian financiers. But what most Parisians hated most about him

1680-657: The coast of Goélo and in Devon. It has been suggested that the British and Breton branches were unified for a period. Conomor , who was killed fighting Clotaire I , king of the Franks, is referred to in stories from both Great Britain and Brittany. He would have been a British military leader who was guarding the English Channel from attacks by pirates, perhaps in alliance with Childebert I , son of Clovis I . In 1034,

1736-475: The common people. He was also a devout Catholic who introduced pious reforms into the city and he encouraged the French church to follow the edicts of the Council of Trent . Reports that Henry engaged in same-sex relations with his court favourites, known as the mignons , date back to his own time. He was known to have enjoyed intense relationships with them. The scholar Louis Crompton maintains that all of

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1792-514: The contemporary rumours were true. However, some modern historians dispute this: Jean-Francois Solnon, Nicolas Le Roux, and Jacqueline Boucher have noted that Henry had many famous mistresses, that he was well known for his taste in beautiful women, and that no male sex partners have been identified. They concluded that the idea he was homosexual was promoted by his political opponents (both Protestant and Catholic) who used his dislike of war to depict him as effeminate and undermine his reputation with

1848-528: The day that he was to have launched his assault to retake Paris, Henry III died. Chaos swept the attacking army, most of it quickly melting away; the proposed attack on Paris was postponed. Inside the city, joy at the news of Henry III's death was near delirium; some hailed the assassination as an act of God . Henry III was interred at the Saint Denis Basilica . Childless, he was the longest-living of Henry II's sons to have become king and also

1904-523: The death of his brother Charles IX, Henry left Poland and headed back to France. Henry's absence provoked a constitutional crisis that the Parliament attempted to resolve by notifying Henry that his throne would be lost if he did not return from France by 12 May 1575. His failure to return caused Parliament to declare his throne vacant. The short reign of Henry at Wawel Castle in Poland was marked by

1960-630: The ducal crown and were subsequently proclaimed the Duchess and Duke of Brittany, which John of Montfort also claimed. Their dispute prompted the War of the Breton Succession . In 1352, during that war, the Estates of Brittany were established. In 1364, Charles died and John IV, Duke of Brittany , John of Montfort 's son, was confirmed as duke. Joan was permitted to keep Penthièvre and use the title Duchess of Brittany until her death. Under

2016-542: The fourth son of King Henry II of France , he was not expected to inherit the French throne and thus was a good candidate for the vacant throne of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth , where he was elected monarch in 1573. During his brief rule, he signed the Henrician Articles into law, recognizing the szlachta 's right to freely elect their monarch. Aged 22, Henry abandoned Poland–Lithuania upon inheriting

2072-474: The nephew of Jacques Cartier , privileges over fishing, fur trading, and mining in New France . On 1 August 1589, Henry III lodged with his army at Saint-Cloud , and was preparing to attack Paris, when a young fanatical Dominican friar , Jacques Clément , carrying false papers, was granted access to deliver important documents to the king. The friar gave the king a bundle of papers and stated that he had

2128-405: The notables forwarded a series of proposals to him which would be embodied in his legislation during 1584. As a result of these policies the royal budget was almost balanced in 1585, before it was subject to political shock. In 1584, the king's youngest brother and heir presumptive , Francis, Duke of Anjou , died. Under Salic Law , the next heir to the throne was Protestant Henry of Navarre ,

2184-591: The royal army, taking part in the victories over the Huguenots at the Battle of Jarnac (March 1569) and at the Battle of Moncontour (October 1569). At this time he was a rallying point for the ultra-Catholics at court, who saw him as an opposition figure to the tolerant line being taken by the King, with Charles, Cardinal of Lorraine guiding his council. Lorraine offered him 200,000 Francs of Church revenue to become

2240-473: The same ruling family, it was variously separated from or united with its motherland , and its Latin name was used for both indiscriminately. The mainland territory of Domnonée included Trégor , Dol-de-Bretagne through to Goélo , and Penthièvre . At the time of the Roman conquest of Gaul , the rough area of later Domnonée was held by the pagan Curiosolite Gauls . Domnonée is said to have been founded in

2296-571: The senior male heir of Joan would be recognized as duke. Joan died in 1384 and left Penthièvre to her oldest son, John (1340–1404). In turn, John left the county to his son, Olivier, Count of Penthièvre (1389–1433), who forfeited the title in 1421 after kidnapping and attempting to blackmail John V, Duke of Brittany . Olivier's brother John II (1393–1454) recovered the county but died childless, passing his titles on to Nicole (1424–1480), daughter of his brother Charles, Lord of Avaugour (1396–1434). In 1437, Nicole married Jean II de Brosse . She

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2352-528: The siege on 6 July 1573. Following the death of the Polish ruler Sigismund II Augustus on 7 July 1572, Jean de Monluc was sent as the French envoy to Poland to negotiate the election of Henry to the Polish throne in exchange for military support against Russia, diplomatic assistance in dealing with the Ottoman Empire , and financial subsidies. Charles IX allowed Henry’s envoys to give up to 50,000 écus to important people in Poland-Lithuania as

2408-511: The term was used to designate the comté of Penthièvre said to be the preserve of Eudes, second son of Geoffrey I, Duke of Brittany . The name disappeared shortly after. Situated to the north east of Brittany, the earliest princes are mentioned in several Lives of the Saints. The three Armorican principalities were all subservient to the King of Brittany. Until the reign of Jonas, the rulers of Domnonia were titled princes. After that, they supply

2464-433: The title Duke de Penthièvre. This title passed by inheritance to the House of Orléans. Domnon%C3%A9e Domnonée is the modern French form of Domnonia or Dumnonia ( Latin for " Devon "; Breton : Domnonea ), a historic kingdom in northern Armorica ( Brittany ) founded by British immigrants from Dumnonia ( Sub-Roman Devon ) fleeing the Saxon invasions of Britain in the early Middle Ages . Headed by

2520-606: The traditions relating to the settlement of Brittany by the Bretons there are several kingdoms of this kind. A number of legends and lives of Breton saints contain references to the close political ties between religious communities in Wales and Brittany. The close proximity resulted in possessions on both sides of the Channel by some religious orders. For example, the Abbey of Notre-Dame de Beauport , before Henry VIII , had parishes on

2576-673: The unintended effect of rallying the people against him and in favor of the more popular Guise during the Day of the Barricades . Henry III fled the city; he later sought support from the Parlement of Paris and propped up an anti-League establishment throughout France. Following the defeat of the Spanish Armada that summer, the king's fear of Spanish support for the Catholic League apparently waned. Accordingly, on 23 December 1588, at

2632-438: The while to change her religion and cast her Book of Hours into the fire), and even bit the nose off a statue of Saint Paul . His mother firmly cautioned him against such behaviour, and he would never again show any Protestant tendencies. Instead, he became staunchly Catholic. In the factional dispute that engulfed France in the wake of Henry II's death in 1559, Henry was solicited by Henry, son of Francis, Duke of Guise , at

2688-464: Was crowned king of France on 13 February 1575 at Reims Cathedral . Although he was expected to produce an heir after he married the 21-year-old Louise of Lorraine on 14 February 1575, no issue resulted from their union. In 1574, Henry renewed letters that gave Portuguese New Christians the right of settling in France. In 1576, Henry signed the Edict of Beaulieu , which granted many concessions to

2744-476: Was deprived of Penthièvre by Francis II, Duke of Brittany in 1465, thus undermining the Penthièvre family's position in the duchy. When Francis died in 1488, Nicole's eldest son Jean III de Brosse (d. 1502) asserted his family's claim to the duchy against those of Anne, Duchess of Brittany , who ultimately ascended to the title. The countship of Penthièvre was restored to Sébastien de Luxembourg , heir of

2800-470: Was expected by many parties in her country to marry and produce an heir. However, nothing came of these discussions. In initiating them, Elizabeth is viewed by historians as having intended only to arouse the concern of Spain, rather than contemplate marriage seriously. Henry's mother felt the chance of marriage despite differing religious views (Henry was Catholic, Elizabeth Protestant) simply required personal sacrifice. Henry tactlessly referred to Elizabeth as

2856-476: Was forced to surrender and subsequently went in exile to Hungary. Philippe died young, leaving his sister, Françoise de Lorraine-Mercœur the duchy of Penthièvre. The Duchess of Vendôme's grandson, Louis Joseph, duc de Vendôme , inherited Penthièvre in 1669, but it was taken from him by decree in 1687 and adjudged to Marie Anne de Bourbon, Princess de Conti . In 1696, it was sold to Louis-Alexandre de Bourbon, Count de Toulouse , whose son, Louis de Bourbon , bore

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2912-658: Was his alleged sexuality. Under Henry, France named Guillaume Bérard as the first Consul of France in Morocco . The request came from the Moroccan prince Abd al-Malik , who had been saved by Bérard, a doctor by profession, during an epidemic in Constantinople and wished to retain Bérard in his service. Henry III encouraged the exploration and development of New World territories. In 1588, he granted Jacques Noël,

2968-581: Was in turn assassinated by Jacques Clément , a Catholic fanatic, in 1589. He was succeeded by the King of Navarre who, as Henry IV , assumed the throne of France as the first king of the House of Bourbon and eventually converted to Catholicism. Henry was born at the royal Château de Fontainebleau , the fourth son of King Henry II and Catherine de' Medici. He was a grandson of Francis I of France and Claude of France . His older brothers were Francis II of France , Charles IX of France , and Louis of Valois . He

3024-506: Was leading the Siege of La Rochelle. Henry left the siege following their visit. In Paris, on 10 September, the Polish delegation asked Henry to take an oath, at Notre Dame Cathedral , to "respect traditional Polish liberties and the law on religious freedom that had been passed during the interregnum ". As a condition of his election, he was compelled to sign the pacta conventa and the Henrician Articles , pledging religious tolerance in

3080-451: Was made Duke of Angoulême and Duke of Orléans in 1560, then Duke of Anjou in 1566. He was his mother's favourite; she called him chers yeux ("precious eyes") and lavished fondness and affection upon him for most of his life. His elder brother, Charles, grew to detest him, partially because he resented his better health. The royal children were raised under the supervision of Diane de Poitiers , his father's mistress. Although he

3136-478: Was skilled and fond of fencing, he preferred to indulge his tastes for the arts and reading. These predilections were attributed to his Italian mother. Henry's favourite interests were hunting and riding. At one point in his youth Henry showed a tendency towards Protestantism as a means of rebelling. At the age of nine, he called himself "a little Huguenot", attended Mass only to please his mother, sang Protestant psalms to his sister Margaret (exhorting her all

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