81-635: Peking–Mukden Railway ( Chinese : 北京-奉天铁路 ; pinyin : Běijīng – Fèngtiān Tiělù ) was a 19th-century steam powered trunkline connecting Peking (Beijing) and Mukden (former name of Shenyang ) through Tianjin , northeastern Hebei , and southwestern Liaoning ; it was a crucial railway in North China and Northeast China. The history of the railway can date back to Kaiping Tramway (often known as Tangshan–Xugezhuang Railway in Chinese) completed in 1881, which became PMR after several extensions in
162-594: A zig zag section near the Qinglongqiao (Ching-lung-chiao) railway station to overcome the steep gradient. When excavating the Badaling railway tunnel, he accelerated construction by drilling a vertical shaft into the path of the tunnel. This doubled the number of digging teams that could be employed. He was also said to be a technical advisor for the construction of the Lo Wu Bridge built in 1906 as part of
243-443: A component—either a character or a sub-component called a radical —usually involves either a reduction in its total number of strokes , or an apparent streamlining of which strokes are chosen in what places—for example, the ⼓ ' WRAP ' radical used in the traditional character 沒 is simplified to ⼏ ' TABLE ' to form the simplified character 没 . By systematically simplifying radicals, large swaths of
324-434: A conversion table. While exercising such derivation, the following rules should be observed: Sample Derivations : The Series One List of Variant Characters reduces the number of total standard characters. First, amongst each set of variant characters sharing identical pronunciation and meaning, one character (usually the simplest in form) is elevated to the standard character set, and the rest are made obsolete. Then amongst
405-407: A few revised forms, and was implemented for official use by China's State Council on 5 June 2013. In Chinese, simplified characters are referred to by their official name 简化字 ; jiǎnhuàzì , or colloquially as 简体字 ; jiǎntǐzì . The latter term refers broadly to all character variants featuring simplifications of character form or structure, a practice which has always been present as
486-610: A newly coined phono-semantic compound : Removing radicals Only retaining single radicals Replacing with ancient forms or variants : Adopting ancient vulgar variants : Readopting abandoned phonetic-loan characters : Copying and modifying another traditional character : Based on 132 characters and 14 components listed in Chart 2 of the Complete List , the 1,753 derived characters found in Chart 3 can be created by systematically simplifying components using Chart 2 as
567-573: A part of the Chinese writing system. The official name tends to refer to the specific, systematic set published by the Chinese government, which includes not only simplifications of individual characters, but also a substantial reduction in the total number of characters through the merger of formerly distinct forms. According to Chinese palaeographer Qiu Xigui , the broadest trend in the evolution of Chinese characters over their history has been simplification, both in graphical shape ( 字形 ; zìxíng ),
648-459: A short power struggle between rival factions, Sheng Hsuan Huai succeeded in gaining control of this new organization and appointed his own supporters to the directorate. Among them, the most prominent was ( Chinese : 胡燏棻 ; pinyin : Hu Yufen ), who was appointed Director-General and made responsible for all sections of the Railway. During the period 1898-9 a British loan of £2,300,000
729-478: A special line for Empress Dowager Cixi so she could visit the tombs of her royal ancestors. Kinder was the original candidate for chief engineer, however the French were unhappy that an Englishman was assigned to the position. Eventually, Jeme got the assignment as the chief engineer of the 37 kilometres (23 mi) stub line. He managed to construct the railroad within budget and to a very tight schedule. The Empress
810-562: A traveling post office train and a special overprinted Chinese postal stamp was introduced for mailing letters carried by the BRA's express mail trains. After civilian control of the railway was resumed in late 1902, Claude Kinder was reinstated as Chief Engineer and also given additional and more powerful responsibilities as general manager. Strongman Yuan Shikai had himself appointed as Director-General of Railways and Kinder's former boss, Hu Yu-fen, who had been ousted in 1899, came back to power as
891-837: A twelve-year-old, he was chosen by Qing (Ch'ing) imperial officials to be sent to the United States as part of the Chinese Educational Mission . Together with thirty boys of similar age, he arrived in Connecticut , United States. After studying at a primary school in New Haven , he entered the Hillhouse High School there, and in 1878, was admitted to the Sheffield Scientific School of Yale University . His major
SECTION 10
#1732791982230972-440: Is actually more complex than eliminated ones. An example is the character 搾 which is eliminated in favor of the variant form 榨 . The 扌 'HAND' with three strokes on the left of the eliminated 搾 is now seen as more complex, appearing as the ⽊ 'TREE' radical 木 , with four strokes, in the chosen variant 榨 . Not all characters standardised in the simplified set consist of fewer strokes. For instance,
1053-454: Is derived. Merging homophonous characters: Adapting cursive shapes ( 草書楷化 ): Replacing a component with a simple arbitrary symbol (such as 又 and 乂 ): Omitting entire components : Omitting components, then applying further alterations : Structural changes that preserve the basic shape Replacing the phonetic component of phono-semantic compounds : Replacing an uncommon phonetic component : Replacing entirely with
1134-813: Is now discouraged. A State Language Commission official cited "oversimplification" as the reason for restoring some characters. The language authority declared an open comment period until 31 August 2009, for feedback from the public. In 2013, the List of Commonly Used Standard Chinese Characters was published as a revision of the 1988 lists; it included a total of 8105 characters. It included 45 newly recognized standard characters that were previously considered variant forms, as well as official approval of 226 characters that had been simplified by analogy and had seen wide use but were not explicitly given in previous lists or documents. Singapore underwent three successive rounds of character simplification , eventually arriving at
1215-623: Is referred to as the " big seal script ". The traditional narrative, as also attested in the Shuowen Jiezi dictionary ( c. 100 AD ), is that the Qin small seal script that would later be imposed across China was originally derived from the Zhou big seal script with few modifications. However, the body of epigraphic evidence comparing the character forms used by scribes gives no indication of any real consolidation in character forms prior to
1296-547: Is used instead of 叠 in regions using traditional characters. The Chinese government stated that it wished to keep Chinese orthography stable. The Chart of Generally Utilized Characters of Modern Chinese was published in 1988 and included 7000 simplified and unsimplified characters. Of these, half were also included in the revised List of Commonly Used Characters in Modern Chinese , which specified 2500 common characters and 1000 less common characters. In 2009,
1377-699: The Chinese Eastern Railway was transferred to Japan's control and renamed as South Manchuria Railway . To extend further, the Trans-Pass Railway had to pass by the surrounding areas of SMR . After years of negotiation, the Chinese and Japanese governments signed the Agreement of Peking-Mukden Railway extension, in which China allowed Japan to build the branch line from Dashiqiao to Yingkou , and Japan, in exchange, allowed PMR to go under SMR near Huanggutun railway station and reach
1458-670: The Chinese language , with the other being traditional characters . Their mass standardization during the 20th century was part of an initiative by the People's Republic of China (PRC) to promote literacy, and their use in ordinary circumstances on the mainland has been encouraged by the Chinese government since the 1950s. They are the official forms used in mainland China and Singapore , while traditional characters are officially used in Hong Kong , Macau , and Taiwan . Simplification of
1539-698: The Foochow Arsenal . A few years later, in 1884, the Imperial Navy at Fuchow was destroyed during the Sino-French War . In 1888, Jeme was finally able to realize his dream of becoming an engineer. Viceroy Li Hongzhang in Peking was constructing a railroad that would link Tientsin to the coal mines in Tangshan . A British engineer, Claude W. Kinder , was hired as the chief engineer of
1620-742: The Kowloon-Canton Railway . Jeme was subsequently elected a member of the North British Academy of Arts in 1909. He was a founding member of the Chinese Institute of Engineers , and was awarded an honorary doctorate by the University of Hong Kong in 1916. He was elected to the American Society of Civil Engineers in 1909. A notice following his death written by his American peers called him
1701-654: The Temple of Heaven , turned northward to Dong Bian Men , and turned westward to Zhengyangmen . At the beginning of 1890, Zongli Yamen suggested railway construction in Northeast China to resist Japan 's lust on Korean Peninsula . In April, Hong Jun , the Envoy to Russian Empire , reported Russian's plan of Trans-Siberian Railway , making the Royal Court shocked. To eliminate the potential territorial threats,
SECTION 20
#17327919822301782-502: The "Dot" stroke : The traditional components ⺥ and 爫 become ⺈ : The traditional component 奐 becomes 奂 : Jeme Tien Yow Zhan Tianyou , or Tien-Yow Jeme ( Chinese : 詹天佑 ; 26 April 1861 – 24 April 1919), was a pioneering Chinese railroad engineer. Educated in the United States, he was the chief engineer responsible for construction of the Peking-Kalgan Railway (Beijing to Zhangjiakou ),
1863-620: The "Father of Chinese Railroads." In 1919, Jeme died in Hankow , Hupeh (now spelt Hankou, Hubei) at the age of 57, and was buried at the Qinglongqiao railway station , where the Peking-Kalgan (Beijing-Zhangjiakou) railway crossed the Great Wall and the rugged mountains north of Beijing. The Zhan Tianyou Museum was also established nearby, at Badaling , to commemorate his achievements. Jeme's descendants range from Eastern China to
1944-459: The "external appearances of individual graphs", and in graphical form ( 字体 ; 字體 ; zìtǐ ), "overall changes in the distinguishing features of graphic[al] shape and calligraphic style, [...] in most cases refer[ring] to rather obvious and rather substantial changes". The initiatives following the founding of the Qin dynasty (221–206 BC) to universalize the use of their small seal script across
2025-482: The 1986 General List of Simplified Chinese Characters , hereafter the General List . All characters simplified this way are enumerated in Chart 1 and Chart 2 in the 1986 Complete List . Characters in both charts are structurally simplified based on similar set of principles. They are separated into two charts to clearly mark those in Chart 2 as 'usable as simplified character components', based on which Chart 3
2106-520: The 1986 mainland China revisions. Unlike in mainland China, Singapore parents have the option of registering their children's names in traditional characters. Malaysia also promulgated a set of simplified characters in 1981, though completely identical to the mainland Chinese set. They are used in Chinese-language schools. All characters simplified this way are enumerated in Charts 1 and 2 of
2187-480: The Assistant Director-General. The Chinese railway administration also had the services of a bright Western-educated new Secretary, returned Chinese Educational Mission student Liang Ju Hao (pinyin: Liang Ruhao 梁汝浩), better known to Europeans as M.T. Liang. Simplified Chinese characters Simplified Chinese characters are one of two standardized character sets widely used to write
2268-516: The British in December 1900. For two years (1900–1902) the inner-pass section of this railway was under the overall command of a British army "Royal Engineers" contingent using the name "British Railway Administration" (BRA) while the outer-pass section (from Shanhai Pass to Xinmin ) was controlled by Russians until returned to China on 29 September 1902. During the BRA period, the railway operated
2349-560: The Chinese government had no choice but to announce the region east of Liao River as "Battlefield" and " Neutrality ". However, the Japanese forces went beyond the line by quartering in Xinmin (located west of Liao River) and built the narrow-gauge ( 2 ft to 3.5 ft ) tramway from Xinmin to Huanggutun railway station , aka. Xinmin–Fengtian Tramway. The protests from Chinese officials, though for several times, were ignored. Since this section
2430-462: The Chinese government lost control of what remained of the badly damaged railway system for a two-year period of allied foreign occupation . British and other foreign military units repaired the line between Tientsin and Peking (1900–1902) and the railway was also extended from the Ma Chiu Pu terminus to new Peking stations. What was built first was the tramway from Ma Chiu Pu to Yong Ding Men by
2511-470: The Chinese government published a major revision to the list which included a total of 8300 characters. No new simplifications were introduced. In addition, slight modifications to the orthography of 44 characters to fit traditional calligraphic rules were initially proposed, but were not implemented due to negative public response. Also, the practice of unrestricted simplification of rare and archaic characters by analogy using simplified radicals or components
Peking–Mukden Railway - Misplaced Pages Continue
2592-523: The Chinese government reclaimed administrative power from British and Russian troops. However, before the reclamation, the Chinese government signed, with the British government, the Agreements after the Handover of Trans-Pass, which yielded the administrative power de facto to the British. On 4 January 1912, days after the outbreak of Xinhai Revolution , the uprising forces were going to the west of
2673-590: The Royal Court suspended the construction of Beijing–Hankou railway and ordered Li Hongzhang to "prepare well" the Kwantung Railway from Yingkou to Jilin City and Hunchun . Then, Li sent 2 engineers, Kinder and Cox, to examine the landform. When they came back in November, Li told Navy Administrative that the railway proposed faced huge difficulties in construction and potential low revenue because of
2754-530: The Shanhai Pass by train and hit hard in Luanzhou by Cao Kun , Wang Huaiqing, and their reinforcements from Shijiazhuang On 4 June 1928, Zhang Zuolin , the last leader of Beiyang government , en route back to Mukden, was assassinated near Huanggutun Station by dynamites planted by Kwantung Army . After Mukden Incident , on 7 January 1932, supported by Imperial Japanese Army , Manchukuo sieged
2835-638: The Treaty of Recession(Chinese: 交收东三省条约 ); afterward, the Russian government agreed to recall troops in 3 phases and returned the outer-Pass (Shanhai Pass-Yingkou- Dahushan ) section. In exchange, the Qing Royal Court agreed to consult Russia about the construction of railways in the south part of Northeast China. However, the Russian government broke their words and only receded to the east bank of Liao River ; moreover, they showed their disagreement with
2916-407: The behavior of the foreign-educated students to be "un-Chinese". They had adopted many Western practices such as playing baseball and wearing shirts and pants instead of traditional robes and had their queues cut off. Instead of utilizing their talents to the fullest, the government sent them all, including Jeme, to work as translators or as officers in the newly formed Imperial Navy . Jeme was sent to
2997-428: The character set are altered. Some simplifications were based on popular cursive forms that embody graphic or phonetic simplifications of the traditional forms. In addition, variant characters with identical pronunciation and meaning were reduced to a single standardized character, usually the simplest among all variants in form. Finally, many characters were left untouched by simplification and are thus identical between
3078-407: The chosen variants, those that appear in the "Complete List of Simplified Characters" are also simplified in character structure accordingly. Some examples follow: Sample reduction of equivalent variants : Ancient variants with simple structure are preferred : Simpler vulgar forms are also chosen : The chosen variant was already simplified in Chart 1 : In some instances, the chosen variant
3159-653: The construction of Liao River Bridge by citing the Convention for the Lease of the Liaotung Peninsula . Under this situation, the outer-pass section can only be extended 89 km to Xinmin in 1904; thence, the length of this railway reached 773 km. The Russian troops' refusal of withdrawal intensified the rivalry between Japan and Russia and caused the Russo-Japanese War . Weak in military forces,
3240-473: The country's writing system as a serious impediment to its modernization. In 1916, a multi-part English-language article entitled "The Problem of the Chinese Language" co-authored by the Chinese linguist Yuen Ren Chao (1892–1982) and poet Hu Shih (1891–1962) has been identified as a turning point in the history of the Chinese script—as it was one of the first clear calls for China to move away from
3321-448: The demands of Imperial Chinese Navy and China Merchants Steam Navigation Company . As the supply of Kaiping Mines increased, this tramway was extended to lutai and renamed Tangshan–Lutai Railway in 1887. On 5 March 1887, The Administrative of Imperial Chinese Navy reported to the royal court , requesting for railway's further extension to Taku in the west and Shanhai Pass in the east, to make troops move faster. Claude W. Kinder
Peking–Mukden Railway - Misplaced Pages Continue
3402-513: The downtown of Mukden. This extension was completed on 20 December 1911, and a new Mukden Station opened near Xiaoximen, which was renovated by Yang Tingbao to the biggest station in the city – Shenyang North railway station in 1927 The Boxer uprising of 1900 brought a complete halt to railway construction progress and total destruction of large sections of the existing railway in around Peking and Tientsin. The railway's appointed new Managing-Director, Hsu Ching Cheng (pinyin: Xu Jingcheng 許景澄),
3483-476: The early 20th century. In 1909, the educator and linguist Lufei Kui formally proposed the use of simplified characters in education for the first time. Over the following years—marked by the 1911 Xinhai Revolution that toppled the Qing dynasty , followed by growing social and political discontent that further erupted into the 1919 May Fourth Movement —many anti-imperialist intellectuals throughout China began to see
3564-634: The first official list of simplified forms was published, consisting of 324 characters collated by Peking University professor Qian Xuantong . However, fierce opposition within the KMT resulted in the list being rescinded in 1936. Work throughout the 1950s resulted in the 1956 promulgation of the Chinese Character Simplification Scheme , a draft of 515 simplified characters and 54 simplified components, whose simplifications would be present in most compound characters. Over
3645-682: The first railway constructed in China without foreign assistance. For his contributions to railroad engineering in China, Jeme is known as the "Father of China's Railroad". Jeme was born in Namhoi (now spelt Nanhai) county (now part of Guangzhou ) in Guangdong . His family, which had long participated in business and commerce, came from Wuyuan County in Huizhou , Anhui (now in Jiangxi ). In 1872, as
3726-463: The first round—but was massively unpopular and never saw consistent use. The second round of simplifications was ultimately retracted officially in 1986, well after they had largely ceased to be used due to their unpopularity and the confusion they caused. In August 2009, China began collecting public comments for a revised list of simplified characters; the resulting List of Commonly Used Standard Chinese Characters lists 8,105 characters, including
3807-475: The following decade, the Script Reform Committee deliberated on characters in the 1956 scheme, collecting public input regarding the recognizability of variants, and often approving forms in small batches. Parallel to simplification, there were also initiatives aimed at eliminating the use of characters entirely and replacing them with pinyin as an official Chinese alphabet, but this possibility
3888-459: The founding of the Qin. The Han dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD) that inherited the Qin administration coincided with the perfection of clerical script through the process of libian . Eastward spread of Western learning Though most closely associated with the People's Republic, the idea of a mass simplification of character forms first gained traction in China during
3969-408: The government, and no foreign engineers were to be hired. Jeme was once again appointed as chief engineer of the railway. In the beginning, some people were skeptical that the government would be able to construct the railroad all by itself in the rugged mountains north of Peking. However, Jeme showed he was an able engineer and completed the work two years ahead of schedule and under budget. He included
4050-466: The increased usage of 朙 was followed by proliferation of a third variant: 眀 , with 目 'eye' on the left—likely derived as a contraction of 朙 . Ultimately, 明 became the character's standard form. The Book of Han (111 AD) describes an earlier attempt made by King Xuan of Zhou ( d. 782 BC ) to unify character forms across the states of ancient China , with his chief chronicler having "[written] fifteen chapters describing" what
4131-465: The left, with the 月 'Moon' component on the right. Li Si ( d. 208 BC ), the Chancellor of Qin, attempted to universalize the Qin small seal script across China following the wars that had politically unified the country for the first time. Li prescribed the 朙 form of the word for 'bright', but some scribes ignored this and continued to write the character as 明 . However,
SECTION 50
#17327919822304212-479: The length of this railway was extended to 130km. The cost of the construction of the extension to Tianjin was 12.4 thousand silver Tael per km and 1.5 million silver Tael in total. Imperial Court opposed the western extension while sanctioned the northern extension. Under the permission and the demand of transportation from the new-built colliery at Linxi, Guye , the railway reached Guye in late 1890, Lanchou in 1892, and Shanhaiguan in 1894, during which period
4293-479: The line to Chinchou was eventually completed in 1899. On 31 July 1897, the bureaus of Tientsin-Lugou Bridge Railway and Tientsin-Yu Pass Railway merged and formed new Trans-Pass Railway. Under the control of foreign power, a small port was developed at Qinhuangdao with a six-mile branch line joining the mainline a few miles southwest of Shan Hai Kuan at Tangho. In April 1902, the Russian Empire signed
4374-510: The line was transferred to the control of a newly formed Imperial Chinese Railway Administration (Chinese: 北洋官铁路局). It was during this period of expansion that Jeme Tien Yow joined the railway company in 1888 as a cadet engineer under Kinder's supervision. Kinder highly appreciated the talents of this Yale-graduated engineer and Jeme was soon promoted first to Resident and then District Engineer. In all Jeme spent 12 years working on various sections of this railway. Tientsin- Lugou Bridge Railway
4455-478: The methods of construction and the modification on the route, to the Royal Courts; besides, he requested the funds for Beijing-Hankou Railway – 2 million Silver Teal annually – for the construction of Kwantung Railway. The plan was approved on 13 March and Official Railway Bureau of Imperial North China was founded afterward. This was the first time the government preside railway construction. Plans to continue
4536-402: The most prominent Chinese authors of the 20th century, stated that "if Chinese characters are not destroyed, then China will die" ( 漢字不滅，中國必亡 ). During the 1930s and 1940s, discussions regarding simplification took place within the ruling Kuomintang (KMT) party. Many members of the Chinese intelligentsia maintained that simplification would increase literacy rates throughout the country. In 1935,
4617-399: The next 31 years. It was significant and influential in the Railway development and even transportation histories in China since it was the first trunk line being built and operated successfully. Although Woosung Road and had been built years before PMR, they were neither built for practical use nor in operation for more than a year. The timeline of how Kaiping Tramway was transformed into
4698-643: The outer-Pass section, transferred to SMR's control, and renamed it as Mukden- Shanhaiguan Railway, while the inner-Pass section was renamed as Beijing–Shanhaiguan railway and controlled afterwards. After the Marco Polo Bridge Incident , the Beijing–Shanhaiguan railway was taken control by North China Transportation Company Following the relief of the besieged foreign legations in Peking by an international allied expeditionary force ,
4779-430: The public and quickly fell out of official use. It was ultimately formally rescinded in 1986. The second-round simplifications were unpopular in large part because most of the forms were completely new, in contrast to the familiar variants comprising the majority of the first round. With the rescission of the second round, work toward further character simplification largely came to an end. In 1986, authorities retracted
4860-467: The railroad. Through connections with his old schoolmates working in Peking, Jeme joined Kinder as an intern engineer. He was soon promoted to engineer, and later the district engineer. The railway that he worked on was later extended to become the Peking Mukden Line . He spent 12 years on various sections of this line before his next major assignment. In 1902, Yuan Shikai decided to build
4941-488: The railway North-eastwards beyond Shan Hai Kuan ( Shanhaiguan ) to Jinzhou , Shenyang and Jilin were set back by the lack of funds and because of First Sino-Japanese War (August 1894 to March 1895). By 1896 the rails had only reached Chung Ho So (pinyin: Zhonghousuo 中后所, nowadays Suizhong County ), 40 miles beyond Shan Hai Kuan. China's loss of the war with Japan brought about Li Hung Chang's disgrace and virtual removal from power, and with this came new management. After
SECTION 60
#17327919822305022-583: The railway was completed and renamed as Tangshan-Tianjin Railway. Limited train services commenced in August 1888. On 9 October, the opening ceremony of Tangshan-Tianjin Railway, presented by Zhili Governor Zhou Fu , was held in Tianjin. After examining the quality of the equipments in person, Li Hongzhang said that "the railway from Tianjin to Tangshan is steady, and the bridges and stations are all built in compliances with technical requirements". At this point,
5103-465: The recently conquered parts of the empire is generally seen as being the first real attempt at script reform in Chinese history. Before the 20th century, variation in character shape on the part of scribes, which would continue with the later invention of woodblock printing , was ubiquitous. For example, prior to the Qin dynasty (221–206 BC) the character meaning 'bright' was written as either 明 or 朙 —with either 日 'Sun' or 囧 'window' on
5184-479: The rest of the railway was renamed as Beijing–Shanhaiguan railway Kaiping tramway , commonly known as Tangshan–Xugezhuang railway in China, was the first railway built for transportation purpose and was regarded as the origin of China's railway development . With the length of about 9 km, this railway was completed in November 1881 as a tramway to help the coals in Kaiping Mines move to Tangshan to meet
5265-481: The same set of simplified characters as mainland China. The first round was promulgated by the Ministry of Education in 1969, consisting of 498 simplified characters derived from 502 traditional characters. A second round of 2287 simplified characters was promulgated in 1974. The second set contained 49 differences from the mainland China system; these were removed in the final round in 1976. In 1993, Singapore adopted
5346-467: The second round completely, though they had been largely fallen out of use within a year of their initial introduction. That year, the authorities also promulgated a final version of the General List of Simplified Chinese Characters . It was identical to the 1964 list save for 6 changes—including the restoration of 3 characters that had been simplified in the first round: 叠 , 覆 , 像 ; the form 疊
5427-522: The section from Tanggu to Beijing. On 17 January 1901, after negotiations, the Russian troops receded to the east of the Pass and took away equipment, including machines and rolling stocks, from the railway and affiliated factories on their way. On 7 September, after the Boxer Protocol was signed, the foreign states involved were approved to quarter near the railway and stations. In August 1902,
5508-500: The sparse population; moreover, this plan might create tension in Sino-Russian relations . Instead, Li proposed another route from Guye to Shengjing and Jilin City, which was approved in early 1891. When the second land surveying team came back, the details of the route were confirmed as from Shanhai Pass to Jinzhou , Xinmin , Shengjing , and Jilin . In March 1891, Li Hongzhang reported the details of Kwantung Railway, including
5589-497: The traditional and simplified Chinese orthographies. The Chinese government has never officially announced the completion of the simplification process after the bulk of characters were introduced by the 1960s. In the wake of the Cultural Revolution , a second round of simplified characters was promulgated in 1977—largely composed of entirely new variants intended to artificially lower the stroke count, in contrast to
5670-833: The traditional character 強 , with 11 strokes is standardised as 强 , with 12 strokes, which is a variant character. Such characters do not constitute simplified characters. The new standardized character forms shown in the Characters for Publishing and revised through the Common Modern Characters list tend to adopt vulgar variant character forms. Since the new forms take vulgar variants, many characters now appear slightly simpler compared to old forms, and as such are often mistaken as structurally simplified characters. Some examples follow: The traditional component 釆 becomes 米 : The traditional component 囚 becomes 日 : The traditional "Break" stroke becomes
5751-401: The trunkline PMR was shown below. and renamed Tangshan–Lutai Railway and renamed Tangshan–Tianjin Railway and renamed as Guye–Tianjin Railway and renamed as Tianjin– Yu Pass Railway (aka. Imperial Railway of North China) was combined as Trans-(Shanhai)Pass Railway ( Chinese : （山海）关内外铁路 ; pinyin : （shān hǎi）guān nèi wài tiě lù ) and changed it to standard gauge while
5832-522: The use of characters entirely. Instead, Chao proposed that the language be written with an alphabet, which he saw as more logical and efficient. The alphabetization and simplification campaigns would exist alongside one another among the Republican intelligentsia for the next several decades. Recent commentators have echoed some contemporary claims that Chinese characters were blamed for the economic problems in China during that time. Lu Xun , one of
5913-490: Was Civil Engineering, with an emphasis in railroad construction, and received a Bachelor of Philosophy degree in 1881. He was considered lucky, because only a few months after his graduation, the Qing government decided to recall all students studying in the United States. Of those who were sent abroad, only he and another student (Owyang King, 欧阳庚) were able to complete their college degrees. The Qing government officials found
5994-464: Was abandoned, confirmed by a speech given by Zhou Enlai in 1958. In 1965, the PRC published the List of Commonly Used Characters for Printing [ zh ] (hereafter Characters for Printing ), which included standard printed forms for 6196 characters, including all of the forms from the 1956 scheme. A second round of simplified characters was promulgated in 1977, but was poorly received by
6075-497: Was built from 1895 to 1897 as a mark of reform in the Royal Court. With the length of 150km, this railway connected Beijing, langfang (in hebei ), and tianjin . In 1901, the extension line was built to connect Ma Chiu Pu to Zhengyangmen . When it was completed, the section in Beijing extended along the border between occupation zones controlled by British and German; specifically, the line extended eastward to Yung Ting Men and
6156-614: Was called upon to survey the route. Li had to overcome opposition in the Imperial Court.... but gained sanction for the line to be extended 50 miles to Tianjin . Kinder, as Chief Engineer of the now newly named China Railway Company, was then permitted to secure the services of several more foreign engineers which included Resident Engineers A.W.H. Bellingham and W. Watson. The railway was extended from Lutai to Taku in March 1888, and to Tianjin in August. Having been built for 14 months,
6237-553: Was executed for being "too pro-foreign". Moreover, Fengtai and Majiapu Station were destructed by boxers. During the invasion of the Eight-Nation Alliance , Russian troops sieged the section from Tianjin railway station to Yangcun railway station , while the British troops were trying to take over this section. During the resistance, the Chinese army and Boxers attacked Tianjin Station rigorously and dismantled
6318-467: Was in a neutral region, troops had to camouflage during construction. When completed, supplies can be disembarked at Yingkou Port and transported to Xinmin through Liao River. The engine of this section was Handcar , and the track gauge was 2 ft/600 mm . and the engine was changed to Steam locomotive . A newly built bridge on Liao River replaced the ferry in Gaolitun. In 1907 this extension
6399-681: Was negotiated and an issue of bonds raised in London for the purpose of extending this line northwards to Xinmin and a branch line from Koupangtzu to Yingkou . The loan was arranged by the British and Chinese Corporation, a joint venture and front for the Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation and Jardine Matheson and Company . In spite of objections from the Russians (who were themselves busy grabbing control of Chinese territory in Manchuria)
6480-479: Was pleased and permission was given to construct more railroads in China. In 1905, the Imperial Qing government decided to build a railroad that would link the capital of Peking to the important trade city of Kalgan to the north. This railway would be of strategic importance to the government. The decision was therefore made that the railway would be built without foreign assistance. Capital would come from
6561-536: Was purchased by Imperial Railways of North China at a price of 1.66 million Japanese yen and the agreement that the railway from Jilin to Changchun should be funded by Japanese. The conversion to Standard-gauge railway was finished in the same year, and the construction of Liao River Bridge was finished in 1908. When the war ended, the Treaty of Portsmouth was signed and the South Manchuria branch of
#229770