49-579: The Karkota dynasty (c. 625 − 855 CE) ruled over the Kashmir valley and some northern parts of the Indian subcontinent during 7th and 8th centuries. Their rule saw a period of political expansion, economic prosperity and emergence of Kashmir as a centre of culture and scholarship. The Karkota rulers constructed several shrines to Vishnu in their dominions. They however also allowed Buddhism to flourish under them. Stupa , Chaitya and Vihara can be found in
98-497: A Buddhist philosopher Dharmottara. Ratnākara wrote Haravijaya , under the patronage of Cippatajayapida; in fifty cantos and 4351 verses, it is the largest surviving Mahākāvya and is based on the defeat of Andhaka by Shiva . Sculpting proliferated during the Karkota dynasty, and Rajatarangini notes of several bronzes. Lalitaditya commissioned numerous gold and silver images for temples and monasteries across faiths, and his span
147-464: A conquest. Returning to Kashmir, he found his brother-in-law Jajja to have usurped the throne but went on to defeat him. Kalhana notes his later years to be tyrannical when Jayapida sought to (unsuccessfully) rescind agraharas and imposed a cruel taxation regime on Brahmins, forcing them to emigrate; he was cursed to death by a Brahmin. Jayapida had two sons—Lalitapida (from Durga) and Samgramapida II (from Kalyanadevi). Kalhana condemns Lalitapida as
196-457: A contested repute of being the only pre-modern work in Sanskrit resembling Western notions of history; however, its historical accuracy is disputed—Zutshi and other scholars find the poem to be a blend of "mythical, political, social, spiritual, and geographical" narratives, which aimed at defining Kashmir as an idealised ethical space. Nonetheless, historical accuracy increases drastically from
245-610: A critical reading of the Rajatarangini , and taking into account numismatic as well as literary sources, the dates of the Gonanda rulers are adjusted and Biswas deems the first ruler of the Karkota dynasty to be Durlabhaka Pratapaditya, who claimed the throne after defeating Yudhisthira , the last Alchon Hun ruler of Kashmir. His father Durlabhavardhana would have been a subordinate king under the-then Huna ruler, Narendraditya Khinkhila . Baladitya and his immediate predecessors of
294-536: A liberal patron of arts and even invited scholars from abroad; Yigal Bronner notes his court to have ushered a breakthrough moment in Kashmiri poetics. Daniel Ingalls writes that Jayapada's court was responsible for birthing the "school of literary criticism in Kashmir". Two literary theorists were installed in his office: Vāmana as a minister and Udbhaṭa as the chief scholar. Udbhata wrote four works—Kumārasambhava,
343-542: A number of shrines in Kashmir, including the now-ruined Martand Sun Temple and numerous Buddhist structures. He also established several towns, including a new capital at Parihasapura . The five brothers had set up a Shiva shrine—Jayesvara during Cippatajayapida's rule. After coming to the helm, they commissioned multiple towns and temples—Utapalasvāmin, Padmasvāmin, Dharmasvāmin, Kalyanasvāmin, Mamasvāmin, Utpalapura, Padmapura, etc. Padma's wife had two mathas built. Kashmir valley The Kashmir Valley , also known as
392-479: A poem on the theme of the marriage of Śiva and Pārvatī; Kāvyālaṃkārasaṃgraha, a short commentary on Bhāmaha's Kāvyālaṃkāra; another (now-lost) commentary on the Nāṭyaśāstra; and a mostly-lost but extensive Vivaraṇa on Bhāmaha—in what Bronner notes to be an unprecedented volume of literature production by contemporary standards. Vāmana composed sūtra texts. Both aimed at an audience of literary scholars and engaged (for
441-428: A possibility he had her married to Durlabhavardhana, who was from a low caste. However, after Baladitya's death, Durlabhavardhana ascended to the throne with help from a minister, and claimed descent from the mythical Naga king Karkotaka , establishing the Karkota dynasty. Witzel seems to accept this view. Atreyi Biswas however rejects this literal description of the establishment of the Karkota dynasty as fictitious. In
490-528: A recklessly extravagant ruler, whose court was infested with courtesans/concubines and jesters, and provided no patronage to learning. He ruled for twelve years and had donated agraharas . He had one son Cippatajayapida, from his concubine Jayadevi, who was the daughter of a spirit distiller. Lalitapida was succeeded by his step-brother Samgramapida II, also known as Prithivyapida II. He had at least one son - Anangipida and ruled for seven years; Kalhana notes no additional detail. Cippatajayapida (var. Brhaspati)
539-506: A regnal span of thirty-six years from 625 to 661/2. He was also known as Prajnaditya and gifted many villages ( agraharas ) to Brahmins. Rajatarangini records no military activity during his reign; assuming Xuanzang to have visited Kashmir twice during his reign, Durlabhavardhana controlled vast swaths of territories including modern day Kashmir , Punjab and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa . Per Kalhana, Anaṅgalekhā had him declared as her dauhitra and Durlabhaka became known as Pratapaditya, adopting
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#1732776862907588-522: A span of four years and one month. He was overthrown by Samgramapida I, who ruled for seven days. Tribhuvanapida, despite being the eldest, had abdicated the throne. Kalhana does not note any additional detail except not finding either of them to be worthy of wielding royal power, and Stein reiterates that no other evidence of these rulers have been located. Jayapida ruled for 31 years and partook in multiple conquests to faraway territories in an apparent bid to out-rival Muktapida; however, Kalhana's narrative
637-551: A wave of heavy snow and low temperatures ( winter storm ) shocked the valley covering it in a thick layer of snow and ice. The Valley has seen an increase in relative humidity and annual precipitation in the last few years. This is most likely because of the commercial afforestation projects which also include expanding parks and green cover. 34°02′00″N 74°40′00″E / 34.0333°N 74.6667°E / 34.0333; 74.6667 Karkotaka Karkotaka ( Sanskrit : कर्कोटक , romanized : Karkoṭaka )
686-422: Is July (mean minimum temperature 16 °C, mean maximum temperature 32 °C) and the coldest are December–January (mean minimum temperature −15 °C, mean maximum temperature 0 °C). The Kashmir Valley enjoys a moderate climate but weather conditions are unpredictable. The record high temperature is 37.8°C and the record low is −18 °C. On 5 and 6 January 2012, after years of relatively little snow,
735-537: Is a naga king in Hinduism . One of the children of Kashyapa and Kadru , Karkotaka is regarded to have lived in a forest near the Nishadha Kingdom . According to Hindu mythology , he stings King Nala , transforming him into a twisted and ugly shape. Karkotaka once deceived Narada , the divine sage, in a game of chance. Angered, Narada cursed him that he would remain stationary in the forest until he
784-496: Is considered to be the zenith of Kashmiri sculpture. Contemporary terracotta works (typically, faces) have been located. Stone sculptures dedicated to Durlabhaka have been excavated. Durlabhavardhana, built a shrine dedicated to Lord Vishnu at Srinagar named "Durlabhasvāmin"; his wife had constructed a Buddhist monastery - Anangabhavana. He also introduced a distinct style of architecture into Kashmir by borrowing post-Gupta trends from Sarnath, Nalanda etc. Durlabhaka established
833-501: Is credited by Kalhana with extensive conquests spanning major parts of India, Afghanistan and Central Asia; he is said to have even subdued Yashovarman , winning Kannauj. Kalhana lived around four centuries after Lalitaditya, and popular imagination appears to have embellished Lalitaditya's achievements by then. A century before, Al-Biruni noted the Kashmiris to celebrate an annual festival in commemoration of Lalitaditya, who "defeated
882-538: Is noted to be a popular drama. Metallic coins as well as cowrie shells were used as currency. The state collected a variety of taxes—customs-levy, prostitution-levy, market-tax etc.—corruption was rampant and Damodaragupta takes frequent digs. The Nilamata Purana is believed to have been commissioned by Durlabhavardhana. The Vishnudharmottara Purana , was crafted around the same times. A famed patron of arts, Lalitaditya invited scholars from abroad to his court and promoted study of religions. Kalhana notes Jayapida to be
931-498: Is noted to be excessively exaggerated and in absence of other corroborating sources from across a vast geographical region, the authenticity of the raids and other events must be disputed. He was also known by the name Vinayaditya. Brahmin immigrants from Indus and Dravida regions were settled in Kashmir during Jayapida's reign; Kshemendra 's great-great-grandfather Narendra was a minister in his court. Jayapida married Kalyanadevi, daughter of King Jayanta of Cooch Behar , whilst away in
980-545: Is saved by King Nala . In the Mahabharata , Karkotaka encountered King Nala when there was a wildfire in the forest where he dwelt, calling out to the king to rescue him. Reducing himself to the size of a thumb, he urged Nala to save him, and the king promptly moved the serpent to a safer spot. Thus, he was freed from Narada's curse. Karkotaka asked the king to step forward ten steps, and after he did so, stung him, causing him to turn ugly. The serpent explained that he had bit
1029-598: The Alchon Huns , who ruled hundreds of years later. Across the first three books, Kalhana reshuffles multiple names, retrofits the same stories, assigns abnormally long reigns, and telescopes some rulers into the past. Durlabhavardhana—the founder of the Karkotas—was held to be under the employment of Baladitya, the last ruler of the Gonanda dynasty (II). Baladitya had no male heir but a daughter Anaṅgalekhā and did not wish his territory to be annexed by in-laws. To avert such
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#17327768629071078-617: The Gonanda dynasty would never have existed at all or were subordinate kings under the Karkotas. Ahmad Hasan Dani follows her interpretation in one of his works. However, Gudrun Melzer notes that Biswas did not take into account a different chronology proposed by two German historians (Humbach and Göbl), which has since received eminence in Huna studies; scholars have disputed her dating and commentary on Narendraditya Khinkhila. Kalhana assigns
1127-555: The Lidder and Sind rivers. Unlike other areas of Kashmir region, the Kashmir Valley is densely populated owing to the availability of a large expanse of fertile flat land. The Kashmir Valley has a moderate climate, which is largely defined by its geographic location, with the towering Karakoram Range in the north, Pir Panjal Range in the south and west, and Zanskar Range in the east. It can be generally described as cool in
1176-668: The Pir Panjal Range in the Lesser Himalayas bounds it on the west and the south, and separates it from the Punjab Plain . The valley has an average elevation of 1,850 metres (6,070 ft) above sea-level, but the surrounding Pir Panjal range has an average elevation of 10,000 feet (3,000 m). The Jhelum River is the main river of the Valley. It originates at Verinag ; its most important tributaries are
1225-730: The Vale of Kashmir , is an intermontane valley in northern Jammu and Kashmir , a region in Indian-administered Kashmir . The valley is surrounded by ranges of the Himalayas , bounded on the southwest by the Pir Panjal Range and on the northeast by the Greater Himalayan range. It is approximately 135 km (84 mi) long and 32 km (20 mi) wide, and drained by the Jhelum River . It forms
1274-651: The Akṣahṛdaya mantra in exchange, after which he would be reunited with his family. He also offered Nala two garments, which he could wear to regain his original form. It is believed that dwelling on Karkotaka allows one to be safeguarded against the asura Kali. He is counted among the Eight Naga Kings in Hindu sources. In the Nāga Menaka offering, Karkotaka is described as being white in color and situated in
1323-794: The Turks and ruled over the world". Lalitaditya is also known from the Tangshu . Stein had rejected Kalhana's description of Lalitaditya's conquests as "mythology" and noted his ignorance about territories outside Kashmir. However, Hermann Goetz found little amiss with Kalhana's claims and accepted them as "historical fact"; Goetz's acceptance has since penetrated into the work of numerous scholars like André Wink and Ronald Inden . Sen, comparing Kalhana's account with contemporary Chinese and Tibetan sources including official histories , coins and pilgrim-chronicles , agrees with Stein. Numerous Brahmin immigrants were brought to Kashmir during his time including
1372-526: The ancestors of Abhinavagupta . A brilliant intellectual and artistic culture flourished during his reign. Son of Lalitaditya and his first queen Kamaladevi, his short reign of one year and half a month was marked by a succession struggle between him and his half-brother. No evidence other than the Rajatarangini exists to corroborate his reign. Kalhana held him to be a virtuous ruler. After being subject to treachery by his minister, Kuvalayapida realised
1421-678: The bulk of the Kashmir Division of Jammu and Kashmir. The Kashmir Valley lies between latitude 33° and 35°N , and longitude 73° and 76°E . The valley is 100 km (62 mi) wide and covers 15,520.3 km (5,992.4 sq mi) in area. It is bounded by sub-ranges of the Western Himalayas : the Great Himalayas bound it in the northeast and separate it from the Tibetan Plateau , whereas
1470-467: The city of Pratāpapura (current day Tapar between Baramula and Srinagar) and the shrine of Malhanasvāmin; his wife had established the Narendreśvara Temple. Candrapika had multiple Vishnu shrines installed. Jayapida set up Buddhist Viharas and commissioned the construction of multiple Buddha statues; he also established a new capital town at Jayapura (current day Andrkoth). Lalitaditya commissioned
1519-462: The development of the Classical Kārkoṭa style of sculpture. Kalhana records him to have impressive military prowess. Several agraharas were established by Hanumant, son of his minister Uda (var. Oda, Aida). Candrapida ruled from 712/13−720 and bore the name Vajraditya. He is otherwise known from the Tangshu under the name Zhentuoluobili . Kalhana paints a benevolent and virtuous image of
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1568-420: The elites, and prostitution received state patronage. Sati as well as Devadasi system were prevalent. The dynasty (at least, the earlier rulers) had sought to restore Hinduism after a lengthy span of Buddhist influence in the valley; however a syncretic environment flourished. Hunting was a popular sport for the princely class. Theaters were frequently organised and there were halls for the purpose; Ratnavali
1617-438: The empire, whilst installing puppet kings belonging to the Karkota lineage. Tribhuvanapida's son, Ajitapida was nominated by Utpala immediately after Cippatajayapida's death. A few years afterwards, Mamma waged a successful battle against Utpala, and installed Anangipida. Three years later, Utpala's son Sukhavarman rebelled successfully and installed Utpalapida, a son of Ajitapida. Under his rule, merchants declared independence at
1666-456: The first ruler of the dynasty, provides information on contemporary affairs. However, not only that the Purana was penned to reconstruct Kashmir as one of the most sacred space in the subcontinental cosmos by attributing Brahminical divinity to its geographical features and then, establish Durlabhavardhana as its rightful king but also that there have been interpolations as late as the 10th century,
1715-433: The first time) in critical discussions surrounding poetic theory, praxis and semantic cognition using tools from mīmāṃsā etc.; a grand universe of poetry, rigidly theorising the many elements of aesthetics, their scopes and inter-relation was sought to be created. Kuttanimata was penned by Damodaragupta in his court. Among other noted figures were the grammarian Kṣīra, the poets Manoratha, Śaṅkhadatta, Caṭaka, and Sandhimat, and
1764-773: The folly of material gains, abdicated the throne, and retreated to a holy forest where he attained siddhi . Son of Lalitaditya and his second queen Chakramardika, he was also known as Bappiyaka. No evidence other than the Rajatarangini exists to corroborate his reign. Kalhana noted the seven years of his rule to have been cruel. Vajraditya's reign saw a successful raid by the Governor of Sindh and introduction of slave trade. He had numerous concubines and at-least four wives Meghavali, Amrtaprabha, Manjarika and Mamma; his four sons were Tribhuvanapida (from Meghabali), Jayapida (from Amrtaprabha), Prithivyapida I (from Manjarika) and Samgramapida I (from Mamma). According to Kalhana, he ruled for
1813-568: The formation of an imperial alliance between the Tangs and Karakotas; in 722, after the Tangs emerged victorious against Tibet, the Chinese court credits Kashmir for having provided ample food to their troops stationed in Gilgit. Kalhana notes him to have been assassinated by his brother, Tarapida, who recruited a Brahmin for the purpose. Little is noted about his rule in Rajatarangini except that he
1862-495: The fourth book onward, and the narrative of the Karkota dynasty in the Rajatarangini has been heavily used to reconstruct Kashmiri history. Michael Witzel notes the fourth book to be accurate in its chronology (down to day) in that it aligns perfectly with contemporary Chinese sources; however a correction of +25 years need to be introduced throughout the dynasty. Coins issued by all major rulers until Muktapida (and Jayapida) have been excavated; these coins were always inscribed in
1911-464: The king because the malevolent Kali had possessed him, and the latter should have to suffer for it. He assured Nala that he would face no danger and be undefeatable in battle as along as the poison remained in his body. He then asked Nala to go to Rituparṇa , King of Ayodhya , and work for him as a charioteer under the alias Bahuka . He told the king to teach Rituparna the Aśvahṛdaya mantra, and learn
1960-498: The name of Kidara on the reverse. Scholars disagree on the specifics of establishment of the Karkotas, though it is held that their establishment followed the rule of the Hunas in the region of Kashmir. Kalhana's third book mentions of a Gonanda dynasty (II) , which ruled for about 590 years till the establishment of the Karkotas; on cross-vetting with coins and inscriptions, names of some of these rulers are found to correspond with
2009-469: The outposts of the territory. Within a few years, Sukhavarman set out to assume the throne for himself but was murdered by a relative; finally, his son Avantivarman deposed Utpalapida and claimed the throne c. 855 with help from minister Sura, thus establishing the Utpala dynasty . On a reading of Kuttanimata, the society seems to be unequal and dominated by merchant communities. Materialism was in vogue among
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2058-525: The ruins of their capital. Martand Sun Temple in the Anantnag district was built by Lalitaditya. It is the oldest known Sun temple in India and was also one of the biggest temple complexes at the time. Avanti Varman ascended the throne of Kashmir in 855, establishing the Utpala dynasty and ending the rule of Karkota dynasty. The Nilamata Purana , believed to have been commissioned by Durlabhavardhana,
2107-441: The ruler—two stories are narrated to the same effect. Jayanta Bhatta 's great-grandfather Saktisvāmin was one of his ministers. In 713, Emperor Xuanzong of Tang received an embassy from Candrapida requesting aid against Arab invasions. Candrapida did not receive any help but nonetheless, managed to defend his territory. In 720, Xuanzong sent an envoy to bestow upon him, the title "King of Kashmir". These diplomatic exchanges led to
2156-433: The spring and autumn, mild in the summer and cold in the winter. As a large valley with significant differences in geo-location among various districts, the weather is often cooler in the hilly areas compared to the flat lower parts. Summer is usually mild and fairly dry, but relative humidity is generally high and the nights are cool. Precipitation occurs throughout the year and no month is particularly dry. The hottest month
2205-406: The surname of his maternal grandfather. Durlabhaka is assigned a regnal span of 50 years (662−712). He had a brother Malhana. Durlabhaka married Narendraprabhā, who had been earlier married to Nona, a wealthy merchant from outside Kashmir. He had three sons—Chandrapida, Tarapida and Lalitaditya—in descending order of age. Durlabhaka's reign saw increasing trade relation with neighbouring polities and
2254-420: The text cannot be treated as objective history. The Vishnudharmottara Purana is another local and contemporary source; it played similar roles in the Karkota polity. Other sources include the chronicles of a multitude of Buddhist pilgrims— Xuanzang (May 631−April 633), Yijing (673−685), Wukong , Hyecho and others—who visited Kashmir during the dynasty. The Kuttanimata , penned by a court-poet of Jayapida,
2303-418: Was a didactic work on erotics but gave a lively account of contemporary Kashmiri life. The Rajatarangini , an 11th-century work by Kalhana, was aimed at sketching an outline of Kashmir's history since ancient times, and it did discuss the Karkota dynasty in depth. Kalhana depended on a variety of material including earlier historical works, dynastic genealogies, inscriptions, coins and Puranas. The work has
2352-417: Was crowned in 837/8. However, due to his young age, the real power was vested in the five brothers of Jayadevi—Padma, Utpala, Kalyana, Mamma, and Dharma—who followed the orders of Jayadevi but yet engaged in an acute mismanagement of affairs. After Cippatajayapida was murdered in around 840, having ruled for twelve years, the brothers gained considerable power but fought each other to retain complete control of
2401-684: Was tyrannical and oppressed the Brahmins. He bore the name Udayaditya, and was murdered after four years; the practice of magic-rites by Brahmins is held to be the cause. In October–November 724, Chinese chronicles mention of an unhappy Jincheng seeking defection to Kashmir; the-then King (unnamed) apparently consented and urged for military assistance from Zabulistan to ward off the Tibetan troops. Tansen Sen notes this king to be Tarapida; however other scholars have identified him with Candrapida. A world conqueror, Lalitaditya Muktapida (724/725−760/761)
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