The Vietic languages are a branch of the Austroasiatic language family , spoken by the Vietic peoples in Laos and Vietnam. The branch was once referred to by the terms Việt–Mường , Annamese–Muong , and Vietnamuong ; the term Vietic was proposed by La Vaughn Hayes, who proposed to redefine Việt–Mường as referring to a sub-branch of Vietic containing only Vietnamese and Mường .
57-488: Many of the Vietic languages have tonal or phonational systems intermediate between that of Viet–Muong and other branches of Austroasiatic that have not had significant Chinese or Tai influence. Vietnamese, today, has had significant Chinese influence especially in vocabulary and tonal system. Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary accounts for about 30–60% of Vietnamese vocabulary, not including calques from Chinese. The ancestor of
114-672: A lucrative trade route to China. The late 19th-century French explorers were able to travel up the Red River until Manhao in South Yunnan , and then overland toward Kunming . The Red River remained the main commercial travel route between the French Indochina and Yunnan until the opening of the Kunming–Haiphong Railway in 1910. Although French steamers would be able to go as far upstream as Lao Cai during
171-448: A partially lax phonation called breathy voice or murmured voice (transcribed in IPA with a subscript umlaut ◌̤ ), while Burmese has vowels with a partially tense phonation called creaky voice or laryngealized voice (transcribed in IPA with a subscript tilde ◌̰ ). The Jalapa dialect of Mazatec is unusual in contrasting both with modal voice in a three-way distinction. (Mazatec
228-482: A portion of the international border between China and Vietnam. The river, known as Thao River for this upper stretch, continues its southeasterly course through northwestern Vietnam before emerging from the mountains to reach the midlands. Its main tributaries, the Black River (Da River) and Lô River join in to form the very broad Hồng near the city of Việt Trì , Phú Thọ province . Downstream from Việt Trì,
285-472: A small boat up the Red River to Manhao (425 miles), and then 12 days overland (194 miles) to Kunming. Manhao was considered the head of navigation for the smallest vessels ( wupan 五版); so Yunnan's products such as tin would be brought to Manhao by pack mules, where they would be loaded to boats to be sent downstream. On the Manhao to Lao Cai section, where the current may be quite fast, especially during
342-455: A voiceless one. For the pairs of English stops , however, the distinction is better specified as voice onset time rather than simply voice: In initial position, /b d g/ are only partially voiced (voicing begins during the hold of the consonant), and /p t k/ are aspirated (voicing begins only well after its release). Certain English morphemes have voiced and voiceless allomorphs , such as:
399-408: Is voiceless phonation, and is extremely common with obstruents . If the arytenoids are pressed together for glottal closure , the vocal cords block the airstream, producing stop sounds such as the glottal stop . In between there is a sweet spot of maximum vibration. Also, the existence of an optimal glottal shape for ease of phonation has been shown, at which the lung pressure required to initiate
456-596: Is a 1,149-kilometer (714 mi)-long river that flows from Yunnan in Southwest China through northern Vietnam to the Gulf of Tonkin . According to C. Michael Hogan, the associated Red River Fault was instrumental in forming the entire South China Sea at least as early as 37 million years before present. The name red and southern position in China are associated in traditional cardinal directions . The river
513-551: Is a tonal language, so the glottis is making several tonal distinctions simultaneously with the phonation distinctions.) Javanese does not have modal voice in its stops , but contrasts two other points along the phonation scale, with more moderate departures from modal voice, called slack voice and stiff voice . The "muddy" consonants in Shanghainese are slack voice; they contrast with tenuis and aspirated consonants. Although each language may be somewhat different, it
570-482: Is also affected by the pressure drop across the larynx, which is mostly affected by the pressure in the lungs, and will also vary with the distance between the vocal folds. Variation in fundamental frequency is used linguistically to produce intonation and tone . There are currently two main theories as to how vibration of the vocal folds is initiated: the myoelastic theory and the aerodynamic theory . These two theories are not in contention with one another and it
627-456: Is based on the Bernoulli energy law in fluids . The theory states that when a stream of breath is flowing through the glottis while the arytenoid cartilages are held together (by the action of the interarytenoid muscles), a push-pull effect is created on the vocal fold tissues that maintains self-sustained oscillation. The push occurs during glottal opening, when the glottis is convergent, and
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#1732765902494684-408: Is called the phonation threshold pressure (PTP), and for humans with normal vocal folds, it is approximately 2–3 cm H 2 O. The motion of the vocal folds during oscillation is mostly lateral, though there is also some superior component as well. However, there is almost no motion along the length of the vocal folds. The oscillation of the vocal folds serves to modulate the pressure and flow of
741-565: Is common; indeed, in Australian languages it is nearly universal. In phonology , a register is a combination of tone and vowel phonation into a single phonological parameter. For example, among its vowels, Burmese combines modal voice with low tone, breathy voice with falling tone, creaky voice with high tone, and glottal closure with high tone. These four registers contrast with each other, but no other combination of phonation (modal, breath, creak, closed) and tone (high, low, falling)
798-406: Is convenient to classify these degrees of phonation into discrete categories. A series of seven alveolar stops, with phonations ranging from an open/lax to a closed/tense glottis, are: The IPA diacritics under-ring and subscript wedge , commonly called "voiceless" and "voiced", are sometimes added to the symbol for a voiced sound to indicate more lax/open (slack) and tense/closed (stiff) states of
855-411: Is found. Among vocal pedagogues and speech pathologists, a vocal register also refers to a particular phonation limited to a particular range of pitch , which possesses a characteristic sound quality. The term "register" may be used for several distinct aspects of the human voice: Four combinations of these elements are identified in speech pathology: the vocal fry register , the modal register ,
912-785: Is heard in many productions of French oui! , and the "voiceless" vowels of many North American languages are actually whispered. It has long been noted that in many languages, both phonologically and historically, the glottal consonants [ʔ, ɦ, h] do not behave like other consonants. Phonetically, they have no manner or place of articulation other than the state of the glottis: glottal closure for [ʔ] , breathy voice for [ɦ] , and open airstream for [h] . Some phoneticians have described these sounds as neither glottal nor consonantal, but instead as instances of pure phonation, at least in many European languages. However, in Semitic languages they do appear to be true glottal consonants. In
969-434: Is no phonation during its occurrence. In speech, voiceless phones are associated with vocal folds that are elongated, highly tensed, and placed laterally (abducted) when compared to vocal folds during phonation. Fundamental frequency, the main acoustic cue for the percept pitch , can be varied through a variety of means. Large scale changes are accomplished by increasing the tension in the vocal folds through contraction of
1026-412: Is quite possible that both theories are true and operating simultaneously to initiate and maintain vibration. A third theory, the neurochronaxic theory , was in considerable vogue in the 1950s, but has since been largely discredited. The myoelastic theory states that when the vocal cords are brought together and breath pressure is applied to them, the cords remain closed until the pressure beneath them,
1083-790: Is relatively shallow, and carries a lot of reddish silt along its way, appearing red brown in colour. The Red River begins in China 's Yunnan province in the mountains south of Dali . Main headstreams Leqiu River , Xi River and Juli River confluence at Nanjian where they form the Lishe River . The Lishe River meets with another headstream, the Yijie River at Hongtupo , Chuxiong Prefecture . It flows generally southeastward, passing through Yi and Dai ethnic minority areas before leaving China through Yunnan's Honghe Autonomous Prefecture . It enters Vietnam at Lào Cai province and forms
1140-500: Is still poorly understood. However, at least two supra-glottal phonations appear to be widespread in the world's languages. These are harsh voice ('ventricular' or 'pressed' voice), which involves overall constriction of the larynx, and faucalized voice ('hollow' or 'yawny' voice), which involves overall expansion of the larynx. The Bor dialect of Dinka has contrastive modal, breathy, faucalized, and harsh voice in its vowels, as well as three tones. The ad hoc diacritics employed in
1197-418: Is the process by which the vocal folds produce certain sounds through quasi-periodic vibration. This is the definition used among those who study laryngeal anatomy and physiology and speech production in general. Phoneticians in other subfields, such as linguistic phonetics, call this process voicing , and use the term phonation to refer to any oscillatory state of any part of the larynx that modifies
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#17327659024941254-694: The Chut group merges *-r and *-l finals to *-l, along with the other northern languages. Sidwell & Alves (2021) propose that the Vietic languages had dispersed from the Red River Delta , based on evidence from loanwords from early Sinitic and extensive Tai -Vietic contact possibly dating back to the Dong Son period . Chamberlain (2018:9) uses the term Kri-Mol to refer to the Vietic languages, and considers there to be two primary splits, namely Mol-Toum and Nrong-Theun . Chamberlain (2018:12) provides
1311-772: The Mlabri and Lua from Thailand, the Nicobarese from India ( Nicobar Islands ), and the Khmer from Cambodia ; meanwhile, "mixed genetics" from Đông Sơn culture 's Núi Nấp site showed affinity to " Dai from China, Tai-Kadai speakers from Thailand, and Austroasiatic speakers from Vietnam, including the Kinh "; therefore, "[t]he likely spread of Vietic was southward from the RRD, not northward. Accounting for southern diversity will require alternative explanations." The Vietnamese language
1368-686: The Nakai–Nam Theun Conservation Area of Laos and north-central Vietnam (Chamberlain 1998). Many of these speakers are referred to as Mường , Nhà Làng, and Nguồn. Chamberlain (1998) lists current locations in Laos for the following Vietic peoples. An overview based on first-hand fieldwork has been proposed by Michel Ferlus . In Vietnam, some Vietic hill-tribe peoples, including the Arem, Rục, Maliêng, and Mày (Cươi), were resettled at Cu Nhái (located either in western Quảng Bình Province or in
1425-405: The cricothyroid muscle . Smaller changes in tension can be effected by contraction of the thyroarytenoid muscle or changes in the relative position of the thyroid and cricoid cartilages , as may occur when the larynx is lowered or raised, either volitionally or through movement of the tongue to which the larynx is attached via the hyoid bone. In addition to tension changes, fundamental frequency
1482-641: The falsetto register , and the whistle register . Red River (Asia) The Red River , also known as the Hong River ( traditional Chinese : 紅河 ; simplified Chinese : 红河 ; pinyin : Hóng Hé ; Vietnamese : Sông Hồng ; Chữ Nôm : 瀧紅) and Sông Cái ( lit. "Main River"; Chữ Nôm : 瀧丐) in Vietnamese, and the Yuan River ( 元江 , Yuán Jiāng ) in Chinese,
1539-618: The freshet season, traveling upstream in an wupan was much more difficult than downstream. According to one report, one could descend from Manhao to Lao Cai in just 10 hours, while sailing in the reverse direction could take 10 days, and sometimes as much as one month. Several hydroelectric dams have been constructed on the Red River in Yunnan: Many more dams exist on the Red River's tributaries, both in Yunnan and in Vietnam. One of
1596-419: The source–filter theory , the resulting sound excites the resonance chamber that is the vocal tract to produce the individual speech sounds. The vocal folds will not oscillate if they are not sufficiently close to one another, are not under sufficient tension or under too much tension, or if the pressure drop across the larynx is not sufficiently large. In linguistics, a phone is called voiceless if there
1653-483: The Red River Delta region was originally Tai-speaking and became Vietnamese-speaking only between the seventh and ninth centuries AD as a result of emigration from the south, i.e., modern Central Vietnam , where the highly distinctive and conservative North-Central Vietnamese dialects are spoken today. Therefore, the region of origin of Vietnamese (and the earlier Viet–Muong) was well south of the Red River. On
1710-434: The Vietic branch dates back at least 2,500 years to 2,000 years (Chamberlain 1998); 3,500 years (Peiros 2004); or around 3,000 years (Alves 2020). Even so, archaeogenetics demonstrated that before the Đông Sơn period , the Red River Delta 's inhabitants were predominantly Austroasiatic: genetic data from Phùng Nguyên culture 's Mán Bạc burial site (dated 1,800 BC) have close proximity to modern Austroasiatic speakers such as
1767-564: The Vietic language is traditionally assumed to have been located in today's North Vietnam. However, the origin of the Vietic languages remains a controversial topic among linguists. Another theory, based on linguistic diversity, locates the most probable homeland of the Vietic languages in modern-day Bolikhamsai Province and Khammouane Province in Laos as well as parts of Nghệ An Province and Quảng Bình Province in Vietnam . The time depth of
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1824-508: The Vietic languages is from Chamberlain (2003:422), as quoted in Sidwell (2009:145). Unlike past classifications, there is a sixth "South" branch that includes Kri , a newly described language. Michel Ferlus (1992, 2013) notes that the 12-year animal cycle ( zodiac ) names in the Khmer calendar , from which Thai animal cycle names are also derived, and were borrowed from a phonologically conservative form of Viet-Muong. Ferlus contends that
1881-538: The Vietnamese language. Annamese Middle Chinese belonged to a Middle Chinese dialect continuum in southwestern China that eventually "diversified into" Waxiang Chinese , the Jiudu patois 九都土話 of Hezhou , Southern Pinghua , and various Xiang Chinese dialects (e.g., Xiangxiang 湘鄉, Luxi 瀘溪, Qidong 祁東, and Quanzhou 全州). Phan (2013) lists three major types of Sino-Vietnamese borrowings, which were borrowed during different eras: Vietic speakers reside in and around
1938-408: The air through the larynx, and this modulated airflow is the main component of the sound of most voiced phones . The sound that the larynx produces is a harmonic series . In other words, it consists of a fundamental tone (called the fundamental frequency, the main acoustic cue for the percept pitch ) accompanied by harmonic overtones, which are multiples of the fundamental frequency. According to
1995-411: The airstream, of which voicing is just one example. Voiceless and supra-glottal phonations are included under this definition. The phonatory process, or voicing, occurs when air is expelled from the lungs through the glottis , creating a pressure drop across the larynx. When this drop becomes sufficiently large, the vocal folds start to oscillate. The minimum pressure drop required to achieve phonation
2052-466: The animal cycle names were borrowed from a Viet-Muong (Northern Vietic) language rather than from a Southern Vietic language, since the vowel in the Old Khmer name for " snake " /m.saɲ/ corresponds to Viet-Muong /a/ rather than to Southern Vietic /i/. Phonation The term phonation has slightly different meanings depending on the subfield of phonetics . Among some phoneticians, phonation
2109-656: The area of Dong Son culture. Thus, Ferlus concludes that the Northern Vietic (Viet-Muong) is the direct heir of the Dongsonian, who had resided in the southern part of the Red River Delta and North Central Vietnam from the 1st millennium BC. Furthermore, John Phan (2013, 2016) argues that “Annamese Middle Chinese” was spoken in the Red River Valley and was then later absorbed into the coexisting Proto-Viet-Muong, one of whose divergent dialects evolved into
2166-523: The folds apart and the flow starts up again, causing the cycles to repeat. The textbook entitled Myoelastic Aerodynamic Theory of Phonation by Ingo Titze credits Janwillem van den Berg as the originator of the theory and provides detailed mathematical development of the theory. This theory states that the frequency of the vocal fold vibration is determined by the chronaxie of the recurrent nerve, and not by breath pressure or muscular tension. Advocates of this theory thought that every single vibration of
2223-464: The following classification of the Vietic languages, which was first proposed in Sidwell (2021). Below, the most divergent (basal) branches listed first. Vietic is split into two primary branches, Western (corresponding to the Thavung–Malieng branch) and Eastern (all of the non-Thavung–Malieng languages). The Thavung-Malieng group retains the most archaic lexicon and phonological features, while
2280-455: The following phylogenetic classification for the Vietic languages. Based on comparative studies by Ferlus (1982, 1992, 1997, 2001) and new studies in Muong languages by Phan (2012), Sidwell (2015) pointed out that Muong is a paraphyletic taxon and subgroups with Vietnamese. Sidwell's (2015) proposed internal classification for the Vietic languages is as follows. The following classification of
2337-620: The glottis, respectively. (Ironically, adding the 'voicing' diacritic to the symbol for a voiced consonant indicates less modal voicing, not more, because a modally voiced sound is already fully voiced, at its sweet spot, and any further tension in the vocal cords dampens their vibration.) Alsatian , like several Germanic languages, has a typologically unusual phonation in its stops. The consonants transcribed /b̥/, /d̥/, /ɡ̊/ (ambiguously called "lenis") are partially voiced: The vocal cords are positioned as for voicing, but do not actually vibrate. That is, they are technically voiceless, but without
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2394-416: The last few decades it has become apparent that phonation may involve the entire larynx, with as many as six valves and muscles working either independently or together. From the glottis upward, these articulations are: Until the development of fiber-optic laryngoscopy , the full involvement of the larynx during speech production was not observable, and the interactions among the six laryngeal articulators
2451-1030: The literature are a subscript double quotation mark for faucalized voice, [a͈] , and underlining for harsh voice, [a̠] . Examples are, Other languages with these contrasts are Bai (modal, breathy, and harsh voice), Kabiye (faucalized and harsh voice, previously seen as ±ATR ), Somali (breathy and harsh voice). Elements of laryngeal articulation or phonation may occur widely in the world's languages as phonetic detail even when not phonemically contrastive. For example, simultaneous glottal, ventricular, and arytenoid activity (for something other than epiglottal consonants ) has been observed in Tibetan , Korean , Nuuchahnulth , Nlaka'pamux , Thai , Sui , Amis , Pame , Arabic , Tigrinya , Cantonese , and Yi . In languages such as French and Portuguese , all obstruents occur in pairs, one modally voiced and one voiceless: [b] [d] [g] [v] [z] [ʒ] → [p] [t] [k] [f] [s] [ʃ]. In English , every voiced fricative corresponds to
2508-492: The open glottis usually associated with voiceless stops. They contrast with both modally voiced /b, d, ɡ/ and modally voiceless /p, t, k/ in French borrowings, as well as aspirated /kʰ/ word initially. If the arytenoid cartiledges are parted to admit turbulent airflow, the result is whisper phonation if the vocal folds are adducted, and whispery voice phonation (murmur) if the vocal folds vibrate modally. Whisper phonation
2565-483: The other hand, Ferlus (2009) showed that the inventions of pestle, oar and a pan to cook sticky rice, which is the main characteristic of the Đông Sơn culture , correspond to the creation of new lexicons for these inventions in Northern Vietic (Việt–Mường) and Central Vietic ( Cuoi-Toum ). The new vocabularies of these inventions were proven to be derivatives from original verbs rather than borrowed lexical items. The current distribution of Northern Vietic also corresponds to
2622-408: The plural, verbal, and possessive endings spelled -s (voiced in kids /kɪdz/ but voiceless in kits /kɪts/ ), and the past-tense ending spelled -ed (voiced in buzzed /bʌzd/ but voiceless in fished /fɪʃt/ ). A few European languages, such as Finnish , have no phonemically voiced obstruents but pairs of long and short consonants instead. Outside Europe, the lack of voicing distinctions
2679-416: The pull occurs during glottal closing, when the glottis is divergent. Such an effect causes a transfer of energy from the airflow to the vocal fold tissues which overcomes losses by dissipation and sustain the oscillation. The amount of lung pressure needed to begin phonation is defined by Titze as the oscillation threshold pressure. During glottal closure, the air flow is cut off until breath pressure pushes
2736-511: The rainy season, during the dry season (November to April) steamship would not go upstream of Yên Bái ; thus, during that part of the year goods were moved by small vessels ( junks ). Thanks to the river, Haiphong was in the early 20th century the sea port most easily accessible from Kunming. Still, the travel time between Haiphong and Kunming was reckoned by the Western authorities at 28 days: it involved 16 days of travel by steamer and then
2793-443: The rest of the family, is considered a milestone in the development of historical linguistics . Vietic languages show a typological range from a Chinese or Tai typology to a typical Mon-Khmer Austroasiatic typology, including (a) complex tonal systems, complex phonation systems or blends; (b) C(glide)VC or CCVC syllable templates; monosyllabic or polysyllabic and isolating or agglutinative typology. Sidwell & Alves (2021) propose
2850-542: The river and its main distributaries, the Đuống River , Kinh Thầy River , Bạch Đằng River and the Thái Bình river system spread out to form the Red River Delta . The Red River flows past the Vietnamese capital Hanoi before emptying into the Gulf of Tonkin . Its estuary is an important Ramsar site and forms the main part of the Xuân Thủy National Park . The reddish-brown heavily silt-laden water gives
2907-402: The river its name. The Red River is notorious for its violent floods with its seasonally wide volume fluctuations. Intense seasonal floods are made worse by erosion, development, and pollution. The delta is a major agricultural area of Vietnam with vast area devoted to rice. The land is protected by an elaborate network of dikes and levees . In the 19th century, the Red River was thought to be
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#17327659024942964-461: The southwest of Hương Khê District in Hà Tĩnh Province ). The Sách are also found in Vietnam. The following table lists the lifestyles of various Vietic-speaking ethnic groups. Unlike the neighboring Tai ethnic groups, many Vietic groups are not paddy agriculturalists. The discovery that Vietnamese was a Mon–Khmer language, and that its tones were a regular reflection of non-tonal features in
3021-437: The subglottic pressure, is sufficient to push them apart, allowing air to escape and reducing the pressure enough for the muscle tension recoil to pull the folds back together again. The pressure builds up once again until the cords are pushed apart, and the whole cycle keeps repeating itself. The rate at which the cords open and close, the number of cycles per second, determines the pitch of the phonation. The aerodynamic theory
3078-446: The vocal cord vibration is minimum. This is modal voice , and is the normal state for vowels and sonorants in all the world's languages. However, the aperture of the arytenoid cartilages, and therefore the tension in the vocal cords, is one of degree between the end points of open and closed, and there are several intermediate situations utilized by various languages to make contrasting sounds. For example, Gujarati has vowels with
3135-643: The vocal folds was due to an impulse from the recurrent laryngeal nerves and that the acoustic center in the brain regulated the speed of vocal fold vibration. Speech and voice scientists have long since abandoned this theory as the muscles have been shown to not be able to contract fast enough to accomplish the vibration. In addition, persons with paralyzed vocal folds can produce phonation, which would not be possible according to this theory. Phonation occurring in excised larynges would also not be possible according to this theory. In linguistic phonetic treatments of phonation, such as those of Peter Ladefoged , phonation
3192-426: Was considered to be a matter of points on a continuum of tension and closure of the vocal cords. More intricate mechanisms were occasionally described, but they were difficult to investigate, and until recently the state of the glottis and phonation were considered to be nearly synonymous. If the vocal cords are completely relaxed, with the arytenoid cartilages apart for maximum airflow, the cords do not vibrate. This
3249-637: Was identified as Austroasiatic in the mid-nineteenth century, and there is now strong evidence for this classification. Modern Vietnamese has lost many Proto-Austroasiatic phonological and morphological features. Vietnamese also has large stocks of borrowed Chinese vocabulary. However, there continues to be resistance to the idea that Vietnamese could be more closely related to Khmer than to Chinese or Tai languages among Vietnamese nationalists. The vast majority of scholars attribute typological similarities with Sinitic and Tai to language contact rather than to common inheritance. Chamberlain (1998) argues that
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