A political union is a type of political entity which is composed of, or created from, smaller polities, or the process which achieves this. These smaller polities are usually called federated states and federal territories in a federal government ; and prefectures , regions , or provinces in the case of a centralised government . This form of government may be created through voluntary and mutual cession and is described as unionism by its constituent members and proponents. In other cases, it may arise from political unification , characterised by coercion and conquest . The unification of separate states which, in the past, had together constituted a single entity is known as reunification . Unlike a personal union or real union , the individual constituent entities may have devolution of powers but are subordinate to a central government or coordinated in some sort of organization. In a federalised system, the constituent entities usually have internal autonomy , for example in the setup of police departments , and share power with the federal government, for whom external sovereignty , military forces , and foreign affairs are usually reserved. The union is recognised internationally as a single political entity. A political union may also be called a legislative union or state union. A union may be effected in many forms, broadly categorized as:
106-503: The Economic Community of West African States ( ECOWAS ; also known as CEDEAO in French and Portuguese) is a regional political and economic union of fifteen countries of West Africa . Collectively, the countries comprise an area of 5,114,162 km (1,974,589 sq mi) and have an estimated population of over 424.34 million. Considered one of the pillar regional blocs of the continent-wide African Economic Community (AEC),
212-445: A "foreign power" of preparing "an attack" on the country in coordination with ECOWAS. The Nigerien military began bringing in reinforcements to Niamey in anticipation of an invasion, with a convoy of about 40 pick-up trucks arriving at nightfall. Italian foreign minister Antonio Tajani called on ECOWAS to extend the ultimatum's deadline. Mali and Burkina Faso announced plans to send delegates to Niger to "express solidarity" with
318-460: A State for up to ninety days. Most ECOWAS states have instituted an ECOWAS brown card, which provides prompt, fair, and immediate compensation for any motor accident which occurs outside a motorist's home-country. While monitoring committees exist to ensure all three phases of the protocol are successfully implemented, their work is vague and has not been credited with effective and efficient production of data. The largest challenges assosicated within
424-734: A barrier towards gaining reliable travel statistics. For example, Francophone countries in the region have issued national identity cards that can be used similarly to a passport. These cards permit citizens to cross borders after presenting their identity cards. However, Anglophone countries have only just begun distributing a similar form of identification. Consequently, immigration officials in Anglophone countries commonly reject Francophone national identity cards and do not permit Francophone citizens to cross into their borders. Further, these structural barriers are exasperated between different social classes. Middle-class individuals typically experience
530-617: A former Portuguese colony , became the organisation's eighth (and only non- francophone ) member state. UEMOA is a customs union and currency union between the members of ECOWAS. Its objectives include: Among its achievements, the UEMOA has successfully implemented macro-economic convergence criteria and an effective surveillance mechanism. It has adopted a customs union and common external tariff and has combined indirect taxation regulations, in addition to initiating regional structural and sectoral policies. A September 2002 IMF survey cited
636-482: A full legislative union and a federation . In his 1839 Report , in discussing the proposed union of Upper and Lower Canada , he says: Two kinds of union have been proposed – federal and legislative. By the first, the separate legislature of each province would be preserved in its present form and retain almost all its present attributes of internal legislation, the federal legislature exercising no power save in those matters which may have been expressly ceded to it by
742-547: A guarantee of the continuance of the civil laws and the existing courts in Scotland (a continuing guarantee), which was significant for both parties. The Scottish, despite economic troubles during the Seven Ill Years preceding the union, still had remaining negotiating power. This marks a delineation of states that are able to ensure preservation of interests: there has to be some mutually beneficial reasoning behind
848-485: A harmonized African wrestling code. The Community, through the EYSDC, also organized 2 editions of ECOWAS International Cycling tour, taking close to 100 riders from all member states, from Lagos to Accra and then from Lagos to Abidjan . In addition to the sports and well-being objective of the tour, the race also served to demonstrate and put into practice ECOWAS protocol on free movement of goods and persons. In 2019,
954-473: A matter of practice or to comply with a guarantee given in the terms of the union. These guarantees may be to ensure the success of a proposed union (or in the least to prevent continuing resistance), as occurred in the union of Brittany and France in 1532 ( Union of Brittany and France ) in which a guarantee was given for the continuance of laws and of the Estates of Brittany (a guarantee revoked in 1789 at
1060-722: A military alliance, the Alliance of Sahel States , following ECOWAS's threat to intervene to restore civilian rule in Niger. On 21 November 2023, Niger's military government asked the ECOWAS regional court to order the lifting of sanctions imposed on the country. Until the coup, aid from countries like the United States and international organizations like ECOWAS accounted for almost half of Niger's annual budget. Following Niger's ECOWAS suspension, Niger's neighbours closed their borders to
1166-515: A military intervention in Niger if approved by ECOWAS. The military junta blocked France 24 and Radio France Internationale (RFI) in Niger, as had happened months before in Mali and Burkina Faso. France 24 was followed weekly by a quarter of the Nigerien population and RFI was the most followed international station in the country. France Médias Monde , the owner of both media networks, protested
SECTION 10
#17327909706691272-612: A more integrated use of digital technology. As of March 2023, Council members mentioned that phases one and two of the Ecotour Action Plan have come to an end and that the community is moving into phase three and four, which focuses on the development of tourist accommodations establishments, and a proposal for a regional mechanism to enforce tourist regulations. By the end of phase five, ECOWAS hopes to have unified accommodations in hotels, ecolodges, motels, apart hotels , and hostels. In April 2023, tourism experts met to amend
1378-599: A new associate-membership agreement in August 2017. Mali was suspended from ECOWAS on 30 May 2021, following its second military coup within nine months. Guinea was also suspended on 8 September 2021, shortly after a military coup took place in the country. Sanctions were placed on both countries on 16 September. On 10 January 2022, Mali announced its decision to close its borders and recalled several ambassadors with ECOWAS in response to sanctions imposed for deferring elections for four years. On 28 January 2022, Burkina Faso
1484-464: A new state is created, the former states being entirely dissolved into the new state (although some aspects may be preserved; see below ). Incorporating unions have been present throughout much of history, such as when: Nevertheless, a full incorporating union may preserve the laws and institutions of the former states, as happened in the creating of the United Kingdom. This may be simply
1590-404: A political crisis and to get the attention of the citizens toward the unification's necessity is in the hands of the elites. Despite it being quite rare, in some cases it works (see Old Swiss Confederacy and the confederation of the United States ), while in most of the cases it turns to be a failure or leads to a forced unification (Italy, URSS) where the unified states are deeply unequal. From
1696-579: A realist perspective, small states can unify in order to face strong states or to conquer weak ones. One of the reasons to seek unification to a stronger state besides a common threat can be a situation of negligence or ignorance on behalf of the weak state which is, to simplify it, desperate and almost derelict. According to a 1975 study by University of Rochester political scientist William Riker , unions were motivated by security threats. According to Ryan Griffiths, all instances of mutually wilful unification from 1816 onwards were between states that spoke
1802-656: A return to civilian rule. ECOWAS consists of two operating institutions to implement policies: the ECOWAS Commission and the ECOWAS Bank for Investment and Development (EBID) – formerly known as the Fund for Cooperation, until it was renamed in 2001. In addition, ECOWAS includes the following institutions: ECOWAS Commission, Community Court of Justice, Community Parliament, ECOWAS Bank for Investment and Development (EBID), West African Health Organisation (WAHO), and
1908-606: A series of military coups and anti-French sentiment which paved the way for Russian influence and the entry of its private mercenary firm Wagner Group in the region. At the same time, it paved the way for Turkish influence in the region. The military junta accused ECOWAS in a statement read by Abdramane on Télé Sahel of planning to approve "a plan of aggression against Niger through an imminent military intervention in Niamey supported by certain Western countries" and warned of
2014-483: A single large trade bloc. ECOWAS also serves as a peacekeeping force in the region, with member states occasionally sending joint military forces to intervene in the bloc's member countries at times of political instability and unrest. In recent years these included interventions in Sierra Leone in 1997 , Ivory Coast in 2003 , Liberia in 1990 and 2003 , Guinea-Bissau in 1999 and 2012 , Mali in 2013 , and
2120-416: A smoother border-crossing process than working-class individuals and impoverished citizens who do not have travel documents and are not fluent in the language of the countries they are crossing into. A Trans-ECOWAS project, established in 2007, plans to upgrade railways in this zone. In 2019, ECOWAS unveiled its Ecotour Action Plan 2019 – 2029. It focuses on tourism heritage protection and development and on
2226-411: A unitary state becomes a federated unit of another existing state, the former continuing its legal existence. The new federated state thus ceases to be a state in international law but retains its legal existence in domestic law, subsidiary to the federal authority. Prominent historical federal annexations include: The unification of Italy involved a mixture of unions. The kingdom consolidated around
SECTION 20
#17327909706692332-411: Is a group of six countries within ECOWAS that plan to introduce a common currency called the eco . The six member states of WAMZ are Gambia , Ghana , Guinea , Nigeria and Sierra Leone who founded the organisation together in 2000 and Liberia who joined on 16 February 2010. Apart from Guinea, which is francophone, they are all English-speaking countries. Along with Mauritania , Guinea opted out of
2438-526: Is an organisation of eight, mainly francophone West African states within ECOWAS, previously colonies of French West Africa . It was established to promote economic integration among countries that share the CFA franc as a common currency. UEMOA was created by a Treaty signed at Dakar , Senegal, on 10 January 1994, by the heads of state and governments of Benin , Burkina Faso , Ivory Coast , Mali , Niger , Senegal , and Togo . On 2 May 1997, Guinea-Bissau ,
2544-655: Is the very last option on the table, the last resort, but we have to prepare for the eventuality." However, the delegates failed to meet with Tchiani and other junta members and left the same day. Another pro-coup demonstration was held in Niamey's Independence Square on the occasion of Niger's 63rd Independence Day . This time, security forces blocked roads leading to the French and U.S. embassies to prevent attacks and vandalism. Senegal 's foreign minister, Aïssata Tall Sall , and her counterpart in Benin , Shegun Adjadi Bakari , confirmed that their countries would participate in
2650-506: Is to provide mutual defense, pool resources to build energy and communications infrastructure, establish a common market , implement a monetary union under proposed currency the Sahel , allow free movement of persons , enable industrialization , and invest in agriculture, mines and energy sectors, with the end goal of federalizing into a single sovereign state . The move is seen as a strong move away from ECOWAS, which has been pressing for
2756-685: The 2012 ECOWAS Games and the Miss CEDEAO beauty pageant . The Community Heads of State and Government adopted African Traditional Wrestling as the Community sport, and through its specialised agency in charge of youth and sports development, the Ouagadougou -based ECOWAS Youth and Sports Development Centre (EYSDC), has consistently organised the yearly ECOWAS African Wrestling Tournament mainly in Dakar (Senegal) and Niamey (Niger) based on
2862-574: The CFA franc currency shared by all other former French colonies in West and Central Africa . The WAMZ attempts to establish a strong stable currency to rival the CFA franc, whose exchange rate is tied to that of the euro and is guaranteed by the French Treasury . The eventual goal is for the CFA franc and eco to merge, giving all of West and Central Africa a single, stable currency. The launch of
2968-550: The French Revolution ). The assurance that institutions are preserved in a union of states can also occur as states realize that, whilst a power imbalance exists (such as between the economic conditions of Scotland and England prior to the Acts of Union 1707 ), it is not so great that it precludes the ability of concessions to be made. The Treaty of Union for creating the unified Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707 contained
3074-703: The Kingdom of Prussia annexed numerous petty states in 1866. In addition to regional movements, supranational and continental unions that promote progressive integration between its members started appearing in the second half of the 20th century, first by the European Union (EU). Other examples of such unions include the ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations), the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation Forum , and
3180-601: The Kingdom of Sardinia , with which several states voluntarily united to form the Kingdom of Italy . Others polities, such as the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and the Papal States , were conquered and annexed. Formally, the union in each territory was sanctioned by a popular referendum where people were formally asked if they agreed to have as their new ruler Vittorio Emanuele II of Sardinia and his legitimate heirs. The unification of Germany began in earnest when
3286-750: The Pacific Islands Forum . The political position of the United Kingdom is often discussed, as well as former states like Serbia and Montenegro (2003–2006), the Soviet Union (1922–1991) and the United Arab Republic (1958–1961). Lord Durham was widely regarded as one of the most important thinkers in the history of the British Empire 's constitutional evolution. He articulated the difference between
ECOWAS - Misplaced Pages Continue
3392-590: The Presidential Palace in Niamey , and Interior Minister Hamadou Souley was also arrested. The coup was led by General Abdourahamane Tchiani , whom Bazoum had planned to relieve from his position. In the evening, Air Force Colonel-Major Amadou Abdramane announced on state television that Bazoum had been removed from power and announced the formation of a National Council for the Safeguard of
3498-717: The Russian invasion of Ukraine , thousands of pro-coup Nigeriens gathered in Niamey's Place de la Concertation, in front of the National Assembly , and went to the French Embassy carrying Nigerien, Russian and North Korean flags, with slogans such as "Down with France, out with Barkhane, we don't care about ECOWAS, the European Union and the African Union !", "Arrest the former dignitaries to return
3604-812: The United Nations Security Council strongly condemned the coup and expressed support for ECOWAS and the AU. On 30 July, ECOWAS issued the Nigerien military junta with an ultimatum that Bazoum be reinstated as president within one week. In a communiqué read by ECOWAS Commission chairperson Omar Touray , at the Extraordinary Summit convened in Abuja , Nigeria in response to the coup, they said that if their demands were not met they would "take all measures necessary to restore constitutional order" in Niger and that "such measures may include
3710-480: The 2010 decade; the best performance was recorded by Côte d'Ivoire (annual growth rate of 6.72%) and the lowest one by Guinea Bissau (3.85%). However, positive progress has been made in economic distribution since the foundation of WAMEU, with the mean dispersion of economic growth in the region being 1.26 before the creation and 0.73 after. Formed in 2000, the West African Monetary Zone (WAMZ)
3816-589: The 90-day visa-free window enhanced human mobility in the region, creating positive impacts on trade and economic development. In December 2000, the ECOWAS passport was introduced as a common passport that functions as an international travel document, and member states are currently in the process of implementing a joint visa for non-ECOWAS citizens. Additionally, ECOWAS has worked to ease the movement of people transported in private and commercial vehicles by implementing policies that enable vehicles to enter and reside in
3922-569: The ECOWAS Commission's Commissioner for Economic Affairs and Agriculture, pointed out the improvements in the tourist sector due to the African Continental Free Trade Area , a trade agreement signed by 44 members of the African Union which creates a single market for goods and services. Mrs. Toure-Liste praised the trade area for providing development opportunities, economic growth, and boosting regional integration. Political union In an incorporating union
4028-822: The ECOWAS region a first-class tourist destination in Africa. During its creation, ECOWAS ministers also called on ecotourism programs to protect threatened biodiversity in the Guinean Forests , which span into seven ECOWAS member states. Similar to the Free Movement of People Protocol, Ecotour aims to integrate aviation and ground transportation. ECOWAS hopes that this regional approach will allow states to fight against pandemics such as COVID-19 to restore tourism and ecosystems. Ecotour works to create increasing returns to its members' economies by lowering transport costs, developing hospitality training centers and creating
4134-489: The EYSDC instituted ECOWAS Abuja International Marathon. The first edition brought together international marathoners from West Africa, Kenya , Ethiopia and Cameroon . Similarly, the Community, through its specialised agency, promotes regional sports development by offering sponsorship to regional sports federations and specialized disciplines such as the West African Deaf Sports Union (WADSU),
4240-469: The Ecotour Action Plan 2019–2029. The Free Movement of Persons Protocol permits citizens the right to enter and reside in any member state's territory, and the Ecotour Action Plan aims to develop and integrate the tourist industry of each member state. ECOWAS also serves as a peacekeeping force in the region, with member states occasionally sending joint military forces to intervene in
4346-761: The Gambia in 2017 . The United States, France, and many other countries and groups have been involved in Niger because of the Islamist insurgency in the Sahel , which in turn triggered the Jihadist insurgency in Niger led by Al-Qaeda , the Islamic State group and Boko Haram . The United States, France, and Turkey have had bases in the country. In 2022, it became a hub of French anti-terror operations after its departure from Mali and Burkina Faso following
ECOWAS - Misplaced Pages Continue
4452-546: The Homeland , dissolution of the country's Constitution, the suspension of all state institutions, the closure of borders, and a nationwide curfew from 22:00 until 05:00 local time, while warning against any foreign intervention. Subsequently, all activities by political parties in the country were ordered suspended until further notice. Despite his detention, Bazoum has so far refused to resign. While declaring himself acting head of state and calling for resistance against
4558-666: The Inter-Governmental Action Group against Money Laundering and Terrorism Financing in West Africa (GIABA). ECOWAS includes two sub-regional blocks: ECOWAS operates in three co-official languages—French, English, and Portuguese. ECOWAS nations assigned a non-aggression protocol in 1990 along with two earlier agreements in 1978 and 1981. They also signed a Protocol on Mutual Defence Assistance in Freetown, Sierra Leone, on 29 May 1981, that provided for
4664-439: The Nigerien government is not recognized by ECOWAS and therefore does not have the power to ask the regional court for a removal of these sanctions. On 28 January 2024, Niger , Mali , and Burkina Faso announced via a joint statement that they were withdrawing from ECOWAS "without delay". The three nations, all of which are currently ruled by military juntas, accused ECOWAS of implementing "inhumane" sanctions in order to reverse
4770-481: The Nigerien junta. Conversely, the military juntas in Burkina Faso and Mali announced they would send troops in support of the junta were such a military intervention launched while forming a mutual defense pact . On 24 February 2024, ECOWAS announced that it was lifting sanctions on Niger, purportedly for humanitarian purposes. On 26 July 2023, President Mohamed Bazoum and his family were detained at
4876-486: The Nigerien military junta headed by General Salifou Mody traveled to Bamako , Mali, and then to Ouagadougou , Burkina Faso. Speculation arose as to whether they went to ask for the support of the Wagner Group, which has a presence in Mali. In a televised address, Tchiani called the sanctions imposed on the country "cynical and iniquitous" and said they were intended to "humiliate" Niger's security forces and make
4982-602: The Revised Treaty. It also provides ECOWAS Council with advisory opinions on legal issues (Article 10). Like its companion courts, the European Court of Human Rights and East African Court of Justice , it has jurisdiction to rule on fundamental human rights breaches. ECOWAS nations organise a broad array of cultural and sports events under the auspices of the body, including the CEDEAO Cup in football ,
5088-491: The Safeguard of the Homeland , after confirming the success of the coup. In response to this development, the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) issued an ultimatum on 30 July, giving the coup leaders in Niger one week to reinstate Bazoum, with the threat of international sanctions and potential use of force . When the deadline of the ultimatum expired on 6 August, no military intervention
5194-417: The UEMOA as "the furthest along the path toward integration" of all the regional groupings in Africa. ECOWAS and UEMOA have developed a common plan of action on trade liberalisation and macroeconomic policy convergence. The organizations have also agreed on common rules of origin to enhance trade, and ECOWAS has agreed to adopt UEMOA's customs declaration forms and compensation mechanisms. However, within
5300-846: The West African Liaison Office of the International Council for Military Sports (WALO-CISM), the Region 2 of the African Athletics Federation, and the West African University Games (WAUG), among others. The ECOWAS Youth Policy Strategic Plan of Action (SPAO) is a 10-year plan that aims to promote youth development and empowerment in the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS). The SPAO
5406-462: The attack on its embassy, the French government warned that attacks on its nationals, military personnel, diplomats and interests would lead to an immediate and intractable response. On the behest of ECOWAS, Chad 's president Mahamat Déby met with Tchiani and Bazoum at the presidential palace in Niamey. The Chadian Presidency released pictures of the meeting, marking Bazoum's first appearance since
SECTION 50
#17327909706695512-406: The bloc's member countries at times of political instability and unrest. In 2024, Niger , Burkina Faso , and Mali announced their withdrawal from the bloc. The countries had earlier been suspended from ECOWAS due to military takeovers of their respective governments . In December 2024, the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) meets in conclave, at a meeting of the heads of state of
5618-431: The bloc's member countries at times of political instability and unrest. ECOWAS facilitates peacekeeping through systematic collaboration with civil society, cooperation with development policies, and other activities with the goal to meet sub-regional security challenges. It has played an important role in monitoring transitional election in West Africa, and these mediation efforts have even been recognized within and outside
5724-526: The case of Mali, removed French as an official language. However, the group has been cited for mild and ineffective responses in the early 2020s, when three member countries experienced military coups d'état – two in Mali, one in Guinea, and two in Burkina Faso. When a fourth member, Niger, experienced a coup d'état in July 2023 , ECOWAS was vocal in its condemnation and raised the possibility of military action if
5830-545: The constituent provinces. A legislative union would imply a complete incorporation of the provinces included in it under one legislature, exercising universal and sole legislative authority over all of them in exactly the same manner as the Parliament legislates alone for the whole of the British Isles. However, unification is not merely voluntary. To meet this requirement, we need to have a balance of power between
5936-505: The continent of Africa. In recent years these included interventions in Ivory Coast in 2003 , Liberia in 2003 , Guinea-Bissau in 2012 , Mali in 2013 , and The Gambia in 2017 . Since its creation, ECOWAS has sent peacekeeping forces seven times. In 2011, ECOWAS adopted its development blueprint for the next decade, Vision 2020 , and, to accompany it, a Policy on Science and Technology ( ECOPOST ). However, it has had trouble achieving
6042-573: The country "ungovernable". He insisted that his regime would not give in to such threats and called on citizens to defend the country. ECOWAS sent another delegation to Niger to negotiate with the junta, this time led by former Nigerian military leader Abdulsalami Abubakar and also including the Sultan of Sokoto , Muhammadu Sa'ad Abubakar , and Omar Touray , president of the ECOWAS Commission. Abdel-Fatau Musah , ECOWAS Commissioner for Political Affairs, Peace and Security said that "The military option
6148-425: The country and 70 percent of its electricity, coming from Nigeria, was cut off. While these sanctions and consequences that have followed have impacted the individuals and economy of Niger, the government is not backing down. As a result of the suspension, children have not been able to attend school due to lack of supplies, and businesses are shutting down due to rising costs. Further, the ECOWAS lawyer pointed out that
6254-510: The country and accusing him of covering up the country's situation. Tchiani did not give a timeline for a return to civilian rule. The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) is a regional, political and economic union of fifteen countries in West Africa, covering an area of 5,114,162 km (1,974,589 sq mi) and with an estimated population of over 387 million in 2019. Established in 1975, ECOWAS aims to achieve collective self-sufficiency for its member states by creating
6360-515: The coup, Bazoum's Foreign Minister Hassoumi Massaoudou told France 24 that the country's "legal and legitimate power" remained with the President. However, the leadership of the Nigerien armed forces declared its support for the coup to protect the President and avoid "a deadly confrontation." On 28 July, Tchiani proclaimed himself as the president of the junta, saying that he had deposed Bazoum to avoid "the gradual and inevitable demise" of
6466-407: The coup. Meanwhile, Colonel Abdremane accused Hassoumi Massaoudou, still claiming to be acting leader substituting for Bazoum, of authorizing a French attack on the presidential palace to liberate Bazoum. The French Foreign Ministry denied there were any such plans. Bazoum's oil minister Mahamane Sani Mahamadou (son of former president Mahamadou Issoufou ), mining minister Ousseini Hadizatou and
SECTION 60
#17327909706696572-466: The coups in each nation. Under the ECOWAS protocol, immediate withdrawal is not possible, and the three member states could remain in the bloc for up to a year. ECOWAS said in a statement that "Burkina Faso, Niger and Mali remain important members of the Community and the Authority remains committed to finding a negotiated solution to the political impasse." On 24 February 2024, ECOWAS announced that it
6678-538: The crisis by more diplomatic means and to "tread with caution". However, the Constitution of Nigeria still permits the President to deploy troops abroad without Senate approval if the President believes the national security is under "imminent threat or danger". A group of senators representing regions near or bordering Niger stated their opposition to military intervention. Chad announced that it would not participate in an ECOWAS-led military intervention against
6784-455: The curfew it imposed since 26 July. Tinubu requested the Senate of Nigeria to authorize an intervention in Niger. Images revealed that in recent days Nigerian troops had accumulated on the border with Niger. A former adviser to Bazoum told CNN that some 130 officials from his government had been arrested since the coup, while many others were in hiding. The United States announced that it
6890-464: The decision. The junta also announced Niger's withdrawal from its military agreements with France, notably those allowing French troops to be stationed in the country and regulating the status of military personnel fighting Islamist jihad on Nigerien soil. In a separate announcement, after peace talks failed, it ordered the withdrawal of Niger's ambassadors to France, Nigeria, Togo and the United States. In response, France said that it took note of
6996-430: The deposed president was not reinstated by 7 August 2023. Due to the Nigerien military's refusal to restore civilian rule, ECOWAS activated its standby force composed of all other members except for Mali, Burkina Faso, Guinea and Cape Verde. On 6 July 2024, the military leaders of Niger, Mali, and Burkina Faso signed a new pact to form a confederation, a political union of sovereign states . The confederation's stated goal
7102-583: The development of standards, regulations, and control systems. The plan includes five programs for implementation, and detailed mechanisms for monitoring and evaluation. Ecotourism is not specifically developed, yet it has been mentioned that the program has the opportunity to create linkages between institutions and stakeholder collaboration to suit ecotourism projects that prioritize community, biodiversity, and socioeconomics. The Ecotour Plan prioritizes local development, especially in generating skilled and unskilled jobs for marginalized individuals, and aims to make
7208-535: The establishment of an Allied Armed Force of the Community. The Community Parliament consists of 115 members, distributed based on the population of each member state. This body is headed by the Speaker of the Parliament, who is above the Secretary General. For the third time since its inception in 1975, ECOWAS is undergoing institutional reforms. The first was when it revised its treaty on 24 July 1993;
7314-476: The facilitation and establishment of business through the right of citizens to manage economic activities in countries other than their country of origin. However, this right has not been fully established in the ECOWAS region. While these three phases promoting freedom of movement within the ECOWAS region is more advanced than in any other regional grouping in Africa, only the first phase has been fully implemented by all ECOWAS countries. The complete implementation of
7420-525: The formal or informal preservation of interests. In the Union creating the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland in 1801, no such guarantee was given for the laws and courts of the Kingdom of Ireland , though they were continued as a matter of practice. The informal recognition of such interests represents the different circumstances of the two Unions, the small base of institutional power in Ireland at
7526-558: The goals outlined in the policy. Covering a region known as a " coup belt ", ECOWAS, since the 1990s, has attempted to defend the region's shift towards democracy against authoritarian attacks. According to the BBC, since 1990, 78% of the 27 coups in sub-Saharan Africa have taken place in former French colonies. This has led some to question whether French influence in Africa has a destabilising impact. The transition governments in Mali and Burkina Faso cancelled military agreements that allow for French troops to operate on their territory, and in
7632-718: The head of the PNDS national executive committee, Foumakoye Gado were arrested by the military junta. This followed the arrests of Transport Minister Oumarou Malam Alma and former defense minister Kalla Moutari the previous week. The Central Bank of West African States (BCEAO) cancelled a planned 30 billion CFA franc ($ 51 million) bond issuance by Niger in the West African regional debt market. The military junta announced that it had reopened Niger's borders with Algeria , Burkina Faso, Mali, Libya , and Chad. Rolling blackouts were reported across cities in Niger, which
7738-579: The implementation of the protocol occur due to lack of commitment and enforceability. More so, there is a lack of access to readily available migrant information in the ECOWAS region. This poses a barrier to freedom of movement as immigration officials in member states are unaware that individuals who hold valid travel documents can enter their country freely. Therefore, West African migrants, who are entitled to enter through regular channels, leave their countries without proper travel documents and enter other countries illegally. This illegal and irregular entry poses
7844-505: The junta's "strong determination" to defend the country. They claimed that this was the objective of the ECOWAS summit convened for the following day. The African Union Peace and Security Council issued an ultimatum that if the soldiers did not "immediately and unconditionally return to their barracks and restore constitutional democracy, within a maximum of fifteen days" that the bloc would be compelled to take "necessary action, including punitive measures against perpetrators". Members of
7950-485: The junta's actions, but proceeded to remind them that the deals were signed between "legitimate" authorities. In an opinion piece published in The Washington Post , Bazoum, calling himself a "hostage", called on the United States and the international community to restore constitutional order in Niger, warning that the coup would have devastating domestic and international consequences. The junta lifted
8056-565: The junta, through General Salifou Mody , had formally asked for assistance from the Wagner Group during his visit to Mali. After meeting with Bazoum's Prime Minister Ouhoumoudou Mahamadou in Paris, French Foreign Minister Catherine Colonna announced the country's support for an ECOWAS intervention in Niger, without specifying whether it would provide military support. The Nigerian Senate rejected President Tinubu's request to authorize military intervention in Niger, instead urging him to resolve
8162-470: The junta. The one-week deadline for the military junta to hand power back to Bazoum or face military intervention expired without ECOWAS carrying out its threat. In Niamey, around 30,000 people joined a pro-junta demonstration at Stade Général Seyni Kountché that was also attended by junta member General Mohamed Toumba. Algerian president Abdelmadjid Tebboune expressed his opposition to any military intervention, stating that such actions could "ignite
8268-623: The member countries, ECOWAS, must change its final decision regarding the withdrawal of Mali, Niger and Burkina Faso, united under the AES. Upon its foundation, ECOWAS had 15 member states: eight French -speaking, five English-speaking, and two Portuguese -speaking. All current members joined the community as founding members in May 1975, except Cape Verde which joined in 1977. Morocco officially requested to join ECOWAS in February 2017. The application
8374-462: The need for visas for stays of up to 90 days within the ECOWAS territory. Phase II attempted to extend residency to citizens in host ECOWAS states to seek income-earning employment after obtaining an ECOWAS residence card. Phase II also required member states to grant migrant workers equal treatment in areas such as employment, participation, social and cultural activities, and in certain cases of job loss, re-employment, and training. Phase III centered on
8480-574: The new currency is being developed by the West African Monetary Institute based in Accra , Ghana. In May 1979, ECOWAS adopted a Free Movement of Persons, Residence and Establishment Protocol, which permits citizens to enter, reside, and establish economic activities in the territory of member states. There were three phases of implementation to achieve the goals of the protocol. Over the course of five years, Phase I eliminated
8586-462: The new text for tourist accommodations in the ECOWAS region. This phase is critical to the success of the Ecotour plan as the lack of a regulatory system has been a barrier to the development of the tourism sector, despite its ability to increase member states' economies. During this conference, ministers improved the tourism industry by adopting standards for hotel services. Mrs. Massandjé Toure-Liste,
8692-404: The pillar regional blocs of the continent-wide African Economic Community (AEC), the stated goal of ECOWAS is to achieve "collective self-sufficiency " for its member states by creating a single large trade bloc by building a full economic and trading union. ECOWAS also serves as a peacekeeping force in the region, with member states occasionally sending joint military forces to intervene in
8798-413: The region, there has been a low level of integration with an increase in income disparities since the creation of WAEMU. Côte d'Ivoire had the highest GDP per capita in 2022 at US$ 1,950 while Niger had the lowest one at US$ 484. In the same year, Côte d'Ivoire and Senegal alone accounted for more than 60% of the unions' exports. Additionally, there is a large discrepancy in countries' economic performance over
8904-621: The region. A revised version of the treaty was agreed and signed on 24 July 1993 in Cotonou , the largest city in Benin. ECOWAS's fundamental principles rely on equity , inter-dependence, solidarity, co-operation, nonaggression, regional peace, promotion of human rights , and economic and social justice . Notably among ECOWAS's protocols and plans are the ECOWAS Free Movement of Persons, Residences and Establishment Protocol and
9010-594: The same languages. 2023 Nigerien crisis Coup d'état successful On 26 July 2023, a coup d'état occurred in Niger , during which the country's presidential guard removed and detained president Mohamed Bazoum . Subsequently, General Abdourahamane Tchiani , the Commander of the Presidential Guard, proclaimed himself the leader of the country and established the National Council for
9116-488: The same time, a confidential military signal was picked up by Inside Nigeria, giving orders to the Nigerian military to name units for a military operation against Niger, mobilize the armed forces and establish a no-fly zone. Hours later, Ivory Coast issued a statement in which it supported the ECOWAS sanctions and announced the country's participation in a preparation for a military intervention in Niger. A delegation of
9222-528: The second was in 2007 when the Secretariat was transformed into a Commission. As of July 2013, ECOWAS now has six new departments (Human Resources Management; Education, Science and Culture; Energy and Mines; Telecommunications and IT; Industry and Private Sector Promotion). Finance and Administration to Sierra Leone has been decoupled, to give the incoming Ghana Commissioner the new portfolio of Administration and Conferences. ECOWAS Community Court of Justice
9328-581: The state electricity company Nigelec blamed on Nigeria cutting off supplies. While the Transmission Company of Nigeria declined to comment, an anonymous source told the BBC that the move followed a directive from President Bola Tinubu . The World Bank suspended disbursements to Niger until further notice. Military chiefs of ECOWAS member states met in Abuja, to discuss the situation in Niger. At
9434-468: The stated goal of ECOWAS is to achieve "collective self-sufficiency " for its member states by creating a single large trade bloc by building a full economic and trading union. Additionally, ECOWAS aims to raise living standards and promote economic development . The union was established on 28 May 1975, with the signing of the Treaty of Lagos , with its stated mission to promote economic integration across
9540-574: The stolen millions.", and "Down with France, long live Putin !". The demonstrators also called for an immediate intervention by the Wagner Group. During the march, the entrances to the French and American embassies were closed. The French embassy's walls and gates were set ablaze and damaged while Nigerien soldiers and General Salifou Modi were seen on the ground urging the crowds to disperse peacefully. The crowd left after police fired volleys of tear gas in response. Images showed people being loaded into ambulances with bloodied legs. In response to
9646-554: The suspension of all commercial and financial transactions between ECOWAS and Niger. The assets of Niger state enterprises were frozen by the ECOWAS Central Bank, leading to the cancellation of a 30 billion CFA francs ($ 51 million) bond issuance. In a march at the request of Tchiani and organized by the M62 Movement , which had previously opposed Bazoum's government and Operation Barkhane and supported
9752-689: The time (those who were the beneficiaries of the Protestant Ascendancy ) had faced a revolution in the Irish Rebellion of 1798 , and as a result there was an institutional drive toward unification, limiting the Irish negotiating power. However, informal guarantees were given to preclude the possibility of further Irish unrest in the period following the French Revolution of 1789 and the 1798 rebellion. These types of informal arrangements are more susceptible to changes; for example, Tyrol
9858-458: The two or more states, which can create an equal monetary, economic, social and cultural environment. We need also to take in account that those states eligible to unify must agree to a transition from anarchy, where there is no sovereignty above the state level, to hierarchy. States can decide to enter a voluntary union as a solution for existing problems and to face possible threats, such as environmental threats for instance. The task of triggering
9964-485: The use of force". The response from the bloc towards the junta drastically differed from the measures taken with recent coups in Mali , Burkina Faso , and Guinea which did not involve the threat of force for reinstating the overthrown government. ECOWAS also announced "immediate sanctions" on Niger, including the closure of land and air borders, imposition of a no-fly zone on all commercial flights to and from Niger and
10070-409: The whole Sahel region". The junta gave France 30 days to vacate Niger, in accordance with the 1977 Agreement of Technical Military Cooperation. The junta closed the country's airspace again, citing the threat of military intervention, with spokesman Colonel Abdremane claiming that there had been a pre-deployment of forces in two Central African countries, whom he did not identify. It also accused
10176-785: Was adopted in 2016 and is based on the pillars of education and training, employment and entrepreneurship, health and well-being, peace and security, and governance and participation. The SPAO identifies a number of challenges facing youth in ECOWAS, including high unemployment rates, lack of access to education and training, and poor health outcomes. The plan sets out a number of strategies to address these challenges, including investing in education and training, creating jobs and supporting entrepreneurship, improving access to health care, promoting peace and security, and strengthening youth participation in governance. The West African Economic and Monetary Union (WAEMU, also known as UEMOA from its name in French, Union économique et monétaire ouest-africaine )
10282-510: Was created by a protocol signed in 1991 and was later included in Article 6 of the Revised Treaty of the Community in 1993. However, the Court did not officially begin operations until the 1991 protocol came into effect on 5 November 1996. The jurisdiction of the court is outlined in Article 9 and Articles 76 of the Revised Treaty and allows rulings on disputes between states over interpretations of
10388-564: Was endorsed in principle at the Summit of Heads of State in June 2017. However, Morocco's bid for membership was stalled as West African economic actors feared goods imported through Morocco's free trade agreements would flood the market of states within ECOWAS. Arabic-speaking Mauritania was one of the founding members of ECOWAS in 1975 and decided to withdraw in December 2000. Mauritania signed
10494-417: Was formed initially from the region's former French, British and Portuguese colonies, and independent Liberia, following post-colonial independence throughout the region (particularly in the 1960s and 1970s). At independence, many African states were challenged in increasing economic development. Because these states could not address problems individually, there was a need for a regional approach and thus ECOWAS
10600-467: Was founded. ECOWAS was formed to provide regional economic cooperation, but has since evolved to include political and military cooperation, as well. The union was established on 28 May 1975, with the signing of the Treaty of Lagos , with its stated mission to promote economic integration across the region. A revised version of the treaty was agreed and signed on 24 July 1993 in Cotonou. Considered one of
10706-766: Was guaranteed that its Freischütz companies would not be posted to fight outside Tyrol without their consent, a guarantee later revoked by the Austrian state. However, this case can be contrasted with the continued existence of the Scottish Parliament and a separate body of Scottish law distinct from English law . In an incorporating annexation a state or states is united to and dissolved in an existing state, whose legal existence continues. Annexation may be voluntary or, more frequently, by conquest. Incorporating annexations have occurred at various points in history, such as when: Federal annexation occurs when
10812-467: Was initiated; however, on 10 August, ECOWAS took the step of activating its standby force. Previously in 2017, ECOWAS had launched a military intervention to restore democracy in The Gambia during a constitutional crisis within the country . All active member states of ECOWAS, except for Cape Verde, pledged to engage their armed forces in the event of an ECOWAS-led military intervention against
10918-407: Was lifting some sanctions against Niger, Mali and Burkina Faso. For Niger this included the border closures, the freezing of central bank and state assets, the suspension of commercial transactions, and the no-fly-zone for commercial flights to and from Niger. However, the political sanctions and targeted sanctions would remain in force. The communiqué said this was done for humanitarian reasons, but it
11024-522: Was seen as a gesture of appeasement to dissuade the three junta-led states from withdrawing from the bloc. ECOWAS also lifted sanctions on Guinea and Guinea-Bissau. Statistics for population, nominal GDP and purchasing power parity GDP listed below are taken from World Bank estimates for 2015, published in December 2016. Area data is taken from a 2012 report compiled by the United Nations Statistics Division . ECOWAS
11130-641: Was suspended from ECOWAS following a military coup . Niger was suspended from ECOWAS after the 2023 coup d'état and threatened with military intervention if President Mohamed Bazoum is not restored to office, causing the Nigerien crisis. Additionally, ECOWAS closed all land and air borders between other member states and Niger and instituted a no-fly zone on all commercial flights to and from Niger. The suspension removed all commercial and financial transactions and froze Niger's assets in ECOWAS central banks. On 16 September 2023, Niger, Mali, and Burkina Faso formed
11236-465: Was suspending "certain foreign assistance programmes benefitting the government of Niger" but clarified that it would not include humanitarian and food assistance, as well as diplomatic and security operations to protect U.S. personnel. Burkina Faso raised the alert level of its armed forces to "state of war". Jihadists belonging to Islamic State attacked a convoy of Malian soldiers heading for Niger, leading to 20 casualties. Reports emerged that
#668331