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97-559: English has largely lost its inflected case system but personal pronouns still have three cases, which are simplified forms of the nominative, accusative (including functions formerly handled by the dative ) and genitive cases. They are used with personal pronouns : subjective case (I, you, he, she, it, we, they, who, whoever), objective case (me, you, him, her, it, us, them, whom, whomever) and possessive case (my, mine; your, yours; his; her, hers; its; our, ours; their, theirs; whose; whosever). Forms such as I , he and we are used for

194-577: A definite article (the), mixed inflection after an indefinite article (a/an), and strong inflection when a quantity is indicated (many green apples). There are several uses for the dative case ( Dativus ): In addition to its main function as the dativus , the dative case has other functions in Classical Greek : (The chart below uses the Latin names for the types of dative; the Greek name for

291-461: A now largely archaic -e ending for certain nouns in the dative. It survives today almost exclusively in set phrases such as zu Hause (at home, lit. to house), im Zuge (in the course of), and am Tage (during the day, lit. at the day), as well as in occasional usage in formal prose, poetry, and song lyrics. Some masculine nouns (and one neuter noun, Herz [heart]), referred to as weak nouns or n-nouns , take an -n or -en in

388-876: A pattern different from the one that has been used historically can give rise to a new word, such as older replacing elder (where older follows the normal pattern of adjectival comparatives ) and cows replacing kine (where cows fits the regular pattern of plural formation). In the 19th century, philologists devised a now classic classification of languages according to their morphology. Some languages are isolating , and have little to no morphology; others are agglutinative whose words tend to have many easily separable morphemes (such as Turkic languages ); others yet are inflectional or fusional because their inflectional morphemes are "fused" together (like some Indo-European languages such as Pashto and Russian ). That leads to one bound morpheme conveying multiple pieces of information. A standard example of an isolating language

485-761: A possession relation, would consist of two words or even one word in many languages. Unlike most other languages, Kwak'wala semantic affixes phonologically attach not to the lexeme they pertain to semantically but to the preceding lexeme. Consider the following example (in Kwak'wala, sentences begin with what corresponds to an English verb): kwixʔid-i-da clubbed- PIVOT - DETERMINER bəgwanəma i -χ-a man- ACCUSATIVE - DETERMINER q'asa-s-is i otter- INSTRUMENTAL - 3SG - POSSESSIVE t'alwagwayu club kwixʔid-i-da bəgwanəma i -χ-a q'asa-s-is i t'alwagwayu clubbed-PIVOT-DETERMINER man-ACCUSATIVE-DETERMINER otter-INSTRUMENTAL-3SG-POSSESSIVE club "the man clubbed

582-431: A singular/plural and a possessive/non-possessive distinction (e.g. chair , chairs , chair's , chairs' ); there is no manifest difference in the form of chair between "The chair is here." (subject) and "I own the chair." (direct object), a distinction made instead by word order and context. Cases can be ranked in the following hierarchy, where a language that does not have a given case will tend not to have any cases to

679-399: A speaker of Kwak'wala does not perceive the sentence to consist of these phonological words: kwixʔid clubbed i-da-bəgwanəma PIVOT -the-man i χ-a-q'asa hit-the-otter s-is i -t'alwagwayu with-his i -club kwixʔid i-da-bəgwanəma χ-a-q'asa s-is i -t'alwagwayu clubbed PIVOT-the-man i hit-the-otter with-his i -club A central publication on this topic is

776-496: A variety of factors, such as gender , number , phonological environment, and irregular historical factors. Pronouns sometimes have separate paradigms. In some languages, particularly Slavic languages , a case may contain different groups of endings depending on whether the word is a noun or an adjective . A single case may contain many different endings, some of which may even be derived from different roots. For example, in Polish,

873-418: A word form is said to be the result of applying rules that alter a word-form or stem in order to produce a new one. An inflectional rule takes a stem, changes it as is required by the rule, and outputs a word form; a derivational rule takes a stem, changes it as per its own requirements, and outputs a derived stem; a compounding rule takes word forms, and similarly outputs a compound stem. Word-based morphology

970-549: Is (usually) a word-and-paradigm approach. The theory takes paradigms as a central notion. Instead of stating rules to combine morphemes into word forms or to generate word forms from stems, word-based morphology states generalizations that hold between the forms of inflectional paradigms. The major point behind this approach is that many such generalizations are hard to state with either of the other approaches. Word-and-paradigm approaches are also well-suited to capturing purely morphological phenomena, such as morphomes . Examples to show

1067-418: Is a morpheme plural using allomorphs such as -s , -en and -ren . Within much morpheme-based morphological theory, the two views are mixed in unsystematic ways so a writer may refer to "the morpheme plural" and "the morpheme -s " in the same sentence. Lexeme-based morphology usually takes what is called an item-and-process approach. Instead of analyzing a word form as a set of morphemes arranged in sequence,

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1164-465: Is called "morphosyntax"; the term is also used to underline the fact that syntax and morphology are interrelated. The study of morphosyntax concerns itself with inflection and paradigms, and some approaches to morphosyntax exclude from its domain the phenomena of word formation, compounding, and derivation. Within morphosyntax fall the study of agreement and government . Above, morphological rules are described as analogies between word forms: dog

1261-401: Is determined by the preposition, not by its function in the sentence. Consider this sentence: Here, the subject , Ich , is in the nominative case , the direct object, das Buch , is in the accusative case , and zum Verleger is in the dative case, since zu always requires the dative ( zum is a contraction of zu + dem ). However: In this sentence, Freund is

1358-425: Is expressed as wegen dem Wetter instead of the formally correct wegen des Wetters . Other prepositions requiring the genitive in formal language, are combined with von ("of") in colloquial style, e.g. außerhalb vom Garten instead of außerhalb des Gartens ("outside the garden"). The concept of an indirect object may be rendered by a prepositional phrase. In this case, the noun's or pronoun's case

1455-409: Is lying on the table), but Ich lege das Buch auf den Tisch (accusative: I put the book onto the table). In addition the four prepositions [an]statt (in place of), trotz (in spite of), während (during), and wegen (because of) which require the genitive in modern formal language, are most commonly used with the dative in colloquial German. For example, "because of the weather"

1552-418: Is not at all clear-cut. There are many examples for which linguists fail to agree whether a given rule is inflection or word formation. The next section will attempt to clarify the distinction. Word formation includes a process in which one combines two complete words, but inflection allows the combination of a suffix with a verb to change the latter's form to that of the subject of the sentence. For example: in

1649-663: Is often marked in English with a preposition . For example, the English prepositional phrase with (his) foot (as in "John kicked the ball with his foot") might be rendered in Russian using a single noun in the instrumental case , or in Ancient Greek as τῷ ποδί ( tôi podí , meaning "the foot") with both words (the definite article, and the noun πούς ( poús ) "foot") changing to dative form. More formally, case has been defined as "a system of marking dependent nouns for

1746-722: Is the process or result of altering nouns to the correct grammatical cases. Languages with rich nominal inflection (using grammatical cases for many purposes) typically have a number of identifiable declension classes, or groups of nouns with a similar pattern of case inflection or declension. Sanskrit has six declension classes, whereas Latin is traditionally considered to have five , and Ancient Greek three . For example, Slovak has fifteen noun declension classes , five for each gender (the number may vary depending on which paradigms are counted or omitted, this mainly concerns those that modify declension of foreign words; refer to article). In Indo-European languages, declension patterns may depend on

1843-399: Is to dogs as cat is to cats and dish is to dishes . In this case, the analogy applies both to the form of the words and to their meaning. In each pair, the first word means "one of X", and the second "two or more of X", and the difference is always the plural form -s (or -es ) affixed to the second word, which signals the key distinction between singular and plural entities. One of

1940-487: The -s in dogs is not pronounced the same way as the -s in cats , and in plurals such as dishes , a vowel is added before the -s . Those cases, in which the same distinction is effected by alternative forms of a "word", constitute allomorphy . Phonological rules constrain the sounds that can appear next to each other in a language, and morphological rules, when applied blindly, would often violate phonological rules by resulting in sound sequences that are prohibited in

2037-645: The Balto-Slavic branch, the Germanic branch, Albanian and others. It also exists in similar forms in several non-Indo-European languages, such as the Uralic family of languages. In some languages, the dative case has assimilated the functions of other, now extinct cases. In Ancient Greek , the dative has the functions of the Proto-Indo-European locative and instrumental as well as those of

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2134-485: The Marāḥ Al-Arwāḥ of Aḥmad b. 'Alī Mas'ūd, date back to at least 1200 CE. The term "morphology" was introduced into linguistics by August Schleicher in 1859. The term "word" has no well-defined meaning. Instead, two related terms are used in morphology: lexeme and word-form . Generally, a lexeme is a set of inflected word-forms that is often represented with the citation form in small capitals . For instance,

2231-707: The Serbo-Croatian language are: Dativus finalis ( Titaniku u pomoć "to Titanic's rescue"), Dativus commodi/incommodi (Operi svojoj majci suđe "Wash the dishes for your mother"), Dativus possessivus ( Ovcama je dlaka gusta "Sheep's hair is thick"), Dativus ethicus (Šta/što mi radi Boni? "What is Boni doing? (I am especially interested in what it is)") and Dativus auctoris (Izgleda mi okej "It seems okay to me"). Unusual in other Indo-European branches but common among Slavic languages , endings of nouns and adjectives are different based on grammatical function. Other factors are gender and number. In some cases,

2328-658: The conjugations of verbs and the declensions of nouns. Also, arranging the word forms of a lexeme into tables, by classifying them according to shared inflectional categories such as tense , aspect , mood , number , gender or case , organizes such. For example, the personal pronouns in English can be organized into tables by using the categories of person (first, second, third); number (singular vs. plural); gender (masculine, feminine, neuter); and case (nominative, oblique, genitive). The inflectional categories used to group word forms into paradigms cannot be chosen arbitrarily but must be categories that are relevant to stating

2425-429: The prosodic -phonological lack of freedom of bound morphemes . The intermediate status of clitics poses a considerable challenge to linguistic theory. Given the notion of a lexeme, it is possible to distinguish two kinds of morphological rules. Some morphological rules relate to different forms of the same lexeme, but other rules relate to different lexemes. Rules of the first kind are inflectional rules, but those of

2522-1494: The subject (" I kicked John"), and forms such as me , him and us are used for the object ("John kicked me "). As a language evolves, cases can merge (for instance, in Ancient Greek , the locative case merged with the dative), a phenomenon known as syncretism . Languages such as Sanskrit , Kannada , Latin , Tamil , and Russian have extensive case systems, with nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and determiners all inflecting (usually by means of different suffixes ) to indicate their case. The number of cases differs between languages: Persian has three; modern English has three but for pronouns only; Torlakian dialects , Classical and Modern Standard Arabic have three; German , Icelandic , Modern Greek , and Irish have four; Albanian , Romanian and Ancient Greek have five; Bengali , Latin, Russian, Slovak , Kajkavian , Slovenian , and Turkish each have at least six; Armenian , Czech , Georgian , Latvian , Lithuanian , Polish , Serbo-Croatian and Ukrainian have seven; Mongolian , Marathi , Sanskrit, Kannada, Tamil, Telugu , Malayalam , Assamese and Greenlandic have eight; Old Nubian and Sinhalese have nine; Basque has 13; Estonian has 14; Finnish has 15; Hungarian has 18; and Tsez has at least 36 cases. Commonly encountered cases include nominative , accusative , dative and genitive . A role that one of those languages marks by case

2619-439: The syntactic rules of the language. Person and number are categories that can be used to define paradigms in English because the language has grammatical agreement rules, which require the verb in a sentence to appear in an inflectional form that matches the person and number of the subject. Therefore, the syntactic rules of English care about the difference between dog and dogs because the choice between both forms determines

2716-405: The "accusative" and "dative" labels as obsolete in reference to English, often using the term "objective" for oblique. The dative case is rare in modern English usage, but it can be argued that it survives in a few set expressions. One example is the word "methinks", with the meaning "it seems to me". It survives in this fixed form from Old English (having undergone, however, phonetic changes with

2813-574: The "first," "second," "third" and so on. For example, the common "when-then" construction is called the सति सप्तमी (Sati Saptami) or "The Good Seventh" as it uses the locative, which is the seventh case. In the most common case concord system, only the head-word (the noun) in a phrase is marked for case. This system appears in many Papuan languages as well as in Turkic , Mongolian , Quechua , Dravidian , Indo-Aryan , and other languages. In Basque and various Amazonian and Australian languages , only

2910-707: The Indo-European languages had eight morphological cases , although modern languages typically have fewer, using prepositions and word order to convey information that had previously been conveyed using distinct noun forms. Among modern languages, cases still feature prominently in most of the Balto-Slavic languages (except Macedonian and Bulgarian), with most having six to eight cases, as well as Icelandic , German and Modern Greek , which have four. In German, cases are mostly marked on articles and adjectives, and less so on nouns. In Icelandic, articles, adjectives, personal names and nouns are all marked for case, making it

3007-409: The Latin casus , which is derived from the verb cadere , "to fall", from the Proto-Indo-European root *ḱad- . The Latin word is a calque of the Greek πτῶσις , ptôsis , lit. "falling, fall". The sense is that all other cases are considered to have "fallen" away from the nominative. This imagery is also reflected in the word declension , from Latin declinere , "to lean", from

Grammatical case - Misplaced Pages Continue

3104-541: The Old English dative pronoun "hwām" (as opposed to the modern subjective "who", which descends from Old English "hwā") – though "whom" also absorbed the functions of the Old English accusative pronoun "hwone". It is also cognate to the word " wem " (the dative form of " wer ") in German. The OED defines all classical uses of the word "whom" in situations where the indirect object is not known – in effect, indicating

3201-756: The PIE root *ḱley- . The equivalent to "case" in several other European languages also derives from casus , including cas in French, caso in Italian and Kasus in German. The Russian word паде́ж ( padyézh ) is a calque from Greek and similarly contains a root meaning "fall", and the German Fall and Czech pád simply mean "fall", and are used for both the concept of grammatical case and to refer to physical falls. The Dutch equivalent naamval translates as 'noun case', in which 'noun' has

3298-468: The accusative or the vocative cases are placed after the nominative and before the genitive. For example: For similar reasons, the customary order of the four cases in Icelandic is nominative–accusative–dative–genitive, as illustrated below: Sanskrit similarly arranges cases in the order nominative-accusative-instrumental-dative-ablative-genitive-locative-vocative. The cases are individually named as

3395-517: The accusative, genitive, and dative have merged to an oblique case, but many of these languages still retain vocative, locative, and ablative cases. Old English had an instrumental case, but neither a locative nor a prepositional case. The traditional case order (nom-gen-dat-acc) was expressed for the first time in The Art of Grammar in the 2nd century BC: Πτώσεις ὀνομάτων εἰσὶ πέντε· ὀρθή, γενική, δοτική, αἰτιατική, κλητική. There are five Cases,

3492-427: The addition of the affix derives a new lexeme. The word independent , for example, is derived from the word dependent by using the prefix in- , and dependent itself is derived from the verb depend . There is also word formation in the processes of clipping in which a portion of a word is removed to create a new one, blending in which two parts of different words are blended into one, acronyms in which each letter of

3589-436: The anonymity of the indirect object. Likewise, some of the object forms of personal pronouns are remnants of Old English datives. For example, "him" goes back to the Old English dative him (accusative was hine ), and "her" goes back to the dative hire (accusative was hīe ). These pronouns are not pure datives in modern English; they are also used for functions previously indicated by the accusative. The indirect object of

3686-407: The associations indicated between the concepts in each item in that list are very strong, they are not absolute. In morpheme-based morphology, word forms are analyzed as arrangements of morphemes . A morpheme is defined as the minimal meaningful unit of a language. In a word such as independently , the morphemes are said to be in- , de- , pend , -ent , and -ly ; pend is the (bound) root and

3783-451: The book to the man " and as "I sent the man the book", where the indirect object is identified in English by standing in front of the direct object. The normal word order in German is to put the dative in front of the accusative (as in the example above). However, since the German dative is marked in form, it can also be put after the accusative: Ich schickte das Buch dem Mann(e) . The (e) after Mann and Kind signifies

3880-425: The bus stop, in the future John is waiting for us at the bus stop . We will see what will happen in the future . by hand with John This letter was written by hand . I took a trip there with John . All of the above are just rough descriptions; the precise distinctions vary significantly from language to language, and as such they are often more complex. Case is based fundamentally on changes to

3977-651: The concept of ' NOUN-PHRASE 1 and NOUN-PHRASE 2 ' (as in "apples and oranges") is to suffix '-que' to the second noun phrase: "apples oranges-and". An extreme level of the theoretical quandary posed by some phonological words is provided by the Kwak'wala language. In Kwak'wala, as in a great many other languages, meaning relations between nouns, including possession and "semantic case", are formulated by affixes , instead of by independent "words". The three-word English phrase, "with his club", in which 'with' identifies its dependent noun phrase as an instrument and 'his' denotes

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4074-594: The dative case fairly well: (o-stems) vaikas -> sg. vaikui, pl. vaikams; (ā-stems) ranka -> sg. rankai, pl. rankoms; (i-stems) viltis -> sg. vilčiai, pl. viltims; (u-stems) sūnus -> sg. sūnui, pl. sūnums; (consonant stems) vanduo -> sg. vandeniui, pl. vandenims. Adjectives in the dative case receive pronominal endings (this might be the result of a more recent development): tas geras vaikas -> sg. t am ger am vaikui, pl. t iems ger iems vaikams. The dative case in Latvian underwent further simplifications –

4171-541: The dative case has to be constructed using the dative case-marker (postposition) को کو (ko) to the nouns in their oblique case. Pronouns in Hindustani also have an oblique case, so dative pronouns can also be alternatively constructed using the dative case-marker को کو (ko) with the pronouns in their oblique case, hence forming two sets of synonymous dative pronouns. The following table shows the pronouns in their nominative and their dative forms. Hindustani lacks pronouns in

4268-477: The dative is δοτική πτῶσις, like its Latin equivalent, derived from the verb "to give"; in Ancient Greek, δίδωμι.) The articles in the Greek dative are The dative case, strictly speaking, no longer exists in Modern Greek, except in fossilized expressions like δόξα τω Θεώ (from the ecclesiastical τῷ Θεῷ δόξα, "Glory to God") or εν τάξει (ἐν τάξει, lit. "in order", i.e. "all right" or "OK"). Otherwise, most of

4365-542: The dative singular and plural. Many are masculine nouns ending in -e in the nominative (such as Name [name], Beamte [officer], and Junge [boy]), although not all such nouns follow this rule. Many also, whether or not they fall into the former category, refer to people, animals, professions, or titles; exceptions to this include the aforementioned Herz and Name , as well as Buchstabe (letter), Friede (peace), Obelisk (obelisk), Planet (planet), and others. Certain German prepositions require

4462-654: The dative: aus (from), außer (out of), bei (at, near), entgegen (against), gegenüber (opposite), mit (with), nach (after, to), seit (since), von (from), and zu (at, in, to). Some other prepositions ( an [at], auf [on], entlang [along], hinter [behind], in [in, into], neben (beside, next to), über [over, across], unter [under, below], vor [in front of], and zwischen [among, between]) may be used with dative (indicating current location), or accusative (indicating direction toward something). Das Buch liegt auf dem Tisch(e) (dative: The book

4559-460: The definite article -ն. But the dative case encompasses indefinite objects as well, which will not be marked by -ին: The main function of the dative marking in Armenian is to indicate the receiving end of an action, more commonly the indirect object which in English is preceded by the preposition to . In the use of "giving" verbs like give, donate, offer, deliver, sell, bring... the dative marks

4656-405: The definite article. In Georgian and Hindustani ( Hindi - Urdu ), the dative case can also mark the subject of a sentence. This is called the dative construction . In Hindi , the dative construction is not limited to only certain verbs or tenses and it can be used with any verb in any tense or mood. The dative was common among early Indo-European languages and has survived to the present in

4753-439: The direct object of the verb is rendered in the dative. For example: These verbs cannot be used in normal passive constructions, because German allows these only for verbs with accusative objects. It is therefore ungrammatical to say: * Ich werde geholfen. "I am helped." Instead a special construction called "impersonal passive" must be used: Mir wird geholfen , literally: "To me is helped." A colloquial (non-standard) way to form

4850-509: The doctor." Dative is also the necessary case taken by certain prepositions when expressing certain ideas. For instance, when the preposition по is used to mean "along", its object is always in dative case, as in По бокам , meaning "along the sides." Other Slavic languages apply the dative case (and the other cases) more or less the same way as does Russian; some languages may use the dative in other ways. The following examples are from Polish : Some other kinds of dative use as found in

4947-435: The effectiveness of word-based approaches are usually drawn from fusional languages , where a given "piece" of a word, which a morpheme-based theory would call an inflectional morpheme, corresponds to a combination of grammatical categories, for example, "third-person plural". Morpheme-based theories usually have no problems with this situation since one says that a given morpheme has two categories. Item-and-process theories, on

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5044-426: The ending may not be obvious, even when those three factors (function, gender, number) are considered. For example, in Polish, ' syn' ("son") and ' ojciec' ("father") are both masculine singular nouns, yet appear as syn → syn owi and ojciec → ojc u in the dative. Both Lithuanian and Latvian have a distinct dative case in the system of nominal declensions. Lithuanian nouns preserve Indo-European inflections in

5141-545: The form of the verb that is used. However, no syntactic rule shows the difference between dog and dog catcher , or dependent and independent . The first two are nouns, and the other two are adjectives. An important difference between inflection and word formation is that inflected word forms of lexemes are organized into paradigms that are defined by the requirements of syntactic rules, and there are no corresponding syntactic rules for word formation. The relationship between syntax and morphology, as well as how they interact,

5238-459: The functions of the dative are expressed by the genitive or by prepositional phrases . In Russian , the dative case is used for indicating the indirect object of an action (that to which something is given, thrown, read, etc.). In the instance where a person is the goal of motion, dative is used instead of accusative to indicate motion toward. This is usually achieved with the preposition κ + destination in dative case; К врачу , meaning "to

5335-509: The genitive case has -a, -u, -ów, -i/-y, -e- for nouns, and -ego, -ej, -ich/-ych for adjectives. To a lesser extent, a noun's animacy or humanness may add another layer of complexity. For example, in Russian: Кот Kot-∅ cat- NOM . AN . ловит Dative case In grammar , the dative case ( abbreviated dat , or sometimes d when it is a core argument ) is a grammatical case used in some languages to indicate

5432-401: The history of a language. The basic fields of linguistics broadly focus on language structure at different "scales". Morphology is considered to operate at a scale larger than phonology , which investigates the categories of speech sounds that are distinguished within a spoken language, and thus may constitute the difference between a morpheme and another. Conversely, syntax is concerned with

5529-513: The idea of the morpheme while accommodating non-concatenated, analogical, and other processes that have proven problematic for item-and-arrangement theories and similar approaches. Morpheme-based morphology presumes three basic axioms: Morpheme-based morphology comes in two flavours, one Bloomfieldian and one Hockettian . For Bloomfield, the morpheme was the minimal form with meaning, but did not have meaning itself. For Hockett, morphemes are "meaning elements", not "form elements". For him, there

5626-420: The indirect object, but, because it follows an (direction), the accusative is required, not the dative. All of the articles change in the dative case. Some German verbs require the dative for their direct objects . Common examples are antworten (to answer), danken (to thank), gefallen (to please), folgen (to follow), glauben (to believe), helfen (to help), and raten (to advise). In each case,

5723-411: The language in question. For example, to form the plural of dish by simply appending an -s to the end of the word would result in the form *[dɪʃs] , which is not permitted by the phonotactics of English. To "rescue" the word, a vowel sound is inserted between the root and the plural marker, and [dɪʃɪz] results. Similar rules apply to the pronunciation of the -s in dogs and cats : it depends on

5820-449: The largest sources of complexity in morphology is that the one-to-one correspondence between meaning and form scarcely applies to every case in the language. In English, there are word form pairs like ox/oxen , goose/geese , and sheep/sheep whose difference between the singular and the plural is signaled in a way that departs from the regular pattern or is not signaled at all. Even cases regarded as regular, such as -s , are not so simple;

5917-438: The lexeme eat contains the word-forms eat, eats, eaten, and ate . Eat and eats are thus considered different word-forms belonging to the same lexeme eat . Eat and Eater , on the other hand, are different lexemes, as they refer to two different concepts. Here are examples from other languages of the failure of a single phonological word to coincide with a single morphological word form. In Latin , one way to express

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6014-495: The main function of the dative case is to render the indirect object in a sentence: (lt) aš duodu vyrui knygą; (lv) es dodu [duodu] vīram grāmatu – I am giving a book to the man . The dative case can also be used with gerundives to indicate an action preceding or simultaneous with the main action in a sentence: (lt) jam įėjus, visi atsistojo – when he walked in, everybody stood up , lit. to him having walked in, all stood up ; (lt) jai miegant, visi dirbo – while she slept, everybody

6111-402: The more extensive case system of Old English ). For other pronouns, and all nouns, adjectives, and articles, grammatical function is indicated only by word order , by prepositions , and by the " Saxon genitive " ( -'s ). Taken as a whole, English personal pronouns are typically said to have three morphological cases: Most English personal pronouns have five forms: the nominative case form,

6208-474: The most conservative Germanic language . The eight historical Indo-European cases are as follows, with examples either of the English case or of the English syntactic alternative to case: John waited for us at the bus stop. Obey the law . The clerk gave a discount to us . According to the law ... of (the) The pages of the book turned yellow. The table is made out of wood . Hello, John! O John , how are you! (archaic) at

6305-405: The new word represents a specific word in the representation (NATO for North Atlantic Treaty Organization ), borrowing in which words from one language are taken and used in another, and coinage in which a new word is created to represent a new object or concept. A linguistic paradigm is the complete set of related word forms associated with a given lexeme. The familiar examples of paradigms are

6402-587: The next-largest scale, and studies how words in turn form phrases and sentences. Morphological typology is a distinct field that categorises languages based on the morphological features they exhibit. The history of ancient Indian morphological analysis dates back to the linguist Pāṇini , who formulated the 3,959 rules of Sanskrit morphology in the text Aṣṭādhyāyī by using a constituency grammar . The Greco-Roman grammatical tradition also engaged in morphological analysis. Studies in Arabic morphology, including

6499-455: The noun to indicate the noun's role in the sentence – one of the defining features of so-called fusional languages . Old English was a fusional language, but Modern English does not work this way. Modern English has largely abandoned the inflectional case system of Proto-Indo-European in favor of analytic constructions. The personal pronouns of Modern English retain morphological case more strongly than any other word class (a remnant of

6596-424: The oblique case form, a distinct reflexive or intensive form (such as myself , ourselves ) which is based upon the possessive determiner form but is coreferential to a preceding instance of nominative or oblique, and the possessive case forms, which include both a determiner form (such as my , our ) and a predicatively-used independent form (such as mine , ours ) which is distinct (with two exceptions:

6693-704: The older meaning of both 'adjective (noun)' and '(substantive) noun'. The Finnish equivalent is sija , whose main meaning is "position" or "place". Similar to Latin, Sanskrit uses the term विभक्ति (vibhakti) which may be interpreted as the specific or distinct "bendings" or "experiences" of a word, from the verb भुज् (bhuj) and the prefix वि (vi) , and names the individual cases using ordinal numbers. Although not very prominent in modern English, cases featured much more saliently in Old English and other ancient Indo-European languages , such as Latin , Old Persian , Ancient Greek , and Sanskrit . Historically,

6790-574: The original dative. Under the influence of English, which uses the preposition "to" for (among other uses) both indirect objects ( give to ) and directions of movement ( go to ), the term "dative" has sometimes been used to describe cases that in other languages would more appropriately be called lative . "Dative" comes from Latin cāsus datīvus ("case for giving"), a translation of Greek δοτικὴ πτῶσις, dotikē ptôsis ("inflection for giving"). Dionysius Thrax in his Art of Grammar also refers to it as epistaltikḗ "for sending (a letter)", from

6887-436: The original masculine endings of both nouns and adjectives have been replaced with pronominal inflections: tas vīrs -> sg. tam vīram, pl. tiem vīriem. Also, the final "s" in all Dative forms has been dropped. The only exception is personal pronouns in the plural: mum s (to us), jum s (to you). In colloquial Lithuanian the final "s" in the dative is often omitted, as well: time geriem vaikam. In both Latvian and Lithuanian,

6984-462: The other hand, often break down in cases like these because they all too often assume that there will be two separate rules here, one for third person, and the other for plural, but the distinction between them turns out to be artificial. The approaches treat these as whole words that are related to each other by analogical rules. Words can be categorized based on the pattern they fit into. This applies both to existing words and to new ones. Application of

7081-452: The other morphemes are, in this case, derivational affixes. In words such as dogs , dog is the root and the -s is an inflectional morpheme. In its simplest and most naïve form, this way of analyzing word forms, called "item-and-arrangement", treats words as if they were made of morphemes put after each other (" concatenated ") like beads on a string. More recent and sophisticated approaches, such as distributed morphology , seek to maintain

7178-408: The otter with his club." That is, to a speaker of Kwak'wala, the sentence does not contain the "words" 'him-the-otter' or 'with-his-club' Instead, the markers - i-da ( PIVOT -'the'), referring to "man", attaches not to the noun bəgwanəma ("man") but to the verb; the markers - χ-a ( ACCUSATIVE -'the'), referring to otter , attach to bəgwanəma instead of to q'asa ('otter'), etc. In other words,

7275-434: The passive voice for dative verbs is the following: Ich kriege geholfen , or: Ich bekomme geholfen , literally: "I get helped". The use of the verb "to get" here reminds us that the dative case has something to do with giving and receiving. In German, help is not something you perform on somebody, but rather something you offer them. The dative case is also used with reflexive ( sich ) verbs when specifying what part of

7372-422: The phrase-final word (not necessarily the noun) is marked for case. In many Indo-European , Finnic , and Semitic languages , case is marked on the noun, the determiner, and usually the adjective. Other systems are less common. In some languages, there is double-marking of a word as both genitive (to indicate semantic role) and another case such as accusative (to establish concord with the head noun). Declension

7469-418: The present indefinite, 'go' is used with subject I/we/you/they and plural nouns, but third-person singular pronouns (he/she/it) and singular nouns causes 'goes' to be used. The '-es' is therefore an inflectional marker that is used to match with its subject. A further difference is that in word formation, the resultant word may differ from its source word's grammatical category , but in the process of inflection,

7566-441: The quality (voiced vs. unvoiced) of the final preceding phoneme . Lexical morphology is the branch of morphology that deals with the lexicon that, morphologically conceived, is the collection of lexemes in a language. As such, it concerns itself primarily with word formation: derivation and compounding. There are three principal approaches to morphology and each tries to capture the distinctions above in different ways: While

7663-467: The recipient or beneficiary of an action, as in " Maria Jacobo potum dedit ", Latin for "Maria gave Jacob a drink". In this example, the dative marks what would be considered the indirect object of a verb in English. Sometimes the dative has functions unrelated to giving. In Scottish Gaelic and Irish , the term dative case is used in traditional grammars to refer to the prepositional case -marking of nouns following simple prepositions and

7760-525: The recipient. With communicative verbs like tell, say, advise, explain, ask, answer... the dative marks the listener. Other verbs whose indirect objects are marked by the dative case in Armenian are show, reach, look, approach... Eastern Armenian also uses the dative case to mark the time of an event, in the same way English uses the preposition at , as in Meet me at nine o' clock. Hindustani ( Hindi - Urdu ) has true dative case for pronouns, but for nouns

7857-425: The rest of the language), in which it was constructed as "[it]" + "me" (the dative case of the personal pronoun) + "thinks" (i.e., "seems", < Old English þyncan, "to seem", a verb closely related to the verb þencan, "to think", but distinct from it in Old English; later it merged with "think" and lost this meaning). The modern objective case pronoun whom is derived from the dative case in Old English, specifically

7954-404: The right [nominative], the generic [genitive], the dative, the accusative, and the vocative. Latin grammars, such as Ars grammatica , followed the Greek tradition, but added the ablative case of Latin. Later other European languages also followed that Graeco-Roman tradition. However, for some languages, such as Latin, due to case syncretism the order may be changed for convenience, where

8051-408: The right of the missing case: This is, however, only a general tendency. Many forms of Central German , such as Colognian and Luxembourgish , have a dative case but lack a genitive. In Irish nouns, the nominative and accusative have fallen together, whereas the dative–locative has remained separate in some paradigms; Irish also has genitive and vocative cases. In many modern Indo-Aryan languages,

8148-405: The road) ~ pl. pa (+D) ceļiem (along the roads) . In modern Eastern Armenian, the dative is attained by adding any article to the genitive: There is a general tendency to view -ին as the standard dative suffix, but only because that is its most productive (and therefore common) form. The suffix -ին as a dative marker is nothing but the standard, most common, genitive suffix -ի accompanied by

8245-433: The second kind are rules of word formation . The generation of the English plural dogs from dog is an inflectional rule, and compound phrases and words like dog catcher or dishwasher are examples of word formation. Informally, word formation rules form "new" words (more accurately, new lexemes), and inflection rules yield variant forms of the "same" word (lexeme). The distinction between inflection and word formation

8342-503: The self the verb is being done to: Cf. the respective accord in French : " Les enfants se sont lavé s " ("The children have washed themselves") vs. " Les enfants se sont lavé [uninflected] les mains " ("... their hands"). German can use two datives to make sentences like: Sei mir meinem Sohn(e) gnädig! "For my sake, have mercy on my son!" Literally: "Be for me to my son merciful." The first dative mir ("for me") expresses

8439-680: The sentence. It is widely accepted that the Ancient Greeks had a certain idea of the forms of a name in their own language. A fragment of Anacreon seems to prove this. Grammatical cases were first recognized by the Stoics and from some philosophers of the Peripatetic school . The advancements of those philosophers were later employed by the philologists of the Library of Alexandria . The English word case used in this sense comes from

8536-694: The smallest units in a language with some independent meaning . Morphemes include roots that can exist as words by themselves, but also categories such as affixes that can only appear as part of a larger word. For example, in English the root catch and the suffix -ing are both morphemes; catch may appear as its own word, or it may be combined with -ing to form the new word catching . Morphology also analyzes how words behave as parts of speech , and how they may be inflected to express grammatical categories including number , tense , and aspect . Concepts such as productivity are concerned with how speakers create words in specific contexts, which evolves over

8633-440: The speaker's commiseration (much like the dativus ethicus in Latin, see below). The second dative meinem Sohn(e) ("to my son") names the actual object of the plea. Mercy is to be given to the son for or on behalf of his mother/father. Adjective endings also change in the dative case. There are three inflection possibilities depending on what precedes the adjective. They most commonly use weak inflection when preceded by

8730-425: The third person and the demonstrative pronouns double as the third person pronouns. [1] میں Morphology (linguistics) In linguistics , morphology ( mor- FOL -ə-jee ) is the study of words , including the principles by which they are formed, and how they relate to one another within a language . Most approaches to morphology investigate the structure of words in terms of morphemes , which are

8827-564: The third person singular masculine he and the third person singular neuter it , which use the same form for both determiner and independent [ his car , it is his ]). The interrogative personal pronoun who exhibits the greatest diversity of forms within the modern English pronoun system, having definite nominative, oblique, and genitive forms ( who , whom , whose ) and equivalently-coordinating indefinite forms ( whoever , whomever , and whosever ). Although English pronouns can have subject and object forms (he/him, she/her), nouns show only

8924-532: The type of relationship they bear to their heads ". Cases should be distinguished from thematic roles such as agent and patient . They are often closely related, and in languages such as Latin, several thematic roles are realised by a somewhat fixed case for deponent verbs, but cases are a syntagmatic/phrasal category, and thematic roles are the function of a syntagma/phrase in a larger structure. Languages having cases often exhibit free word order , as thematic roles are not required to be marked by position in

9021-550: The verb epistéllō "send to", a word from the same root as epistle . The Old English language had a dative case; however, the English case system gradually fell into disuse during the Middle English period, when the accusative and dative of pronouns merged into a single oblique case that was also used with all prepositions. This conflation of case in Middle and Modern English has led most modern grammarians to discard

9118-415: The verb may be placed between the verb and the direct object of the verb: "he gave me a book" or "he wrote me a poem." The indirect object may also be expressed using a prepositional phrase using "to": "he gave a book to me ". In general, the dative (German: Dativ ) is used to mark the indirect object of a German sentence. For example: In English, the first sentence can be rendered as "I sent

9215-426: The volume edited by Dixon and Aikhenvald (2002), examining the mismatch between prosodic-phonological and grammatical definitions of "word" in various Amazonian, Australian Aboriginal, Caucasian, Eskimo, Indo-European, Native North American, West African, and sign languages. Apparently, a wide variety of languages make use of the hybrid linguistic unit clitic , possessing the grammatical features of independent words but

9312-534: The word never changes its grammatical category. There is a further distinction between two primary kinds of morphological word formation: derivation and compounding . The latter is a process of word formation that involves combining complete word forms into a single compound form. Dog catcher , therefore, is a compound, as both dog and catcher are complete word forms in their own right but are subsequently treated as parts of one form. Derivation involves affixing bound (non-independent) forms to existing lexemes, but

9409-518: Was working , lit. to her sleeping, all were working . In modern standard Lithuanian, Dative case is not required by prepositions, although in many dialects it is done frequently: (dial.) iki (+D) šiai dienai, (stand.) iki (+G) šios dienos – up until this day . In Latvian, the dative case is taken by several prepositions in the singular and all prepositions in the plural (due to peculiar historical changes): sg. bez (+G) tevis (without thee) ~ pl. bez (+D) jums (without you) ; sg. pa (+A) ceļu (along

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