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92-404: The Volkswagen Type 82 Kübelwagen ( listen ), or simply Kübel , contractions of the original German word Kübelsitzwagen (translated: 'bucket-seat car' — but when the contractions are translated literally a back-formation of 'bucket' or 'tub'-car results), is a military light utility vehicle designed by Ferdinand Porsche and built by Volkswagen during World War II for use by

184-410: A Latin supine stem and a noun ending in ion entered the language together, such as insert/insertion , project/projection , etc. Back-formation may be similar to the reanalyses or folk etymologies when it rests on an erroneous understanding of the morphology of the longer word. For example, the singular noun asset is a back-formation from the plural assets . However, assets was not originally

276-594: A U.S., Soviet, U.K. and French sector respectively, and the massive Volkswagen factory and the town built for its workers, Wolfsburg , fell into the British sector. U.K. Major Ivan Hirst was put in charge of the factory and workers. He is largely credited with production resuming, and reopening the VW factory. He organized the clearance of bomb damage, and had the buildings repaired. He recommissioned machine tools, body presses and assembly jigs; he concerned himself with improving

368-473: A government demand for a four-wheel-drive passenger vehicle. The modern Geländewagen such as the Mercedes-Benz G-Class still feature some of the attributes, with the exception of fully independent suspension, since it can compromise ground clearance. The Unimog is also a result of Mercedes 4x4 technology. The first Russian-produced four-wheel-drive vehicle, also in part for civilian use, was

460-587: A mechanical differential between the front and rear axles. An example of this is the dual-motor variant of the Tesla Model S , which controls the torque distribution between its two motors electronically. According to the SAE International standard J1952, AWD is the preferred term for all the systems described above. The standard subdivides AWD systems into three categories. Part-time AWD systems require driver intervention to couple and decouple

552-646: A more angular body design, and pre-production models were field-tested in the invasion of Poland that started in September that year. Despite their overall satisfaction with the vehicle's performance, military commanders demanded a few important changes: the lowest speed of the vehicle had to be reduced from 8 km/h (5.0 mph) to 4 km/h (2.5 mph) as an adjustment to the marching pace of soldiers. Second, it needed some further improvement of its cross-country mobility. Porsche responded to both requests by mounting new axles with gear-reduction hubs , providing

644-466: A plural; it is a loanword from Anglo-Norman asetz (modern French assez ). The -s was reanalyzed as a plural suffix. Back-formation varies from clipping  – back-formation may change the word's class or meaning, whereas clipping creates shortened words from longer words but does not change the class or meaning of the word. Words can sometimes acquire new lexical categories without any derivational change in form (for example, ship (in

736-534: A production GT sports car. While most 4WD systems split torque evenly, the Jensen split torque roughly 40% front, 60% rear by gearing the front and rear at different ratios. American Motors Corporation (AMC) acquired Kaiser's Jeep Division in 1970 and quickly upgraded and expanded the entire line of off-road 4WD vehicles. With its added roadworthiness, the top-range full-sized Grand Wagoneer continued to compete with traditional luxury cars . Partially hand-built, it

828-550: A total of 41,674 units made by 1928. Daimler-Benz also has a history in four-wheel drive. After the Daimler Motoren Gesellschaft had built a four-wheel-driven vehicle called Dernburg-Wagen , also equipped with four-wheel steering , in 1907, that was used by German colonial civil servant, Bernhard Dernburg, in Namibia ; Mercedes and BMW, in 1926, introduced some rather sophisticated four-wheel drives,

920-399: A two-door roadster, a two-door pickup truck, and a four-door phaeton, all equipped with a transfer case that engaged the front wheels, powered by a 1.3-litre, two-cylinder, air-cooled OHV V-twin engine. The 1937 Mercedes-Benz G5 and BMW 325 4×4 featured full-time four-wheel drive, four-wheel steering, three locking differentials, and fully independent suspension. They were produced because of

1012-412: A wheel is slipping, and only activates when wheel slip is detected. Therefore, typically no mechanism exists to actively prevent wheel slip (i.e., locking the differential in advance of wheel slip is not possible); rather, the system is designed to expressly permit wheel slip to occur, and then to attempt to send torque to the wheels with the best traction. If preventing all-wheel slip is a requirement, this

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1104-500: Is a back-formation from translation , which is from Latin trāns + lāt- + -tio . Lāt- is from the very irregular ( suppletive ) verb ferō 'to carry.' Trānslāt- in Latin was merely a semi-adjectival form of trānsferō meaning '[something] having been carried across [into a new language]' (cf. transfer ). The result of the action trānsferō textum 'to translate a text' was a textus trānslātus 'a text that has been translated.' Thus

1196-423: Is a limiting design. The architecture of an AWD/4WD system can be described by showing its possible operating modes. A single vehicle may have the ability to operate in multiple modes depending on driver selection. The different modes are: In addition to these basic modes, some implementations can combine these modes. The system could have a clutch across the center differential, for example, capable of modulating

1288-487: Is assumed to be coincidental, but its TM number was identical to that of the American jeep, with the prefix 'E' for 'enemy'. It was intended for distribution after the 6 June invasion of Normandy to US military personnel who might encounter ones that had been abandoned, possibly for lack of fuel or a minor technical problem, and with the help of this manual, might be put into service as additional vehicles. The TM calls

1380-441: Is distributed to all four wheels, a third or 'center' differential can be used to distribute power between the front and rear axles. The described system handles extremely well, as it is able to accommodate various forces of movement and distribute power evenly and smoothly, making slippage unlikely. Once it does slip, however, recovery is difficult. If the left front wheel of a 4WD vehicle slips on an icy patch of road, for instance,

1472-458: Is exceeded at the low-traction side. A fairly recent innovation in automobiles is electronic traction control . It typically uses a vehicle's braking system to slow a spinning wheel. This forced slowing emulates the function of a limited-slip differential, and by using the brakes more aggressively to ensure wheels are being driven at the same speed, can also emulate a locking differential. This technique normally requires wheel sensors to detect when

1564-460: Is much less acceptable for 4WD vehicles, because 4WD vehicles have twice as many wheels with which to lose traction, increasing the likelihood that it may happen. 4WD vehicles may also be more likely to drive on surfaces with reduced traction. However, since torque is divided between four wheels rather than two, each wheel receives roughly half the torque of a 2WD vehicle, reducing the potential for wheel slip. Many differentials have no way of limiting

1656-716: Is named after the town of Chelmsford ( Chelmeresford ) which is derived from the Saxon personal name Cēolmǣr . Back-formation in Israeli Hebrew often violates the prescriptive rules of the Academy of the Hebrew Language . For example: Four wheel drive A four-wheel drive , also called 4×4 ("four by four") or 4WD , is a two-axled vehicle drivetrain capable of providing torque to all of its wheels simultaneously. It may be full-time or on-demand, and

1748-574: Is still generally considered nonstandard. The Latin preposition versus , meaning against, has frequently been mistaken by children and teenagers as the present tense of a verb "to verse." A reference to a school sports competition "the Sharks versus the Jets" might be interpreted as "the Sharks are versing the Jets." While this use of the verb has been reported in North America and Australia since

1840-412: Is typically linked via a transfer case providing an additional output drive shaft and, in many instances, additional gear ranges . A four-wheel drive vehicle with torque supplied to both axles is described as "all-wheel drive" (AWD). However, "four-wheel drive" typically refers to a set of specific components and functions, and intended off-road application, which generally complies with modern use of

1932-568: The Canadian Military Pattern trucks , of which 4x4s were by far the most prevalent of their various driveline configurations. All told, North America built about 1 + 1 ⁄ 2 million 4x4 driven vehicles during the war, Availability of certain critical components, such transfer cases and especially constant-velocity joints affected development. Though not used much on commercial vehicles, all-wheel drive vehicles all needed these; and they would use two or three times

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2024-632: The GAZ-61 , developed in the Soviet Union in 1938. "Civilian use" may be a bit of a misnomer, as most, if not all, were used by the Soviet government and military (as command cars), but the GAZ-61-73 version is the first four-wheel-drive vehicle with a normal closed sedan body. Elements of the chassis were used in subsequent military vehicles such as the 1940 GAZ-64 and the 1943 GAZ-67 , as well as

2116-681: The Kübel would propel itself much like a motorised sled when the wheels sank into sand, snow, or mud, allowing it to follow tracked vehicles with remarkable tenacity. In November 1943, the U.S. military conducted a series of tests as well on one or several Type 82s it had captured in North Africa campaign . This evaluation, done at the Army's Aberdeen Proving Ground , resulted in the publication of War Department Technical Manual TM E9-803, 6 June 1944 (on D-Day). The manual's publication date (D-Day)

2208-697: The Nazi German military (both Wehrmacht and Waffen-SS ). Based heavily on the Volkswagen Beetle , it was prototyped and first deployed in Poland as the Type 62 , but following improvements entered full-scale production as the Type 82 . Several derivative models, such as the Kommandeurswagen , were also built in hundreds, or in dozens. The four-wheel drivetrain that was prototyped in

2300-533: The Wehrmacht had largely failed. Although Adolf Hitler had discussed the possibility of military application of the Volkswagen with Ferdinand Porsche as early as April 1934, it was not until January 1938 that high-ranking Heereswaffenamt officials formally approached Porsche about designing an inexpensive, lightweight military transport vehicle that could operate reliably both on- and off-road, in even

2392-539: The k. u. k. Hofwagenfabrik Ludwig Lohner & Co. in Vienna in 1899, presented to the public during the 1900 World Exhibition in Paris. The vehicle was a series hybrid car that used an electric hub motor at each wheel, powered by batteries, which were in turn charged by a gasoline-engine generator. It was clumsily heavy, and due to its unusual status, the so-called Lohner–Porsche is not frequently given its credit as

2484-522: The 1920s. Today in North America, the term is applied to both heavy vehicles and light passenger vehicles. When referring to heavy vehicles, the term is increasingly applied to mean "permanent multiple-wheel drive" on 2×2 , 4×4, 6×6, or 8×8 drive-train systems that include a differential between the front and rear drive shafts. This is often coupled with some sort of antislip technology, increasingly hydraulics-based, that allows differentials to spin at different speeds, but still be capable of transferring

2576-630: The 1969 Type 181 , developed for the German Federal Armed Forces and later also produced this model for the civilian market, which was known as "Thing" in the US, "Trekker" in the UK, and "Safari" in Mexico. Although similar in looks and design, almost no parts were interchangeable with the original Type 82. Intermeccanica of Canada has been producing a Kübelwagen replica since 1995. When

2668-572: The 725 kg (1,600 lb) empty weight Kübel was easier to lift than the 300 kg (660 lb) heavier jeep. The rear bench would seat three in a pinch, for a total of five inside. Kübelwagen is a contraction of Kübelsitzwagen , meaning "bucket-seat car". Before the war, this term became popular in Germany for light open-topped cross-country and military field cars without doors, because these were typically equipped with bucket seats to help keep occupants on board, necessary in an era before

2760-672: The American Four Wheel Drive Auto Company (FWD) of Wisconsin , founded in 1908. (not to be confused with the term "FWD" as an initialism for front-wheel-drive ) Along with the 1 1 ⁄ 2 - and 2-ton Nash Quad (see below), the 3-ton FWD Model B became a standard military four-wheel-drive truck for the U.S. Army in World War I. Some 16,000 FWD Model B trucks were built for the British and American armies during World War I – about half by FWD and

2852-402: The American sitcom Scrubs told another character, "I don't disdain you! It's quite the opposite – I dain you." As it happens, gruntle and dain are both attested much earlier, but not as antonyms of the longer forms. Back-formations frequently begin in colloquial use and only gradually become accepted. For example, enthuse (from enthusiasm ) is gaining popularity, though today it

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2944-592: The English language . A butler is often described as "one who buttles," a verb which remains non-standard. Back-formations are frequent amongst river names in the England due to a number of reasons. Place names of Brittonic origin are especially susceptible to Folk Etymology and back-formations due to language and knowledge of the place names dying out with the arrival and settlement of Anglo-Saxon tribes . Frequently river names are derived from nearby settlements with

3036-563: The G1, the G4, and G4 following. Mercedes and BMW developed this further in 1937. The American Marmon-Herrington Company was founded in 1931 to serve a growing market for moderately priced four-wheel-drive vehicles. Marmon-Herrington specialized in converting Ford trucks to four-wheel drive and got off to a successful start by procuring contracts for military and commercial aircraft refueling trucks, 4×4 chassis for towing light weaponry, and an order from

3128-731: The German equivalent of the American "Jeep", is inferior in every way except in the comfort of its seating accommodations." At the same time, another Kübelwagen , also captured in North Africa, had been dissected in Britain by engineers of the Humber Car Company , whose report said it exhibited no "special brilliance" in design except in details and that "it is suggested that it is not to be regarded as an example of first class modern design to be copied by British industry". Among

3220-459: The German military took delivery of the first vehicles, it immediately put them to the test on- and off-road in snow and ice to test their capability at handling European winters. Several four-wheel-drive vehicles were used as reference points. The two-wheel-drive Kübelwagen surprised even those who had been a part of its development, as it easily out-performed the other vehicles in nearly every test. Most notably, thanks to its smooth, flat underbody,

3312-506: The Iraqi Pipeline Company for what were the largest trucks built at the time. The early Marmon-Herringtons proved to be the exception to the rule — 4WD cars and trucks developed in the 1930s were mainly built for governments, with (future) warfare applications in mind. Dodge developed its first four-wheel-drive truck in 1934 — a military 1 + 1 ⁄ 2 ton designated K-39-X-4(USA), of which 796 units were built for

3404-493: The J1952 standard notes secondary classifications resulting in a total of eight systems, designated as: Two wheels fixed to the same axle (but on the opposite axle ends) need to turn at different speeds as a vehicle goes around a curve. The reason is that the wheel that is located on the inner side of the curve needs to travel less distance than the opposite wheel for the same duration of time. However, if both wheels are connected to

3496-616: The Jeep, and also inline-four powered, the Land Rover appeared at the Amsterdam Motor Show in 1948. Originally conceived as a stop-gap product for the struggling Rover car company, despite chronic underinvestment, it succeeded far better than their passenger cars. Inspired by a Willys MB – the ubiquitous WWII "jeep" – that was frequently run off-road on the farm belonging to chief engineer Maurice Wilks , Land Rover developed

3588-536: The North American market, the term generally refers to a system optimized for off-road driving conditions. The term "4WD" is typically designated for vehicles equipped with a transfer case that switches between 2WD and 4WD operating modes, either manually or automatically. All-wheel drive (AWD) was historically synonymous with "four-wheel drive" on four-wheeled vehicles, and six-wheel drive on 6×6s , and so on, being used in that fashion at least as early as

3680-467: The U.K. military ordered a batch of 20,000 similar vehicles. By the end of 1945, the factory had managed to put together 2,490 cars. Many of them were then bartered in exchange for materials to make more cars. Hirst turned production around to export civilian Volkswagens ; the first export went to the Netherlands in 1947. Long after the end of the war, VW resurrected the basic Kübelwagen design as

3772-428: The U.S. Army in several configurations. Timken supplied front axles and transfer cases, added to militarized a civilian truck. The Timken transfer case was the first part-time design, that allowed the driver to engage or disengage four-wheel drive using a lever inside the cab. In spite of the limited 1930s U.S. military budgets, the '34 truck was liked well-enough that a more modern 1 + 1 ⁄ 2 ton truck

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3864-602: The adoption of seat belts . This body style had first been developed by Karosseriefabrik N. Trutz  [ de ] in 1923. The first Porsche Type 62 test vehicles had no doors and were therefore fitted with bucket seats as Kübelsitzwagen , later shortened to Kübelwagen . Despite later acquiring doors, and more regular, lower seats, the name " Kübelwagen " was retained. Besides the Volkswagen plant, Mercedes-Benz , Opel , and Tatra also built Kübel(sitz)wagen , though they were all rear-wheel drive models only. The Kübelwagen 's rolling chassis and mechanics were built at what

3956-480: The amount of engine power that gets sent to their attached output shafts. As a result, if a tire loses traction on acceleration, either because of a low-traction situation (e.g., driving on gravel or ice) or the engine power overcomes available traction, the tire that is not slipping receives little or no power from the engine. In very low-traction situations, this can prevent the vehicle from moving at all. To overcome this, several designs of differentials can either limit

4048-442: The amount of slip (these are called 'limited-slip' differentials) or temporarily lock the two output shafts together to ensure that engine power reaches all driven wheels equally. Locking differentials work by temporarily locking together a differential's output shafts, causing all wheels to turn at the same rate, providing torque in case of slippage. This is generally used for the center differential, which distributes power between

4140-531: The army had stipulated a gross weight of 950 kg (2,090 lb), including four battle-dressed troops, which meant that the vehicle itself should not weigh more than 550 kg (1,210 lb). Porsche therefore sub-contracted Trutz , an experienced military coachbuilder, to help out with the body design. Developmental testing by the military began after a presentation of the prototypes designated as Type 62 in November 1938. Despite lacking four wheel drive ,

4232-729: The car with more torque while at the same time increasing its ground clearance. Revised dampers, 41 cm (16 in) wheels, and a limited-slip differential , as well as countless small modifications completed the specification. In order to reflect the changes, the vehicle was renamed Type 82. Full-scale production of the Type 82 Kübelwagen started in February 1940, as soon as the VW factories had become operational. No major changes took place before production ended in 1945, only small modifications were implemented, mostly eliminating unnecessary parts and reinforcing others which had proved unequal to

4324-473: The complete front-engine, four-wheel-drive system. The AMC Eagle was offered as a sedan , coupe , and station wagon with permanent automatic all-wheel drive passenger models. The new Eagles combined Jeep technology with an existing and proven AMC passenger automobile platform . They ushered a whole new product category of "sport-utility" or crossover SUV . AMC's Eagles came with the comfort and high-level appointments expected of regular passenger models and used

4416-467: The design features that contributed to the Kübelwagen ' s performance were: In addition, the air-cooled engine proved highly tolerant of hot and cold climates alike, and was less vulnerable to bullets due to the absence of a radiator. For starting under winter conditions, a special, highly volatile starting fuel was supplied from a small auxiliary tank. As the body was not a load-bearing part of

4508-409: The differential to the wheel, at different speeds. The differential does this by distributing angular force (in the form of torque ) evenly, while distributing angular velocity (turning speed) such that the average for the two output shafts is equal to that of the differential ring gear . When powered, each axle requires a differential to distribute power between the left and right sides. When power

4600-545: The driver of getting out to lock hubs and having to manually select between 2WD and 4WD modes, it dominated all other makes in FIA rally competition. Gene Henderson and Ken Pogue won the Press-on-Regardless Rally FIA championship with a Quadra Trac-equipped Jeep in 1972. American Motors introduced the innovative Eagle for the 1980 model year. These were the first American mass-production cars to use

4692-476: The early 1980s, very few dictionaries have accepted it as standard. The immense celebrations in Britain at the news of the relief of the Siege of Mafeking briefly created the verb to maffick , meaning to celebrate both extravagantly and publicly. "Maffick" is a back-formation from Mafeking , a place-name that was treated humorously as a gerund or participle . There are many other examples of back-formations in

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4784-587: The early years of the war, they relied significantly on Lend-Lease vehicles, provided by the western allies. In 1943, they launched a further-developed version: the GAZ-67 . By contrast, the Axis powers ' closest equivalent to the jeep, the VW Kübelwagen , of which only some 50,000 were built, though being equipped with portal gear hubs, only had rear-wheel drive. Willys introduced the model CJ-2A in 1945,

4876-492: The first four-wheel driven automobile. The world's first four-wheel-drive car directly powered by an internal-combustion engine, and the first with a front-engine, four-wheel-drive layout , was the Dutch Spyker 60 H.P., Commissioned for the Paris to Madrid race of 1903, it was presented that year by brothers Jacobus and Hendrik-Jan Spijker of Amsterdam . The two-seat sports car featured permanent four-wheel drive and

4968-530: The first full-production four-wheel-drive vehicle for sale in the general marketplace. Due to the ubiquitous World War II Jeep's success, its rugged utilitarianism set the pattern for many four-wheel-drive vehicles to come. Dodge also started production of the civilian 4WD Power Wagon trucks, for the 1946 model year. Both the Willys and the Dodge were developed directly from their WW II predecessors. Equally boxy to

5060-703: The forerunner of the designs that followed from other manufacturers. The automobile press at the time tested the traction of the Eagles and described it as far superior to the Subaru's and that it could beat many so-called off-road vehicles. Four Wheeler magazine concluded that the AMC Eagle was "The beginning of a new generation of cars." The Eagles were popular (particularly in the snowbelt ), had towing capacity, and came in several equipment levels including sport and luxury trims. Two additional models were added in 1981,

5152-400: The front and the rear axles. While a drivetrain that turns all wheels equally would normally fight the driver and cause handling problems, this is not a concern when wheels are slipping. Some designs use gearing to create a small rotational difference that hastens torque transfer. A typical Torsen II differential can deliver up to twice as much torque to the high-traction side before traction

5244-402: The front axle torque from a full-time mode with the 30:70 torque split of the center differential to the 0:100 torque split of the 2WD mode. In 1893, before the establishment of the modern automotive industry in Britain, English engineer Bramah Joseph Diplock patented a four-wheel drive system for a steam-powered traction engine , including four-wheel steering and three differentials , which

5336-532: The front two in front-wheel drive or the rear two in rear-wheel drive . Similarly, a 6×4 vehicle has three axles, two of which provide torque to two axle ends each. If this vehicle were a truck with dual rear wheels on two rear axles, so actually having ten wheels, its configuration would still be formulated as 6x4. During World War II, the U.S. military would typically use spaces and a capital 'X' – as "4 X 2" or "6 X 4". Four-wheel drive (4WD) refers to vehicles with two axles providing torque to four axle ends. In

5428-404: The inclusion or exclusion of a low-range gear. On-demand AWD systems drive the secondary axle via an active or passive coupling device or "by an independently powered drive system". The standard notes that in some cases, the secondary drive system may also provide the primary vehicle propulsion. An example is a hybrid AWD vehicle where the primary axle is driven by an internal combustion engine and

5520-415: The military on a large scale, four-wheel drive and all-wheel-drive vehicles had not found their place. The World War II Jeep , originally developed by American Bantam , but mass-produced by Willys and Ford, became the best-known four-wheel-drive vehicle in the world during the war. The American Dodge WC series and Chevrolet G506 4x4 variants were also produced by the hundreds of thousands, as well as

5612-460: The more refined yet still off-road capable luxury 4WD Range Rover in the 1970s. With the acquisition of the "Jeep" name in 1950, Willys had cornered the brand. Its successor, Kaiser Jeep , introduced a revolutionary 4WD wagon called the Wagoneer in 1963. Not only was it technically innovative, with independent front suspension and the first automatic transmission coupled to 4WD, but also it

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5704-506: The most extreme conditions. Porsche began work on the project immediately, having a prototype of the vehicle ready within the month, but realized during development that it would not be enough to just reinforce the Beetle's chassis to handle the stresses that military use would place on it. In order to guarantee adequate off-road performance of a two-wheel-drive vehicle with a 1,000 cc FMCV 1 engine, it would have to be lightweight. In fact,

5796-804: The nautical sense) was first a noun and later was used as a verb). That process is called conversion or zero-derivation. Like back-formation, it can produce a new noun or a new verb, but it involves no back-forming. Back-formation may be particularly common in English given that many English words are borrowed from Latin, French and Greek, which together provide English a large range of common affixes. Many words with affixes have entered English, such as dismantle and dishevelled , so it may be easy to believe that these are formed from roots such as mantle (assumed to mean "to put something together") and shevelled (assumed to mean "well-dressed"), although these words with those meanings have no history of existing in English. Many words came into English by this route: pease

5888-466: The number of driven axles, meaning more gears to cut for all the differentials. Produced up to the war by a few specialized firms with limited capacity, from spring 1942, Ford, Dodge, and Chevrolet joined in fabricating these in a quantity more than a 100-fold greater than in 1939. Although Russia had their own jeep-like vehicle (the GAZ-64) up and running in 1940, a year earlier than the American jeep, in

5980-425: The off-road technology for an extra margin of safety and traction. The Eagle's thick viscous fluid center differential provided a quiet and smooth transfer of power that was directed proportionally to the axle with the greatest traction. This was a true full-time system operating only in four-wheel drive without undue wear on suspension or driveline components. No low range was used in the transfer case. This became

6072-479: The original, 1-litre engine is 23.5 PS (17.3 kW; 23.2 hp), while the larger, 1.1-litre unit offered 25 PS (18.4 kW; 24.7 hp). When Volkswagen production ceased at the end of the war, 50,435 Kübelwagen vehicles had been produced, and the vehicle had proven to be surprisingly useful, reliable, and durable. Upon conquest of Germany by the Allies, the country was occupied in four sectors :

6164-572: The postwar GAZ-69 , and the properly civilian GAZ-M-72, based on the rear-wheel drive GAZ-20 "Victory" and built from 1955 to 1958. Soviet civilian life did not allow the proliferation of civilian products such as the Jeep in North America, but through the 1960s, the technology of Soviet 4×4 vehicles stayed on par with British, German, and American models, even exceeding it in some aspects, and for military purposes just as actively developed, produced, and used. Until "go-anywhere" vehicles were needed for

6256-631: The quality of the civilian car, including starting a sales and service network and starting exports. Despite a damning report of Volkswagens by engineers from the British Rootes Group stating that: "the vehicle does not meet the fundamental technical requirement of a motorcar...", the British Army thought differently. When a surviving wartime Volkswagen was demonstrated to the British Rhine Army Group headquarters,

6348-506: The rejected Type 86 version went into mass production in the Schwimmwagen . The Type 86 performed better in comparative testing, but the additional costs of the more complex four-wheel drivetrain (both financial, as well as making the light car heavier and thirstier) did not outweigh the benefits from the German viewpoint. The Kübelwagen was intended to be able to be manhandled by its crew if they got stuck. Easily seating four men,

6440-547: The rest by other licensed manufacturers. Only about 20% of the trucks built were four-wheel drives, but the 4x4s were more often on the front lines. About 11,500 of the Jeffery / Nash Quad trucks were built for similar use between 1913 and 1919. The Quad not only came with four-wheel-drive and four-wheel brakes, but also featured four-wheel steering. The Quad was one of the first successful four-wheel drive vehicles ever to be made, and its production continued for 15 years with

6532-489: The same axle driveshaft, they always have to spin at the same speed relative to each other. When going around a curve, this either forces one of the wheels to slip, if possible, to balance the apparent distance covered, or creates uncomfortable and mechanically stressful wheel hop. To prevent this, the wheels are allowed to turn at different speeds using a mechanical or hydraulic differential . This allows one driveshaft to independently drive two output shafts, axles that go from

6624-491: The secondary axle from the primarily driven axle, and these systems do not have a center differential (or similar device). The definition notes that part-time systems may have a low range. Full-time AWD systems drive both front and rear axles at all times via a center (interaxle) differential. The torque split of that differential may be fixed or variable depending on the type of center differential. This system can be used on any surface at any speed. The definition does not address

6716-412: The secondary axle is driven by an electric motor. When the internal combustion engine is shut off, the secondary, electrically driven axle is the only driven axle. On-demand systems function primarily with only one powered axle until torque is required by the second axle. At that point, either a passive or active coupling sends torque to the secondary axle. In addition to the above primary classifications,

6808-440: The slipping wheel spins faster than the other wheels due to the lower traction at that wheel. Since a differential applies equal torque to each half-shaft, power is reduced at the other wheels, even if they have good traction. This problem can happen in both 2WD and 4WD vehicles, whenever a driven wheel is placed on a surface with little traction or raised off the ground. The simplistic design works acceptably well for 2WD vehicles. It

6900-399: The structure of the vehicle, it could easily be modified to special purposes, just like the jeep's. The Kübelwagen , thanks to its geared hubs, could go as slow as marching troops 4 km/h (2.5 mph), yet reach a top speed of 80 km/h (50 mph). The following body types and variants of the Type 82 were produced: Back-formation For example, the noun resurrection

6992-474: The subcompact SX/4 and Kammback. A manual transmission and a front axle-disconnect feature were also made available for greater fuel economy. During 1981 and 1982, a unique convertible was added to the line. The Eagle's monocoque body was reinforced for the conversion and had a steel targa bar with a removable fiberglass roof section. The Eagle station wagon remained in production for one model year after Chrysler acquired AMC in 1987. Total AMC Eagle production

7084-629: The suffix -ford. Typically because it is assumed that the first half of the name is in reference to the river or stream. Below are some examples of these -ford back-formations . River Alre The river Alre in Hampshire, was named due to a false assumption that the nearby village Alresford was named after the river which it was located near. In reality its name comes from the Old English alor . River Chelmer The River Chelmer in Essex

7176-429: The task. Prototype versions were assembled with four-wheel-drive (Type 86) and different engines, but none offered a significant increase in performance or capability over the existing Type 82, so these designs went nowhere. As of March 1943, the car received a revised dash and the bigger 1,131 cc engine, developed for the Schwimmwagen , that produced more torque and power than the original 985 cc unit. Power of

7268-460: The term "all-wheel drive" with additional subclassifications that cover all types of AWD/4WD/4x4 systems found on production vehicles. "Four-by-four" or "4×4" is frequently used to refer to a class of vehicles in general. Syntactically, the first figure indicates the total number of axle ends and the second indicates the number of axle ends that are powered. Accordingly, 4×2 means a four-wheel vehicle that transmits engine torque to only two axle ends:

7360-453: The terminology. Four-wheel-drive systems were developed in many different markets and used in many different vehicle platforms . There is no universally accepted set of terminology that describes the various architectures and functions. The terms used by various manufacturers often reflect marketing rather than engineering considerations or significant technical differences between systems. SAE International 's standard J1952 recommends only

7452-544: The torque from a wheel with poor traction to one with better. Typical AWD systems work well on all surfaces, but are not intended for more extreme off-road use. When used to describe AWD systems in light passenger vehicles, it refers to a system that applies torque to all four wheels (permanently or on-demand) or is targeted at improving on-road traction and performance (particularly in inclement conditions), rather than for off-road applications. Some all-wheel drive electric vehicles use one motor for each axle, thereby eliminating

7544-446: The type 82 'a four-wheeled, rubbertyred, rear axle drive personnel carrier and reconnaissance car, comparable in purpose and size to the American 1/4 ton truck'. So thorough was the analysis that it included information beyond what could be done as field servicing, plus ways of dealing with very low temperatures. U.S. War Department Technical Manual TM-E 30-451, Handbook on German Military Forces , (p. 416), states: "The Volkswagen ,

7636-400: The vehicle proved very competent at maneuvering its way over rough terrain, even in a direct comparison with a contemporary standard German Army 4x4 , and the project was given the green light for further development. The vehicle's light weight and ZF self- locking differential compensated for the lack of a four-wheel drive. Further development of the Type 62 took place during 1939, including

7728-414: The verb in English is really from a (semi-)adjectival form in Latin. Even though many English words are formed this way, new coinages may sound strange, and are often used for humorous effect. For example, gruntled (from disgruntled ) is used only in humorous contexts, as when P. G. Wodehouse wrote, "I could see that, if not actually disgruntled, he was far from being gruntled", or the character Turk in

7820-853: Was also the first car equipped with a six-cylinder engine, as well as four-wheel braking. Later used as a hill-climb racer, it is now an exhibit in the Louwman Museum (the former Nationaal Automobiel Museum) in the Hague , the Netherlands. Designs for four-wheel drive in America first came from the Twyford Motor Car Company . The Reynolds-Alberta Museum has a four-wheel-drive vehicle, named " Michigan ", from 1905 in unrestored storage. The first four-wheel-drive vehicles to go into mass production were built by (what became)

7912-404: Was borrowed from Latin , and the verb resurrect was then back-formed hundreds of years later from it by removing the -ion suffix . This segmentation of resurrection into resurrect + ion was possible because English had examples of Latin words in the form of verb and verb+ -ion pairs, such as opine/opinion . These became the pattern for many more such pairs, where a verb derived from

8004-617: Was developed, and 1,700 RF-40-X-4(USA) trucks were produced in 1938, and 292 TF-40-X-4(USA) in 1939. Starting in 1936, Japanese company Tokyu Kurogane Kogyo built roughly 4,700 four-wheel-drive roadsters, called the Kurogane Type 95 reconnaissance car, used by the Imperial Japanese Army from 1937 until 1944, during the Second Sino-Japanese War . Three different bodystyles were manufactured –

8096-469: Was equipped and finished as a regular passenger automobile. In effect, it was the ancestor of the modern SUV . The luxury AMC or Buick V8 -powered Super Wagoneer produced from 1966 to 1969 raised the bar even higher. Jensen applied the Formula Ferguson (FF) full-time all-wheel-drive system to 318 units of their Jensen FF built from 1966 to 1971, marking the first time 4WD was used in

8188-514: Was once a mass noun (as in " pease pudding "), but was reinterpreted as a plural , leading to the back-formation pea . The noun statistic was likewise a back-formation from the field of study statistics . In Britain, the verb burgle came into use in the nineteenth century as a back-formation from burglar (which can be compared to the North American verb burglarize formed by suffixation). Other examples are The verb translate

8280-443: Was relatively unchanged during its production through 1991, even after Chrysler 's buyout of AMC. Subaru introduced the category-expanding Leone in 1972, an inexpensive compact station wagon with a light-duty, part-time four-wheel-drive system that could not be engaged on dry pavement. In September, AMC introduced Quadra Trac full-time AWD for the 1973 model year Jeep Cherokee and Wagoneer. Due to full-time AWD, which relieved

8372-425: Was subsequently built. The development also incorporated Bramah's Pedrail wheel system in what was one of the first four-wheel drive automobiles to display an intentional ability to travel on challenging road surfaces. It stemmed from Bramagh's previous idea of developing an engine that would reduce the amount of damage to public roads. Ferdinand Porsche designed and built a four-wheel-driven electric vehicle for

8464-592: Was then the Stadt des KdF-Wagens , ("City of the 'Strength through Joy'-Car") – renamed Wolfsburg after 1945 – and its body was built by U.S.-owned firm Ambi Budd Presswerke in Berlin. The Kübelwagen 's role as a light multi-purpose military vehicle made it the German equivalent to the Allied Willys MB "jeep" and the GAZ-67 , after previous efforts to mass-produce standardized military four-wheel drives for

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