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82-631: The name "Snagov" is of Slavic origin, from the word sneg (meaning "snow"). The area of today's commune along with surrounding lands has had this name since at least 1408. Snagov is located on the Wallachian Plain , on the shore of Lake Snagov (biggest natural lake in Romania : 600 hectares; 2¼ sq. mi., 16 km; 10 miles long), which is still partially surrounded by old oak forest (remnants of Codrii Vlăsiei ). Archaeologists confirmed human presence of inhabitants since 400 BC. Snagov village

164-454: A certain period of time, captives were allowed to be let loose or to join the community. Settlements were built in hard to reach forests, lakes and marshes as they were hard to attack, with exits in many directions for escape. They farmed many crops, especially millet, but also had livestock of many sorts. Maurice praises their toleration of discomfort when necessary, and the loyalty of married women to their husbands. The Strategikon noted that

246-588: A coalition of Rynchinoi, Sagoudatai, Drougoubitai and Stroumanoi attacked. This time, the Belegezites, also known as the Velegeziti, did not participate and in fact supplied the besieged citizens of Thessaloniki with grain. It seems that the Slavs settled on places of earlier settlements and probably merged later with the local populations of Greek descent to form mixed Byzantine-Slavic communities . The process

328-638: A number of archaicisms preserved until the early 20th century (the articulation of yat as / æ / in Boboshticë , Drenovë , around Thessaloniki, Razlog , the Rhodopes and Thrace and of yery as / ɨ / around Castoria and the Rhodopes, the presence of decomposed nasalisms around Castoria and Thessaloniki, etc.), the dialect is posited to have been part of a macrodialect extending from the Adriatic to

410-758: A relocation of Slavs under Bulgar aggression; again in 783. Bulgaria had by 773 cut off the communication route, the Vardar valley, between Serbia and the Byzantines. The Bulgars were defeated in 774 , after Emperor Constantine V learnt of their planned raid. In 783, a large Slavic uprising took place in the Byzantine Empire, stretching from Macedonia to the Peloponnese , which was subsequently quelled by Byzantine patrikios Staurakios ( fl.  781–800 ). Dalmatia , inhabited by Slavs in

492-649: A result of earlier alternations between short and long vowels in roots in Proto-Indo-European , Proto-Balto-Slavic and Proto-Slavic times, and of the fronting of vowels after palatalized consonants, the following vowel alternations are attested in OCS: /ь/ : /i/;  /ъ/ : /y/ : /u/; /e/ : /ě/ : /i/; /o/ : /a/; /o/ : /e/; /ě/ : /a/; /ъ/ : /ь/; /y/ : /i/; /ě/ : /i/; /y/ : /ę/. Vowel:∅ alternations sometimes occurred as

574-858: A result of sporadic loss of weak yer , which later occurred in almost all Slavic dialects. The phonetic value of the corresponding vocalized strong jer is dialect-specific. As an ancient Indo-European language, OCS has a highly inflective morphology. Inflected forms are divided in two groups, nominals and verbs. Nominals are further divided into nouns, adjectives and pronouns. Numerals inflect either as nouns or pronouns, with 1–4 showing gender agreement as well. Nominals can be declined in three grammatical genders (masculine, feminine, neuter), three numbers (singular, plural, dual ) and seven cases : nominative , vocative , accusative , instrumental , dative , genitive , and locative . There are five basic inflectional classes for nouns: o/jo -stems, a/ja -stems, i -stems, u -stems, and consonant stems. Forms throughout

656-573: A variant of the angular Glagolitic alphabet was preserved in Croatia . See Early Cyrillic alphabet for a detailed description of the script and information about the sounds it originally expressed. For Old Church Slavonic, the following segments are reconstructible. A few sounds are given in Slavic transliterated form rather than in IPA, as the exact realisation is uncertain and often differs depending on

738-596: Is a matter of debate depending on the interpretation of the Byzantine sources. Vasil Zlatarski asserts that they concluded a treaty, but most historians agree that they were subjugated. The Bulgars were superior organisationally and militarily and came to dominate politically the new state, but there was cooperation between them and the Slavs for the protection of the country. The Slavs were allowed to retain their chiefs, to abide to their customs and in return they were to pay tribute in kind and to provide foot soldiers for

820-488: Is also likely to have preserved an extremely archaic type of accentuation (probably close to the Chakavian dialect of modern Serbo-Croatian ), but unfortunately, no accent marks appear in the written manuscripts. The South Slavic and Eastern South Slavic nature of the language is evident from the following variations: Old Church Slavonic also shares the following phonetic features only with Bulgarian : Over time,

902-625: Is debated. For example, the Byzantinist Peter Charanis believes the Chronicle of Monemvasia to be a reliable account, but other scholars point out that it greatly overstates the impact of the Slavic and Avar raids of Greece during this time. Max Vasmer , a prominent linguist and Indo-Europeanist, complements late medieval historical accounts by listing 429 Slavic toponyms from the Peloponnese alone. The extent that

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984-401: Is given in the table below. Autocephaly recognized by some autocephalous Churches de jure : Autocephaly and canonicity recognized by Constantinople and 3 other autocephalous Churches: Spiritual independence recognized by Georgian Orthodox Church: Semi-Autonomous: Written evidence of Old Church Slavonic survives in a relatively small body of manuscripts , most of them written in

1066-406: Is occasionally used by Western scholars in a regional context. According to Slavist Henrik Birnbaum , the term was introduced mostly by Macedonian scholars and it is anachronistic because there was no separate Macedonian language, distinguished from early Bulgarian, in the ninth century. The obsolete term Old Slovenian was used by early 19th-century scholars who conjectured that the language

1148-563: Is sometimes called Old Slavic , which may be confused with the distinct Proto-Slavic language . Bulgarian, Croatian, Macedonian, Serbian, Slovene and Slovak linguists have claimed Old Church Slavonic; thus OCS has also been variously called Old Bulgarian , Old Croatian , Old Macedonian or Old Serbian, or even Old Slovak , Old Slovenian . The commonly accepted terms in modern English-language Slavic studies are Old Church Slavonic and Old Church Slavic . The term Old Bulgarian ( Bulgarian : старобългарски , German : Altbulgarisch )

1230-574: Is the designation used by most Bulgarian-language writers. It was used in numerous 19th-century sources, e.g. by August Schleicher , Martin Hattala , Leopold Geitler and August Leskien , who noted similarities between the first literary Slavic works and the modern Bulgarian language. For similar reasons, Russian linguist Aleksandr Vostokov used the term Slav-Bulgarian . The term is still used by some writers but nowadays normally avoided in favor of Old Church Slavonic . The term Old Macedonian

1312-605: Is the first Slavic literary language and the oldest extant written Slavonic language attested in literary sources. It belongs to the South Slavic subgroup of the Balto-Slavic branch of the Indo-European language family and remains the liturgical language of many Christian Orthodox churches. Until the reforms of Patriarch Nikon of Moscow between 1652 and 1666, Church Slavonic was the mandatory language of

1394-594: The Black Sea , and covering southern Albania, northern Greece and the southernmost parts of Bulgaria. Because of the very short time between Rastislav 's request and the actual mission, it has been widely suggested that both the Glagolitic alphabet and the translations had been "in the works" for some time, probably for a planned mission to the Bulgaria . The language and the Glagolitic alphabet, as taught at

1476-585: The Common Slavic period, such as intrasyllabic synharmony and the law of open syllables . For consonant and vowel clusters and sequences of a consonant and a vowel, the following constraints can be ascertained: As a result of the first and the second Slavic palatalizations, velars alternate with dentals and palatals. In addition, as a result of a process usually termed iotation (or iodization ), velars and dentals alternate with palatals in various inflected forms and in word formation. In some forms

1558-655: The Cyrillic script developed early on at the Preslav Literary School, where it superseded Glagolitic as official in Bulgaria in 893. The texts written during this era exhibit certain linguistic features of the vernaculars of the First Bulgarian Empire . Old Church Slavonic spread to other South-Eastern, Central, and Eastern European Slavic territories, most notably Croatia , Serbia , Bohemia , Lesser Poland , and principalities of

1640-835: The Danube was recorded by Procopius (writing in the mid-6th century CE), who mentions an attack of the Antes, "who dwell close to the Sclaveni", probably in 518. In the 530s, Emperor Justinian seems to have used divide and conquer policies, and the Sclaveni and Antes are mentioned as fighting each other. Sclaveni are mentioned in the context of the military policy on the Danube frontier of Byzantine Emperor Justinian I ( r.  527–565 ). In 537, Justinian shipped 1,600 cavalry, made up of mostly Sclaveni and Antes, to Italy to rescue Belisarius . Sometime between 533–34 and 545 (probably before

1722-588: The Emperor Heraclius . As the Byzantine Empire recovered, the system was imposed on all areas that came under Byzantine control. The first Balkan theme was created in Thrace in 680 AD. By 695, a second theme, that of " Hellas " (or "Helladikoi"), was established, probably in eastern central Greece . Subduing the Slavs in the themes was simply a matter of accommodating the needs of the Slavic elites and providing them with incentives for their inclusion into

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1804-593: The First Bulgarian Empire during the late 10th and the early 11th centuries. The language has an Eastern South Slavic basis in the Bulgarian-Macedonian dialectal area, with an admixture of Western Slavic (Moravian) features inherited during the mission of Saints Cyril and Methodius to Great Moravia (863–885). The only well-preserved manuscript of the Moravian recension, the Kiev Missal , or

1886-563: The Kievan Rus' – while retaining characteristically Eastern South Slavic linguistic features. Later texts written in each of those territories began to take on characteristics of the local Slavic vernaculars, and by the mid-11th century Old Church Slavonic had diversified into a number of regional varieties (known as recensions ). These local varieties are collectively known as the Church Slavonic language . Apart from use in

1968-519: The Ostrogoths . The two tribes were at peace by 545. The Antes are last mentioned as anti-Byzantine belligerents in 545, and the Sclaveni continued to raid the Balkans. Between 545 and 549, the Sclaveni raided deep into Roman territory. In the summer of 550, the Sclaveni came close to Naissus , and were seen as a great threat, however, their intent of capturing Thessaloniki and the surroundings

2050-533: The Province of Thessalonica (in present-day Greece ). Old Church Slavonic played an important role in the history of the Slavic languages and served as a basis and model for later Church Slavonic traditions, and some Eastern Orthodox and Eastern Catholic churches use this later Church Slavonic as a liturgical language to this day. As the oldest attested Slavic language, OCS provides important evidence for

2132-604: The Russian Orthodox Church . Historians credit the 9th-century Byzantine missionaries Saints Cyril and Methodius with standardizing the language and undertaking the task of translating the Gospels and necessary liturgical books into it as part of the Christianization of the Slavs . It is thought to have been based primarily on the dialect of the 9th-century Byzantine Slavs living in

2214-580: The Snagov Museum , a set of four local traditions (fishing, braiding of vegetable fibers, pottery, traditional fabrics). Natural attractions are associated with two protected natural areas, Snagov Lake (100–150 ha; approx. 300 acres) and Snagov Forest (10 ha; 25 acres), which are included in the Snagov Natural Complex Reserve. With an area of 1,147.7 ha (4½ sq. mi.), the nature reserve was established in 1952 and includes all

2296-596: The "Snagov 1" luxury boat (today called "Leader"). In Snagov, at the film studios Castel Film Romania , over 250 films were produced. At the Snagov Museum, collections are presented about 130 personalities related to Snagov. Initiated but not yet implemented - with: Port of Le Havre from France and Sarkad from Hungary , Gandiaye village from Senegal . Old Church Slavonic Old Church Slavonic or Old Slavonic ( / s l ə ˈ v ɒ n ɪ k , s l æ ˈ v ɒ n -/ slə- VON -ik, slav- ON - )

2378-532: The 539–40 Hun or Bulgar-Hun invasion of the Byzantine Empire), there was a conflict between the Antes and Sclaveni in Eastern Europe . Procopius noted that the two "became hostile to one another and engaged in battle" until a Sclavene victory resulted. The conflict was likely aided or initiated by the Byzantines. The Romans also recruited mounted mercenaries from both tribes to fight against

2460-664: The 9th and 11th century in Great Moravia and the First Bulgarian Empire. The language was standardized for the first time by the mission of the two apostles to Great Moravia from 863. The manuscripts of the Moravian recension are therefore the earliest dated of the OCS recensions. The recension takes its name from the Slavic state of Great Moravia which existed in Central Europe during the 9th century on

2542-595: The Antes and Sclaveni were independent, refusing to be governed or enslaved. They lived under democracy, with all matters being referred to the people. The religion of the Sclaveni, like other Slavic tribes and peoples was Slavic paganism . The Antes and Sclaveni were skilled warriors, especially in guerrilla warfare, taking advantage of terrain. They preferred to fight in dense woodland instead of pitch battle, although field battles and sieges were also recorded. Their weapons were javelins, spears, bows nocked with poison tipped arrows and sturdy wooden shields, but body armour

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2624-532: The Avars attacked the Antes; this is the last mention of Antes in historical sources. In 615, during the reign of Heraclius ( r.  610–641 ), the whole Balkans was regarded as Sklavinia – inhabited or controlled by Slavs. Chatzon led the Slavic attack on Thessaloniki that year. The Slavs asked the Avars for aid, resulting in an unsuccessful siege (617). In 626, Sassanids , Avars and Slavs joined forces and unsuccessfully besieged Constantinople . During

2706-657: The Balkans and the first time it legally surrendered claims to part of its Balkan dominions. In 680 the Byzantine Emperor Constantine IV (r.   668–685), having recently defeated the Arabs , led an expedition at the head of a huge army and fleet to drive off the Bulgars but suffered a disastrous defeat at the hands of Asparuh at Onglos , a swampy region in or around the Danube Delta where

2788-537: The Bulgars had set a fortified camp. The Bulgars advanced south, crossed the Balkan Mountains and invaded Thrace . In 681, the Byzantines were compelled to sign a humiliating peace treaty, forcing them to acknowledge Bulgaria as an independent state, to cede the territories to the north of the Balkan Mountains and to pay an annual tribute. The relations between the Bulgars and the local Slavs

2870-468: The Byzantine Empire became larger and resulted in permanent settlement. John of Ephesus noted in 581: "the accursed people of the Slavs set out and plundered all of Greece, the regions surrounding Thessalonica, and Thrace, taking many towns and castles, laying waste, burning, pillaging, and seizing the whole country." According to Florin Curta , John exaggerated the intensity of the Slavic incursions since he

2952-465: The Byzantine borders along with the Antes ( East Slavs ), another Slavic group. The Sclaveni were differentiated from the Antes and Wends ( West Slavs ); however, they were described as kin. Eventually, most South Slavic tribes accepted Byzantine or Frankish suzerainty , and came under their cultural influences and Chalcedonian Christianity . The term was widely used as a general catch-all term until

3034-643: The Byzantine missionary contingent in 886. Exiled students of the two apostles then brought the Glagolitic alphabet to the Bulgarian Empire , being at least some of them Bulgarians themselves. Boris I of Bulgaria ( r.  852–889 ) received and officially accepted them; he established the Preslav Literary School and the Ohrid Literary School . Both schools originally used the Glagolitic alphabet, though

3116-534: The Byzantines, and set fire to many of their settlements, although this did not stop the Slavic raids deep into the Byzantine Empire. In 578, a large army of Sclaveni devastated Thrace and other areas. In the 580s, the Romans bribed the Antes to attack Sclaveni settlements. By the 580s, as the Slav communities on the Danube became larger and more organised, and as the Avars exerted their influence, "barbarian" raids into

3198-721: The East it had a status analogous to that of Latin in Western Europe , but had the advantage of being substantially less divergent from the vernacular tongues of average parishioners. Some Orthodox churches, such as the Bulgarian Orthodox Church , Russian Orthodox Church , Serbian Orthodox Church , Ukrainian Orthodox Church and Macedonian Orthodox Church – Ohrid Archbishopric , as well as several Eastern Catholic Churches, still use Church Slavonic in their services and chants. Initially Old Church Slavonic

3280-626: The Great Moravian Academy ( Slovak : Veľkomoravské učilište ), were used for government and religious documents and books in Great Moravia between 863 and 885. The texts written during this phase contain characteristics of the West Slavic vernaculars in Great Moravia. In 885 Pope Stephen V prohibited the use of Old Church Slavonic in Great Moravia in favour of Latin . King Svatopluk I of Great Moravia expelled

3362-553: The Greeks inside towns. Furthermore, the Slavs surely did not occupy the whole interior or eliminate the Greek population since some Greek villages continued to exist in the interior, probably governed themselves and possibly paid tribute to the Slavs. Some villages were probably mixed, and quite possibly, some degree of Hellenization of the Slavs by the Greeks of the Peloponnese had already begun during this period, before re- Hellenization

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3444-650: The Kiev Folia, is characterised by the replacement of some South Slavic phonetic and lexical features with Western Slavic ones. Manuscripts written in the Second Bulgarian Empire (1185–1396) have, on the other hand, few Western Slavic features. Though South Slavic in phonology and morphology, Old Church Slavonic was influenced by Byzantine Greek in syntax and style, and is characterized by complex subordinate sentence structures and participial constructions. A large body of complex, polymorphemic words

3526-476: The Romans' northern border occurred between 591 and 605, when the end of conflicts with Persia allowed Emperor Maurice to transfer units to the north. However he was deposed after a military revolt in 602, and the Danubian frontier collapsed one and a half decades later (see Maurice's Balkan campaigns ). In this period are mentioned Sclaveni rex Musokios and chieftains Ardagast and Peiragastus . In 602,

3608-633: The Slavic countries, Old Church Slavonic served as a liturgical language in the Romanian Orthodox Church , and also as a literary and official language of the princedoms of Wallachia and Moldavia (see Old Church Slavonic in Romania ), before gradually being replaced by Romanian during the 16th to 17th centuries. Church Slavonic maintained a prestigious status, particularly in Russia , for many centuries – among Slavs in

3690-444: The Slavs, obliterated them and allowed the original inhabitants to claim their own. The city of Patras was recovered and the region resettled with Greeks. In the 9th century, new themes continued to arise although many were small and were carved out of original larger themes. New themes in the 9th century included those of Thessalonica , Dyrrhachium , Strymon and Nicopolis . From those themes, Byzantine laws and culture flowed into

3772-498: The alternations of /c/ with /č/ and of /dz/ with /ž/ occur, in which the corresponding velar is missing. The dental alternants of velars occur regularly before /ě/ and /i/ in the declension and in the imperative, and somewhat less regularly in various forms after /i/, /ę/, /ь/ and /r /. The palatal alternants of velars occur before front vowels in all other environments, where dental alternants do not occur, as well as in various places in inflection and word formation described below. As

3854-412: The area that a text originated from. For English equivalents and narrow transcriptions of sounds, see Old Church Slavonic Pronunciation on Wiktionary . For English equivalents and narrow transcriptions of sounds, see Old Church Slavonic Pronunciation on Wiktionary . Several notable constraints on the distribution of the phonemes can be identified, mostly resulting from the tendencies occurring within

3936-561: The army. The Seven Slavic tribes were relocated to the west to protect the frontier with the Avar Khaganate , while the Severi were resettled in the eastern Balkan Mountains to guard the passes to the Byzantine Empire. The number of Asparuh's Bulgars is difficult to estimate. Vasil Zlatarski and John Van Antwerp Fine Jr. suggest that they were not particularly numerous, numbering some 10,000, while Steven Runciman considers that

4018-467: The campaign although it is likely that some was. Sometime between 790 and 802, the theme of Macedonia was created, centred on Adrianople (east of the modern geographic entity ). A serious and successful recovery began under Nicephorus I (802–811). In 805, the theme of the Peloponnese was created. According to the Chronicle of Monemvasia the Byzantine governor of Corinth went in 805 to war with

4100-570: The chieftain of the Rhynchinoi , a powerful tribe near Thessaloniki, planned a siege on Thessaloniki but was imprisoned and eventually executed after escaping prison; the Rhynchinoi, Strymonitai , Sagoudatai and Drougoubitai made common cause, rose up and laid the Siege to Thessaloniki for two years (676–678). The First Bulgarian Empire was the first state that the empire recognised in

4182-732: The development of Slavonic liturgy. As part of preparations for the mission, in 862/863, the missionaries developed the Glagolitic alphabet and translated the most important prayers and liturgical books , including the Aprakos Evangeliar , the Psalter , and the Acts of the Apostles , allegedly basing the language on the Slavic dialect spoken in the hinterland of their hometown, Thessaloniki , in present-day Greece . Based on

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4264-468: The emergence of separate tribal names by the 10th century. The Sclaveni had similar if not identical customs and culture to the Antes. They were carefully described by chroniclers such as Procopius and Maurice, whose works contribute greatly to our understanding of these two Early Slavic peoples. Maurice writes that the Slavs were very hospitable people. Tribes that mistreated guests were attacked for their dishonour. Prisoners were not kept forever and after

4346-405: The empire, such as Anatolia, and made to serve in the military. In return, many Greeks from Sicily and Asia Minor were brought to the interior of Greece to increase the number of defenders at the Emperor's disposal and to dilute the concentration of Slavs. Even non-Greeks were transferred to the Balkans, such as Armenians . As more of the peripheral territories of the Byzantine Empire were lost in

4428-536: The features of Proto-Slavic , the reconstructed common ancestor of all Slavic languages. The name of the language in Old Church Slavonic texts was simply Slavic ( словѣ́ньскъ ѩꙁꙑ́къ , slověnĭskŭ językŭ ), derived from the word for Slavs ( словѣ́нє , slověne ), the self-designation of the compilers of the texts. This name is preserved in the modern native names of the Slovak and Slovene languages. The terms Slavic and Slavonic are interchangeable and either may be used correctly in English. The language

4510-479: The first Slavic chieftain recorded by name, was sent an Avar embassy requesting his Slavs to accept Avar suzerainty and pay tribute, because the Avars knew that the Slavs had amassed great wealth after repeatedly plundering the Balkans. Daurentius reportedly retorted that "Others do not conquer our land, we conquer theirs [...] so it shall always be for us", and had the envoys slain. The Avar khagan Bayan then campaigned (in 578) against Daurentius' people, with aid from

4592-490: The following centuries, such as Sicily, southern Italy and Asia Minor, their Greek-speakers made their own way back to Greece. The re-Hellenization of Greece by population transfers and cultural activities of the Church was successful, which suggests that Slavs found themselves in the midst of many Greeks. It is doubtful that such large number could have been transplanted into Greece in the 9th century; surely many Greeks had remained in Greece and continued to speak Greek throughout

4674-476: The forests on the shore of the lake. Also in Snagov one can find a Tourist Information Center , a Rental Center (bicycles, kayaks), a Biodiversity Center , and a site with the entire Snagov Eco-tourism Offer (attractions, activities, circuits, audio guides, etc.) Romanian president Nicolae Ceaușescu and his entourage used Snagov as a vacation retreat. Over 50 heads of state, prime ministers, top politicians from more than 40 states, crossed Lake Snagov with

4756-472: The hinterland of the Peloponnese . In reference to the plague of 744–747, Constantine VII wrote in the 10th century that "the entire country [of the Peloponnese] was Slavonized". Another source for the period, the Chronicle of Monemvasia , speaks of Slavs overrunning the western Peloponnese but of the eastern Peloponnese, together with Athens, remaining in Byzantine hands throughout the period. However, such sources are far from ideal, and their reliability

4838-434: The imperial administration. It was not until 100 years later that a third theme would be established. In 782–784, the eunuch general Staurakios campaigned from Thessaloniki, south to Thessaly and into the Peloponnese. He captured many Slavs and transferred them elsewhere, mostly Anatolia (these Slavs were dubbed Slavesians ). However, it is not known whether any territory was restored to imperial authority as result of

4920-572: The inflectional paradigm usually exhibit morphophonemic alternations. Fronting of vowels after palatals and j yielded dual inflectional class o  : jo and a  : ja , whereas palatalizations affected stem as a synchronic process (N sg. vlьkъ , V sg. vlьče ; L sg. vlьcě ). Productive classes are o/jo- , a/ja- , and i -stems. Sample paradigms are given in the table below: Adjectives are inflected as o/jo -stems (masculine and neuter) and a/ja -stems (feminine), in three genders. They could have short (indefinite) or long (definite) variants,

5002-499: The interior, at this time, had firm relations with Byzantium. In 799, Akameros , a Slavic archon, participated in the conspiracy against Empress Irene of Athens . Byzantine literary accounts (such as John of Ephesus ) mention Slavs raiding areas of Greece in the 580s. According to later sources such as the Miracles of Saint Demetrius , the Drougoubitai , Sagoudatai , Belegezitai , Baiounetai , and Berzetai laid siege to Thessaloniki in 614–616. However, that particular event

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5084-514: The interior. By the late 9th century, most of Greece was culturally and administratively Greek again except for a few small Slavic tribes in the mountains such as the Melingoi and Ezeritai . Although they would remain relatively autonomous until Ottoman times, such tribes were the exception, rather than the rule. Apart from military expeditions against Slavs, the re-Hellenization process begun under Nicephorus I involved (often forcible) transfer of peoples. Many Slavs were moved to other parts of

5166-450: The language adopted more and more features from local Slavic vernaculars, producing different variants referred to as Recensions or Redactions . Modern convention differentiates between the earliest, classical form of the language, referred to as Old Church Slavonic, and later, vernacular-coloured forms, collectively designated as Church Slavonic . More specifically, Old Church Slavonic is exemplified by extant manuscripts written between

5248-404: The latter being formed by suffixing to the indefinite form the anaphoric third-person pronoun jь . Synthetic verbal conjugation is expressed in present, aorist and imperfect tenses while perfect, pluperfect, future and conditional tenses/moods are made by combining auxiliary verbs with participles or synthetic tense forms. Sample conjugation for the verb vesti "to lead" (underlyingly ved-ti )

5330-441: The most detail about the Sclaveni and Antes. The Sclaveni are also mentioned by Jordanes ( fl. 551), Pseudo-Caesarius (560), Menander Protector (mid-6th c.), the Strategikon (late 6th c.), etc. Scholar Michel Kazanski (born 1953) identified the 6th-century Prague culture and Sukow-Dziedzice group as Sclaveni archaeological cultures, and the Penkovka culture was identified as Antes. The first Slavic raid south of

5412-417: The period of Slavic occupation. The success of re-Hellenization also suggests the number of Slavs in Greece was far smaller than those found in the former Yugoslavia and Bulgaria. For example, Bulgaria could not be re-Hellenized when Byzantine administration was established over the Bulgars in 1018 to last for well over a century, until 1186. Eventually, the Byzantines recovered the imperial border north all

5494-407: The presence of the toponyms reflects compact Slavic settlement is a matter of some debate and might represent an accumulative strata of toponyms, rather than being attributed to the earliest settlement phase. Relations between the Slavs and the Greeks were probably peaceful apart from the (supposed) initial settlement and intermittent uprisings. Being agriculturalists, the Slavs probably traded with

5576-583: The same year of the siege, the Slavs used their monoxyla in order to transport the 3,000 troops of the allied Sassanids across the Bosphorus which the latter had promised the khagan of the Avars. Based on the De Administrando Imperio , it is also theorized that the migration of White Croats and Serbs could have been part of a second Slavic wave during Heraclius' reign. Constans II conquered Sklavinia in 657–658, "capturing many and subduing", and settled captured Slavs in Asia Minor ; in 664–65, 5,000 of these joined Abdulreman ibn Khalid . Perbundos ,

5658-469: The territory of today's Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, northern Austria and southeastern Poland. Sclaveni The Sclaveni (in Latin ) or Sklabenoi ( various forms in Greek ) were early Slavic tribes that raided, invaded and settled in the Balkans in the Early Middle Ages and eventually became one of the progenitors of modern South Slavs . They were mentioned by early Byzantine chroniclers as barbarians having appeared at

5740-403: The tribe must have been of considerable dimensions. Justinian II (r. 685–695) settled as many as 30,000 Slavs from Thrace in Asia Minor, in an attempt to boost military strength. Most of them however, with their leader Neboulos , deserted to the Arabs at the Battle of Sebastopolis in 692. Military campaigns in northern Greece in 758 under Constantine V ( r.  741–775 ) prompted

5822-459: The way to today's region of Macedonia , which would serve as the northern border of the Byzantine Empire until 1018, although independent Slavic villages remained. As the Slavs supposedly occupied the entire Balkan interior, Constantinople was effectively cut off from the Dalmatian city-states under its (nominal) control. Thus, Dalmatia came to have closer ties with the Italian Peninsula because of its ability to maintain contact by sea, but it too

5904-451: Was actually of local significance. A combined effort of the Avars and Slavs two years later also failed to take the city. In 626, a combined Avar , Bulgar and Slav army besieged Constantinople . The siege was broken, which had repercussions for the power and the prestige of the Avar khanate. Slavic pressure on Thessaloniki ebbed after 617/618, until the Siege of Thessalonica (676–678) by

5986-406: Was based on the dialect of Pannonia . It is generally held that the language was standardized by two Byzantine missionaries, Cyril and his brother Methodius , for a mission to Great Moravia (the territory of today's eastern Czech Republic and western Slovakia; for details, see Glagolitic alphabet ). The mission took place in response to a request by Great Moravia 's ruler, Duke Rastislav for

6068-569: Was built around Lake Snagov and Snagov Monastery , founded in the late 14th century on an islet in Lake Snagov, about 2 km (1.2 mi) north of Snagov village. The first written record of it is found in a document from the court of Mircea cel Bătrân and dated 1408. Snagov monastery was excavated in 1933 by archaeologist Dinu V. Rosetti. Cultural attractions include the Snagov Monastery, Snagov Palace , several monuments,

6150-551: Was coined, first by Saint Cyril himself and then by his students at the academies in Great Moravia and the First Bulgarian Empire , to denote complex abstract and religious terms, e.g., ꙁълодѣꙗньѥ ( zъlodějanьje ) from ꙁъло ('evil') + дѣти ('do') + ньѥ (noun suffix), i.e., 'evil deed'. A significant part of them wеrе calqued directly from Greek. Old Church Slavonic is valuable to historical linguists since it preserves archaic features believed to have once been common to all Slavic languages such as: Old Church Slavonic

6232-403: Was completed by the Byzantine emperors. When the Byzantines were not fighting in their eastern territories, they slowly regained imperial control. That was achieved through its theme system , which refers to an administrative province on which an army corps was centred under the control of a strategos ("general"). The theme system first appeared in the early 7th century, during the reign of

6314-562: Was influenced by his confinement in Constantinople from 571 up until 579, moreover, he perceived the Slavs as God's instrument for punishing the persecutors of the Monophysites . By 586, Slavs managed to raid the western Peloponnese , Attica , Epirus , leaving only the east part of Peloponnese, which was mountainous and inaccessible. In 586 AD, as many as 100,000 Slav warriors raided Thessaloniki. The final attempt to restore

6396-678: Was rare. The Byzantines broadly grouped the numerous Slav tribes living in proximity with the Eastern Roman Empire into two groups: the Sklavenoi and the Antes . The Sclaveni were called as such by Procopius , and as Sclavi by Jordanes and Pseudo-Maurice (Greek: Σκλαβηνοί ( Sklabēnoi ), Σκλαυηνοί ( Sklauēnoi ), or Σκλάβινοι ( Sklabinoi ); Latin: Sclaueni , Sclavi , Sclauini , or Sthlaueni - Sklaveni ). The derived Greek term Sklavinia(i) ( Σκλαβινίαι ; Latin: Sclaviniae )

6478-583: Was stimulated by the conversion of the Slavic tribes to orthodox Christianity on the Balkans during the same period. A number of medieval sources attest to the presence of Slavs in Greece. En route to the Holy Land in 732, Willibald "reached the city of Monemvasia , in the land of Slavinia ". This particular passage from the Vita Willibaldi is interpreted as an indication of a Slavic presence in

6560-623: Was thwarted by Germanus . After this, for a year, the Sclaveni spent their time in Dalmatia "as if in their own land". The Sclaveni then raided Illyricum and returned home with booty. In 558 the Avars arrived on the Black Sea steppe, and defeated the Antes between the Dnieper and Dniester. The Avars subsequently allied themselves with the Sclaveni. Daurentius ( fl.  577–579 ),

6642-475: Was used for Slav tribes in Byzantine Macedonia and the Peloponnese; these Slavic territories were initially outside of Byzantine control. By 800, however, the term also referred specifically to Slavic mobile military colonists who settled as allies within the territories of the Byzantine Empire. Slavic military settlements appeared in the Peloponnese , Asia Minor , and Italy . Procopius gives

6724-522: Was written with the Glagolitic alphabet , but later Glagolitic was replaced by Cyrillic , which was developed in the First Bulgarian Empire by a decree of Boris I of Bulgaria in the 9th century. Of the Old Church Slavonic canon , about two-thirds is written in Glagolitic. The local Serbian Cyrillic alphabet, known as Srbinčica , was preserved in Serbia and parts of Croatia , while

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