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102-577: A code talker was a person employed by the military during wartime to use a little-known language as a means of secret communication. The term is most often used for United States service members during the World Wars who used their knowledge of Native American languages as a basis to transmit coded messages. In particular, there were approximately 400 to 500 Native Americans in the United States Marine Corps whose primary job
204-576: A 125–140 g ball covered with goatskin that traveled at 302 km/h (188 mph), performed by José Ramón Areitio at the Newport, Rhode Island Jai Alai, until it was broken by Canadian 5-time long drive champion Jason Zuback on a 2007 episode of Sport Science with a golf ball speed of 328 km/h (204 mph). The sport can be dangerous, as the ball travels at high velocities. It has led to injuries that caused players to retire and fatalities have been recorded in some cases. Jai alai
306-702: A Basque-coded message from San Diego for Admiral Chester Nimitz . The message warned Nimitz of Operation Apple to remove the Japanese from the Solomon Islands . They also translated the start date, August 7, for the attack on Guadalcanal . As the war extended over the Pacific, there was a shortage of Basque speakers, and the US military came to prefer the parallel program based on the use of Navajo speakers. In 2017, Pedro Oiarzabal and Guillermo Tabernilla published
408-631: A Mohawk code talker born in Canada, was deployed to protect messages sent by Allied Forces using Kanien'kéha , a Mohawk sub-set language. Oakes died in May 2019; he was the last of the Mohawk code talkers. The Muscogee language was used as a type two code (informal) during World War II by enlisted Seminole and Creek people in the US Army. Tony Palmer, Leslie Richard, Edmund Harjo , and Thomas MacIntosh from
510-417: A bill that changed the rules regarding the operation and wagering of poker in a parimutuel facility such as a jai alai fronton and a greyhound and horseracing track. The bill became law on August 6, 2003. In the mid-to-late 20th century, games could draw 5,000 spectators, a figure that fell to as few as 50 by 2017. Today, only two frontons remain open in the state. One is operated by Jai Alai World at
612-741: A brief and popular stint in Las Vegas with the opening of a fronton at the MGM Grand Hotel and Casino ; however, by the early 1980s, the fronton was losing money and was closed by MGM Grand owner Kirk Kerkorian . The MGM Grand in Reno also showcased jai alai for a very short period (1978–1980). During the late 1960s, in addition to North Miami Amateur, at least one other amateur court from International Amateur Jai-Alai in South Miami professional players emerged at World Jai-Alai, regarded as
714-671: A civil engineer for the city of Los Angeles, proposed the use of the Navajo language to the United States Marine Corps at the beginning of World War II. Johnston, a World War I veteran, was raised on the Navajo reservation as the son of missionaries to the Navajo. He was able to converse in what is called "Trader's Navajo" - a pidgin language . He was among a few non-Navajo who had enough exposure to it to understand some of its nuances. Many Navajo men enlisted shortly after
816-640: A code against Japanese forces. Their actions remained unknown, even after the declassification of code talkers and the publication of the Navajo code talkers. The memory of five deceased Tlingit code talkers was honored by the Alaska legislature in March 2019. A system employing the Welsh language was used by British forces during World War II, but not to any great extent. In 1942, the Royal Air Force developed
918-638: A colony of Basque jai alai players in China and the Philippines; and Basque supporters of Falange in Asia. Consequently, the US Basque code talkers were not deployed in these theaters; instead, they were used initially in tests and in transmitting logistics information for Hawaii and Australia. According to Euzko Deya , on August 1, 1942, Lieutenants Nemesio Aguirre, Fernández Bakaicoa, and Juanana received
1020-708: A conversation in Choctaw . Upon further investigation, he found eight Choctaw men served in the battalion. The Choctaw men in the Army's 36th Infantry Division were trained to use their language in code. They helped the American Expeditionary Forces in several battles of the Meuse-Argonne Offensive . On October 26, 1918, the code talkers were pressed into service and the "tide of battle turned within 24 hours ... and within 72 hours
1122-456: A greyhound race track, which struggled financially, and closed in 2005. The fronton at Newport Jai Alai in Newport, Rhode Island was built on the site of the city dump, opening in May 1976. Jai-alai playing ended in 2003 at which point the facility was converted into Newport Grand, a slot machine and video lottery terminal parlor, which closed permanently in August 2018. Jai alai enjoyed
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#17327795050951224-662: A hand-held wicker , commonly referred to as a cesta . It is a variation of Basque pelota . The term jai alai , coined by Serafin Baroja in 1875, is also often loosely applied to the fronton (the open-walled playing area) where matches take place. The game, whose name means "merry festival" in Basque, is called zesta-punta ("basket tip") in the Basque Country . The sport is played worldwide, but especially in Spain , France ,
1326-606: A paper refuting Euzko Deya ' s article. According to Oiarzabal and Tabernilla, they could not find Carranza, Aguirre, Fernández Bakaicoa, or Juanana in the National Archives and Records Administration or US Army archives. They did find a small number of US Marines with Basque surnames , but none of them worked in transmissions. They suggest that Carranza's story was an Office of Strategic Services operation to raise sympathy for US intelligence among Basque nationalists. The US military's first known use of code talkers
1428-446: A personal bodyguard whose principal duty was to protect them from their side. According to Bill Toledo, one of the second groups after the original 29, they had a secret secondary duty: if their charge was at risk of being captured, they were to shoot him to protect the code. Fortunately, none was ever called upon to do so. To ensure consistent use of code terminologies throughout the Pacific theater, representative code talkers of each of
1530-678: A plan to use Welsh for secret communications, but it was never implemented. Welsh was used more recently in the Yugoslav Wars for non-vital messages. China used Wenzhounese -speaking people as code talkers during the 1979 Sino-Vietnamese War . The Navajo code talkers received no recognition until 1968 when their operation was declassified. In 1982, the code talkers were given a Certificate of Recognition by US President Ronald Reagan , who also named August 14, 1982 as Navajo Code Talkers Day. On December 21, 2000, President Bill Clinton signed Public Law 106–554, 114 Statute 2763, which awarded
1632-591: A poor conservative country and the new generation of players were influenced by leftist Basque nationalism . The owners, however, offered the same terms and substituted with inexperienced locals, while the world-class stars picketed the courts for years. The public did not notice the change. The strike ended with an agreement, and later strikes were placated with salary rises. Meanwhile, Native American casinos and state lotteries had appeared as an alternative to jai-alai betting. The first fronton in Florida opened at
1734-581: A recreation center for the city's working class. Jai alai was played in Manila at the Manila Jai Alai Building , one of the most significant Art Deco buildings in Asia that was demolished in 2000 by the Manila city government. Earlier in 1986, jai alai was banned nationwide because of problems with game fixing . However, jai alai returned to the country in March 2010. In 2011, jai-alai
1836-472: A school that, in 1972, produced the greatest American pelotari, Joey Cornblit. Retired players visited and played as well as highly skilled amateurs, pros from Miami Jai-Alai and various other professional frontons operating at the time. The additions of the South Miami, North Miami, Orbea , and, later, the Milford amateur courts are generally considered to be the golden age of the amateur jai-alai player and
1938-622: A tribal judge and politician. In November 1952, Euzko Deya magazine reported that sometime in May 1942, upon meeting a large number of US Marines of Basque ancestry in a San Francisco camp, Captain Frank D. Carranza had thought of using the Basque language for codes. His superiors were concerned about risk, as there were known settlements of Basque people in the Pacific region, including: 35 Basque Jesuits in Hiroshima , led by Pedro Arrupe ;
2040-894: A widespread and prolonged fear of a potential third world war between nuclear-armed powers. It is often suggested that it would become a nuclear war , and be more devastating and violent than both the First and Second World Wars. Albert Einstein is often quoted as having said in 1947 that "I know not with what weapons World War III will be fought, but World War IV will be fought with sticks and stones." It has been anticipated and planned for by military and civil authorities, and it has also been explored in fiction . Scenarios have ranged from conventional warfare to limited or total nuclear warfare. Various former government officials, politicians, authors, and military leaders (including James Woolsey , Alexandre de Marenches , Eliot Cohen , and Subcomandante Marcos ) have attempted to apply
2142-403: A worldwide conflict. That caused a very minute conflict between two countries to have the potential to set off a domino effect of alliances, triggering a world war. The fact that the powers involved had large overseas empires virtually guaranteed that such a war would be worldwide, as the colonies' resources would be a crucial strategic factor. The same strategic considerations also ensured that
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#17327795050952244-584: Is a popular sport within the Latin American countries and the Philippines due to its Hispanic influence. It was one of the two gambling sports from Europe, the other being horse racing, in the semi-colonial Chinese cities of Shanghai and Tianjin , and was shut down after the communist victory there. The jai alai arena in Tianjin's former Italian Concession was then confiscated and turned into
2346-400: Is also out of bounds. The ceiling on the court is usually very high, so the ball has a more predictable path. The court is divided by 14 parallel lines going horizontally across the court, with line 1 closest to the front wall and line 14 the back wall. In doubles, each team consists of a frontcourt player and a backcourt player. The game begins when the frontcourt player of the first team serves
2448-417: Is no wall on the right side, all jai alai players must play right-handed (wear the cesta on their right hand), as the spin of a left-handed throw would give a tremendous advantage to the left handed player due to the incredible amount of spin. The Basque government promotes jai alai as "the fastest sport in the world" because of the speed of the ball. The sport once held the world record for ball speed with
2550-905: Is the only conflict in which nuclear weapons have been used; both Hiroshima and Nagasaki , in the Japanese Empire , were devastated by atomic bombs dropped by the United States. The main Axis powers were Nazi Germany , the Empire of Japan , and the Kingdom of Italy ; while the United Kingdom , the United States , the Soviet Union and China were the " Big Four " Allied powers. Nazi Germany , led by Adolf Hitler ,
2652-560: Is used by Karl Marx and his associate, Friedrich Engels , in a series of articles published around 1850 called The Class Struggles in France . Rasmus B. Anderson in 1889 described an episode in Teutonic mythology as a "world war" (Swedish: världskrig ), justifying this description by a line in an Old Norse epic poem, " Völuspá : folcvig fyrst I heimi" ("The first great war in the world"). German writer August Wilhelm Otto Niemann used
2754-1105: The Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628 "the World War of the 7th century" because it evolved into a war between the fourfold alliance of the Chinese Empire , the Western Turkic Khaganate , the Khazars , and the Byzantine Empire against a triple union of the Sasanian Empire , the Avars , and the Eastern Turkic Khaganate , with proxy conflicts in Afro-Eurasia (like the Aksumite–Persian wars ) and across
2856-660: The Congressional Gold Medal to the original 29 World War II Navajo code talkers and Silver Medals to each person who qualified as a Navajo code talker (approximately 300). In July 2001, President George W. Bush honored the code talkers by presenting the medals to four surviving original code talkers (the fifth living original code talker was unable to attend) at a ceremony held in the Capitol Rotunda in Washington, DC. Gold medals were presented to
2958-931: The Nine Years' War (1689–1697), the War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714), the War of the Austrian Succession (1740–1748), the French Revolutionary Wars (1792–1802), and the Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815). British historian John Robert Seeley dubbed all of those wars between France and Great Britain (later the UK) between 1689 and 1815 (including the American Revolutionary War from 1775 to 1783) as
3060-645: The Nine Years' War , the War of the Spanish Succession , the Seven Years' War , the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars , the Cold War , and the War on Terror . The Oxford English Dictionary cited the first known usage in the English language to a Scottish newspaper, The People's Journal , in 1848: "A war among the great powers is now necessarily a world-war." The term "world war"
3162-963: The Old World . Others consider that the Ottoman–Portuguese confrontations and Ottoman–Habsburg wars can be considered as world conflicts, prototypes of the " Great Game " in Eurasia and the Scramble for Africa , but between two main power-projecting and religious blocs, the Ottomans , as holders of the Muslim Caliphate , and the Habsburgs , as Holy Roman Emperor . However, the Americas and Oceania were not involved in those conflicts, in which case, other historians consider
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3264-768: The President of the Navajo Nation , Russell Begaye , appeared with President Donald Trump in the Oval Office in an official White House ceremony. They were there to "pay tribute to the contributions of the young Native Americans recruited by the United States military to create top-secret coded messages used to communicate during World War II battles." The executive director of the National Congress of American Indians , Jacqueline Pata , noted that Native Americans have "a very high level of participation in
3366-913: The Russo-Ukrainian War , the Hungarian language is reported to be used by the Ukrainian army to relay operational military information and orders to circumvent being understood by the invading Russian army without the need to encrypt and decipher the messages. Ukraine has a sizeable Hungarian population of over 150,000 people who live mainly in the Kárpátalja (in Hungarian) or Zakarpatska Oblast (in Ukrainian) division of Ukraine, adjacent to Hungary . As Ukrainian nationals, men of enlistment age are also subject to military service, hence
3468-450: The Second Hundred Years' War , echoing an earlier period of conflict between France and England known as the Hundred Years' War (1337–1453). Some writers have referred to the American Revolutionary War alone as a world war. Others (like William R. Thompson or Chase-Dunn and Sokolovsky) also wants to include the Italian Wars and Dutch wars [ Dutch-Spanish and Anglo-Dutch Wars ] as part of Global Wars, while clasificating WW1 and WW2 as
3570-433: The Seminole Nation of Oklahoma and Muscogee (Creek) Nation were recognized under the Code Talkers Recognition Act of 2008 . The last survivor of these code talkers, Edmond Harjo of the Seminole Nation of Oklahoma , died on March 31, 2014, at the age of 96. His biography was recounted at the Congressional Gold Medal ceremony honoring Harjo and other code talkers at the US Capitol on November 20, 2013. Philip Johnston ,
3672-413: The Thirty Years' War and Eighty Years' War (specially Iberian–Dutch War ) as the first global conflict, pitting the Spanish and Portuguese Empires against the French , Dutch , and British Empires and their allies (mostly Protestants , like Danish and Swedish oversea expeditions) across the five continents. Another possible example is the Second Congo War (1998–2003) even though it
3774-509: The Ukrainian army has a Hungarian-speaking capability. It is one of the most spoken and official languages of this region in present-day Ukraine . The Hungarian language is not an Indo-European language like the Slavic Ukrainian or Russian , but a Uralic language . For this reason, it is distinct and incomprehensible for Russian speakers. A group of 27 Meskwaki enlisted in the US Army together in January 1941; they comprised 16 percent of Iowa's Meskwaki population. During World War II,
3876-456: The United States Army during World War II, including Lakota , Meskwaki , Mohawk , Comanche , Tlingit , Hopi , Cree , and Crow soldiers; they served in the Pacific, North African, and European theaters. Native speakers of the Assiniboine language served as code talkers during World War II to encrypt communications. One of these code talkers was Gilbert Horn Sr. , who grew up in the Fort Belknap Indian Reservation of Montana and became
3978-450: The United States Department of Defense presented Charles Chibitty with the Knowlton Award , in recognition of his outstanding intelligence work. In World War II , the Canadian Armed Forces employed First Nations soldiers who spoke the Cree language as code talkers. Owing to oaths of secrecy and official classification through 1963, the role of Cree code talkers was less well-known than their US counterparts and went unacknowledged by
4080-421: The Yemeni civil war (2014–present), and their worldwide spillovers are sometimes described as proxy wars waged by the United States and Russia, which led some commentators to characterize the situation as a "proto-world war", with many countries embroiled in overlapping conflicts. The Seven Years' War (1754/56–1763) was fought across all of North America, Europe, Asia, Africa, and South America. Most of
4182-406: The 1970s, waning as other gambling options became available. In Connecticut , there were frontons in Hartford , Milford , and Bridgeport all of which have permanently closed. The Milford fronton opened in May 1977 and closed in 2001. The fronton at Hartford opened in the summer of 1976 and closed in 1995 The Bridgeport fronton opened in 1976 and ended jai alai in 1995. It was converted to
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4284-434: The 4th Signal Company compiled a vocabulary of 250 code terms using words and phrases in their own language. Using a substitution method similar to that of the Navajo , the code talkers used descriptive words from the Comanche language for things that did not have translations. For example, the Comanche language code term for tank was turtle , bomber was pregnant bird , machine gun was sewing machine , and Adolf Hitler
4386-403: The Allies were on full attack." German authorities knew about the use of code talkers during World War I. Germans sent a team of thirty anthropologists to the United States to learn Native American languages before the outbreak of World War II. However, the task proved too difficult because of the large array of Indigenous languages and dialects . Nonetheless, after learning of the Nazi effort,
4488-423: The Canadian government. A 2016 documentary, Cree Code Talkers , tells the story of one such Métis individual, Charles "Checker" Tomkins . Tomkins died in 2003 but was interviewed shortly before his death by the Smithsonian National Museum of the American Indian . While he identified other Cree code talkers, "Tomkins may have been the last of his comrades to know anything of this secret operation." In 2022 during
4590-413: The Daytona Intl. Speedway, and Big Bend Jai-Alai in Quincy. It was played seasonally at Fort Pierce Jai-Alai in Fort Pierce, Ocala Jai-Alai in Reddick, and Jasper Jai-Alai in Hamilton. One Florida fronton, in Melbourne , was converted from jai alai to greyhound racing, although it later closed. In an effort to prevent the closure of frontons in Florida, the Florida State Legislature passed HB 1059,
4692-436: The Fort Wingate, NM, area. The youngest was William Dean Yazzie (aka Dean Wilson), who was only 15 when he was recruited. The oldest was Carl N. Gorman —who with his son, R.C. Gorman, would become an artist of great acclaim and design the Code Talkers' logo—at age 35. The Navajo code was formally developed and modeled on the Joint Army/Navy Phonetic Alphabet that uses agreed-upon English words to represent letters . Since it
4794-408: The Global German Wars , and the Coalition Wars with Wars of Louis XIV as the 2nd and 1st Global French Wars . However, other historians prefer to see all of those conflicts as "Hegemonic Wars" or "General Wars", been inter-regional wars on the grand scale, but not worldly. Other historians suggest even earlier conflicts to be world wars. For example, Russian ethnologist L. N. Gumilyov called
4896-541: The Jai Alai World website. Jai Alai World also host special jai alai events include the U.S. Jai Alai Championship and World Super Court. In 2022, BetRivers became a sponsor and began taking wagers from users outside Florida. The second operational fronton is located at The Casino @ Dania Beach will commence its next session of jai alai on November 29, 2024, with the Third Annual Dania Beach Invitational Tournament. Professional Jai-Alai frontons no longer exist in Connecticut and Rhode Island, where they first opened in
4998-401: The Magic City Casino northwest of downtown Miami . The fronton offers two kinds of games: the traditional parimutuel game, in which eight contestants compete for win, place and show finishes; and "battle court," in which players participate in singles and doubles matches, akin to tennis , and accumulate points as in a dual meet . Matches are played with rubber balls and streamed online from
5100-433: The Marine Corps through the Korean War. Rumors of the deployment of the Navajo code into the Korean War and after have never been proven. The code remained classified until 1968. The Navajo code is the only spoken military code never to have been deciphered. In the 1973 Arab–Israeli War , Egypt employed Nubian -speaking Nubian people as code talkers. During World War II, American soldiers used their native Tlingit as
5202-416: The Navajo code at Camp Pendleton . One of the key features of the Navajo Code Talkers is that they employed a coded version of their language. Other Navajos not trained in the Navajo Code could not decipher the messages being sent. Platoon 382 was the Marine Corps' first "all-Indian, all-Navajo" Platoon. The members of this platoon would become known as The First Twenty-Nine . Most were recruited from near
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#17327795050955304-412: The U.S. state of Florida , and in various Latin American countries. The court for jai alai consists of walls on the front, back and left, and the floor between them. If the ball (called a pelota in Spanish , pilota in Standard Basque ) touches the floor outside these walls, it is considered out of bounds. Similarly, there is also a border on the lower 3 feet (0.9 m) of the front wall that
5406-401: The US Army opted not to implement a large-scale code talker program in the European theater . Initially, 17 code talkers were enlisted, but three could not make the trip across the Atlantic until the unit was finally deployed. A total of 14 code talkers using the Comanche language took part in the Invasion of Normandy and served in the 4th Infantry Division in Europe. Comanche soldiers of
5508-410: The US Army trained eight Meskwaki men to use their native Fox language as code talkers. They were assigned to North Africa. The eight were posthumously awarded the Congressional Gold Medal in 2013; the government gave the awards to representatives of the Meskwaki community. Mohawk language code talkers were used during World War II by the United States Army in the Pacific theater. Levi Oakes ,
5610-444: The US Marine divisions met in Hawaii to discuss shortcomings in the code, incorporate new terms into the system, and update their codebooks. These representatives, in turn, trained other code talkers who could not attend the meeting. As the war progressed, additional code words were added and incorporated program-wide. In other instances, informal shortcuts code words were devised for a particular campaign and not disseminated beyond
5712-405: The United States was located in St. Louis, Missouri, operating around the time of the 1904 World's Fair. From 1988–1991, the International Jai-Alai Players Association held the longest strike in American professional sport . After the 1988 season, the players, 90% of them Basque, returned home and threatened not to come back unless the owners improved their work conditions. Spain was no longer
5814-601: The age of 94. On May 10, 2019, Fleming Begaye Sr. died at the age of 97. New Mexico State Senator John Pinto , elected in 1977, died in office on May 24, 2019. William Tully Brown died in June 2019 aged 96. Joe Vandever Sr. died at 96 on January 31, 2020. Samuel Sandoval died on 29 July 2022, at the age of 98. John Kinsel Sr. died on 18 October 2024, at the age of 107. Only two remaining members are still living as of 2024, Thomas H. Began and former Navajo chairman Peter MacDonald . Some code talkers such as Chester Nez and William Dean Yazzie (aka Dean Wilson) continued to serve in
5916-441: The already-awarded Navajo) with a Congressional Gold Medal. The act was designed to be distinct for each tribe, with silver duplicates awarded to the individual code talkers or their next-of-kin. As of 2013, 33 tribes have been identified and been honored at a ceremony at Emancipation Hall at the US Capitol Visitor Center. One surviving code talker was present, Edmond Harjo. On November 27, 2017, three Navajo code talkers, joined by
6018-454: The area of operation. Examples of code words include the Navajo word for buzzard , jeeshóóʼ , which was used for bomber , while the code word used for submarine , béésh łóóʼ , meant iron fish in Navajo. The last of the original 29 Navajo code talkers who developed the code, Chester Nez , died on June 4, 2014. Four of the last nine Navajo code talkers used in the military died in 2019: Alfred K. Newman died on January 13, 2019, at
6120-412: The assistance of the city of St. Petersburg and private funding from Jeff Conway (Laca). In addition to the amateur court in St. Petersburg, The American Jai-Alai Foundation offers lessons. Its president, Victor Valcarce, was a pelotari at Dania Jai-Alai (MAGO) and was considered the best "rubber ball" player in the world. Sponsored in North Miami Beach, Florida which was once owned by World Jai-Alai as
6222-581: The attack on Pearl Harbor and eagerly contributed to the war effort. Because Navajo has a complex grammar , it is not mutually intelligible with even its closest relatives within the Na-Dene family to provide meaningful information. It was still an unwritten language at the time, and Johnston believed Navajo could satisfy the military requirement for an undecipherable code. Its complex syntax, phonology, and numerous dialects made it unintelligible to anyone without extensive exposure and training. One estimate indicates that fewer than 30 non-Navajo could understand
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#17327795050956324-406: The ball to the second team. The winner of each point stays on the court to meet the next team in rotation. Losers go to the end of the line to await another turn on the court. The first team to score 7 points (or 9 in Superfecta games) wins. The next highest scores are awarded "place" (second) and "show" (third) positions, respectively. Playoffs decide tied scores. The most common American version of
6426-433: The ball. The ball may be caught either on the fly or after bouncing once on the floor but cannot bounce twice. A team scores a point if an opposing player: The team scoring a point remains in the court and the opposing team rotates off the court to the end of the list of opponents. Points usually double after the first round of play, once each team has played at least one point. When a game is played with points doubling after
6528-573: The cesta "basket" hurl it towards the front wall so it strikes the front wall first and if it is not caught by the other team before it bounces, must bounce between lines 4 and 7 on the floor. The ball is then in play. The ball used in jai alai is hand crafted and consists of wound virgin rubber strands tightly wound together and then wrapped in 2 layers of goat skin. Once the ball is in play, the other team must catch and return it before it bounces twice. The process of catching and throwing must be completed in one fluid motion with no "juggling" or "holding" of
6630-498: The combatants would strike at each other's colonies, thus spreading the wars far more widely than those of pre-Columbian times. War crimes were perpetrated in World War I. Chemical weapons were used in the war despite the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 having outlawed the use of such weapons in warfare. The Ottoman Empire was responsible for the Armenian genocide , during the First World War, as well as other war crimes. The Second World War occurred from 1939 to 1945 and
6732-552: The conflict, many ethnic Germans were later expelled from Eastern Europe . Japan was responsible for attacking neutral nations without a declaration of war , such as the attack on Pearl Harbor . It is also known for its brutal treatment and killing of Allied prisoners of war and the inhabitants of Asia . It also used Asians as forced laborers and was responsible for the Nanjing Massacre in which 250,000 civilians were brutally murdered by Japanese troops. Noncombatants suffered at least as badly as or worse than combatants , and
6834-441: The distinction between combatants and noncombatants was often blurred by the belligerents of total war in both conflicts. The outcome of the war had a profound effect on the course of world history . The old European empires collapsed or they were dismantled as a direct result of the crushing costs of the war and in some cases, their fall was caused by the defeat of imperial powers. The United States became firmly established as
6936-460: The dominant global superpower , along with its close competitor and ideological foe, the Soviet Union . The two superpowers exerted political influence over most of the world's nation-states for decades after the end of the Second World War. The modern international security, economic, and diplomatic system was created in the aftermath of the war. Institutions such as the United Nations were established to collectivize international affairs, with
7038-411: The explicit goal of preventing another outbreak of general war. The wars had also greatly changed the course of daily life. Technologies developed during wartime had a profound effect on peacetime life as well, such as by advances in jet aircraft , penicillin , nuclear energy , and electronic computers . Since the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki during the Second World War, there has been
7140-422: The families of the deceased 24 original code talkers. Journalist Patty Talahongva directed and produced a documentary, The Power of Words: Native Languages as Weapons of War , for the Smithsonian National Museum of the American Indian in 2006, bringing to light the story of Hopi code talkers. In 2011, Arizona established April 23, as an annual recognition day for the Hopi code talkers. The Texas Medal of Valor
7242-411: The first American pelotari who turned pro in 1968 and enjoyed a lengthy career. In the 1970s and early 1980s, Orbea's Jai-Alai in Hialeah featured four indoor courts. Two of the courts played with hard rubber balls ("pelota de goma") were shorter than a standard court (75 and 90 feet (23 and 27 m), respectively) and used for training players and amateur leagues. In addition, two courts were played with
7344-415: The first round, this is called "Spectacular Seven" or "Spectacular Nine" scoring if the games are played to nine points. The players frequently attempt a "chula" shot, where the ball is played off the front wall then reaches the bottom of the back wall by the end of its arc. The "chula" is when the ball rebounds low off the back wall with very little to no bounce, almost rolling along the floor. Since there
7446-508: The first world war in the full sense of the word", citing a wire service report in the Indianapolis Star on 20 September 1914. In English, the term "First World War" had been used by Lieutenant Colonel Charles à Court Repington , as a title for his memoirs (published in 1920); he had noted his discussion on the matter with a Major Johnstone of Harvard University in his diary entry of September 10, 1918. The term "World War I"
7548-404: The game of jai alai game is played in round robin format, usually between eight teams of two players each or eight single players, although in rare instances the teams may consist of three players each or triples. The first team to score 7 or 9 points wins the game. Two of the eight teams are in the court for each point. The server on one team must bounce the ball behind the serving line, then with
7650-526: The great powers of the era participated, notably including the British Empire and French Empire , but polities from many continents played important roles. Some historians call it "World War Zero" as a result. Historians like Richard F. Hamilton and Holger H. Herwig created a list of eight world wars, including the two generally agreed-upon world wars, the Seven Years' War, and five others:
7752-706: The labels of the "Third World War" and the "Fourth World War" to various past and present global wars since the end of the Second World War, such as the Cold War and the war on terror respectively. During the early 21st century, the war in Afghanistan (2001–2021), the Arab Spring (2010–2012), the Syrian civil war (2011–present), the Iraq War (2003–2011), the Russo-Ukrainian War (2014–present),
7854-480: The language during World War II. In early 1942, Johnston met with the commanding general of the Amphibious Corps, Major General Clayton B. Vogel , and his staff. Johnston staged simulated combat conditions, demonstrating that Navajo men could transmit and decode a three-line message in 20 seconds, compared to the 30 minutes it took the machines of the time. The idea of using Navajo speakers as code talkers
7956-412: The military and veterans' service." A statement by a Navajo Nation Council Delegate and comments by Pata and Begaye, among others, objected to Trump's remarks during the event, including his use "once again ... [of] the word Pocahontas in a negative way towards a political adversary Elizabeth Warren who claims 'Native American heritage'." The National Congress of American Indians objected to Trump's use of
8058-491: The name Pocahontas , a historical Native American figure, as a derogatory term. World War A world war is an international conflict that involves most or all of the world's major powers . Conventionally, the term is reserved for two major international conflicts that occurred during the first half of the 20th century, World War I (1914–1918) and World War II (1939–1945), although some historians have also characterised other global conflicts as world wars, such as
8160-506: The regulation pelota (hardball / "pelota dura"), one short in length (115 feet (35 m)) and one regulation length (150 feet (46 m)). Orbea's also sold equipment such as cestas and helmets. The first public amateur jai alai facility was in Milford CT and owned by Charlie Hernandez. Future frontons were built in the United States, including one in 2008 in St. Petersburg , Florida, with
8262-490: The site of Hialeah Race Course near Miami in 1924. The fronton was relocated to its present site in Miami near Miami International Airport . The Miami Jai-Alai Fronton was the biggest in the world with a record audience of 15,502 people on 27 December 1975. Besides the fronton in Miami, there were at one at least 10 other jai alai frontons in the state. The Tampa Jai Alai fronton opened in 1952 and operated until 1998. It
8364-719: The skill, speed, and accuracy they demonstrated throughout the war. At the Battle of Iwo Jima , Major Howard Connor, 5th Marine Division signal officer, had six Navajo code talkers working around the clock during the first two days of the battle. These six sent and received over 800 messages, all without error. Connor later said, "Were it not for the Navajos, the Marines would never have taken Iwo Jima." After incidents where Navajo code talkers were mistaken for ethnic Japanese and were captured by other American soldiers, several were assigned
8466-694: The special training required to qualify as Code Talkers. Their service records indicated "642 – Code Talker" as a duty assignment. Today, the term Code Talker is still strongly associated with the bilingual Navajo speakers trained in the Navajo Code during World War II by the US Marine Corps to serve in all six divisions of the Corps and the Marine Raiders of the Pacific theater . However,
8568-531: The term "world war" in the title of his anti-British novel, Der Weltkrieg: Deutsche Träume ( The World War: German Dreams ) in 1904, published in English as The Coming Conquest of England . The term "first world war" was first used in September 1914 by German biologist and philosopher Ernst Haeckel , who claimed that "there is no doubt that the course and character of the feared 'European War' ... will become
8670-555: The term on its front page, saying "The Second World War broke out yesterday at 11 a.m." Speculative fiction authors had been noting the concept of a Second World War in 1919 and 1920, when Milo Hastings wrote his dystopian novel, City of Endless Night . Other languages have also adopted the "world war" terminology; for example, in French , "world war" is translated as guerre mondiale ; in German , Weltkrieg (which, prior to
8772-581: The use of Native American communicators pre-dates WWII. Early pioneers of Native American-based communications used by the US Military include the Cherokee , Choctaw , and Lakota peoples during World War I. Today the term Code Talker includes military personnel from all Native American communities who have contributed their language skills in service to the United States. Other Native American communicators—now referred to as code talkers—were deployed by
8874-695: The war, had been used in the more abstract meaning of a global conflict); in Italian , guerra mondiale ; in Spanish and Portuguese , guerra mundial ; in Danish and Norwegian , verdenskrig ; in Russian , мировая война ( mirovaya voyna ); and in Finnish , maailmansota . The First World War occurred from 1914 to 1918. In terms of human technological history , the scale of World War I
8976-655: Was crazy white man . Two Comanche code talkers were assigned to each regiment, and the remainder were assigned to the 4th Infantry Division headquarters. The Comanche began transmitting messages shortly after landing on Utah Beach on June 6, 1944. Some were wounded but none killed. In 1989, the French government awarded the Comanche code talkers the Chevalier of the National Order of Merit . On November 30, 1999,
9078-455: Was accepted; Vogel recommended that the Marines recruit 200 Navajo. However, that recommendation was cut to one-platoon to use as a pilot project to develop and test the feasibility of a code. On May 4, 1942, twenty-nine Navajo men were sworn into service at an old US Army Fort converted into a BIA Boarding School: Fort Wingate . They were organized as Platoon 382. The first 29 Navajo recruits attended boot camp in May 1942. This first group created
9180-528: Was awarded posthumously to 18 Choctaw code talkers for their World War II service on September 17, 2007, by the Adjutant General of the State of Texas. The Code Talkers Recognition Act of 2008 (Public Law 110–420) was signed into law by President George W. Bush on November 15, 2008. The act recognized every Native American code talker who served in the United States military during WWI or WWII (except
9282-509: Was briefly shut down in the province of Pangasinan when it was found to have links to illegal jueteng gambling, but it was resumed after a court order. In the United States, jai alai enjoyed some popularity as a gambling alternative to horse racing , greyhound racing , and harness racing , and was particularly popular in Florida and Connecticut, where the game was used as a basis for parimutuel betting . The first jai alai fronton in
9384-538: Was coined by Time magazine on page 28 of its June 12, 1939, issue. In the same article, on page 32, the term "World War II" was first used speculatively to describe the upcoming war. The first use for the actual war came in its issue of September 11, 1939. One week earlier, on September 4, the day after France and the United Kingdom declared war on Germany, the Danish newspaper Kristeligt Dagblad used
9486-411: Was determined that phonetically spelling out all military terms letter by letter into words while in combat would be too time-consuming, some terms , concepts , tactics , and instruments of modern warfare were given uniquely formal descriptive nomenclatures in Navajo. For example, the word for shark referred to a destroyer, while silver oak leaf indicated the rank of lieutenant colonel. A codebook
9588-536: Was developed to teach new initiates the many relevant words and concepts. The text was for classroom purposes only and was never to be taken into the field. The code talkers memorized all these variations and practiced their rapid use under stressful conditions during training. Navajo speakers who had not been trained in the code work would have no idea what the code talkers' messages meant; they would hear only truncated and disjointed strings of individual, unrelated nouns and verbs. The Navajo code talkers were commended for
9690-694: Was during World War I. Cherokee soldiers of the US 30th Infantry Division fluent in the Cherokee language were assigned to transmit messages while under fire during the Second Battle of the Somme . According to the Division Signal Officer, this took place in September 1918 when their unit was under British command. During World War I , company commander Captain Lawrence of the US Army overheard Solomon Louis and Mitchell Bobb having
9792-563: Was enabled by the technological advances of the Second Industrial Revolution and the resulting globalization that allowed global power projection and mass production of military hardware. It had been recognized that the complex system of opposing military alliances (the German and Austro-Hungarian Empires against the British , Italian , Russian , and French Empires) was likely, if war broke out, to lead to
9894-495: Was informal and directly translated from English into the Indigenous language. Code talkers used short, descriptive phrases if there was no corresponding word in the Indigenous language for the military word. For example, the Navajo did not have a word for submarine , so they translated it as iron fish . The term Code Talker was originally coined by the United States Marine Corps and used to identify individuals who completed
9996-586: Was located on South Dale Mabry Highway on land that now hosts a Home Depot. The seating capacity of the fronton was around 4,000. Dania Jai Alai phased out professional jai alai in November 2021. It has a "Hall of Fame" that documents the best front- and back-court players. Jai-alia was also played at Palm Beach Jai-Alai in West Palm Beach, Orlando Jai-Alai in Casselberry, Daytona Jai-Alai at
10098-525: Was never broken. There were two code types used during World War II. Type one codes were formally developed based on the languages of the Comanche , Hopi , Meskwaki , and Navajo peoples. They used words from their languages for each letter of the English alphabet. Messages could be encoded and decoded by using a simple substitution cipher where the ciphertext was the Native language word. Type two code
10200-436: Was only waged on one continent. It involved nine nations and led to ongoing low-intensity warfare despite an official peace and the first democratic elections in 2006. It has been referred to as "Africa's World War". Jai alai Jai alai ( / ˈ h aɪ . ə l aɪ / HYE -ə-lye : [ˈxai aˈlai] ) is a Basque sport involving bouncing a ball off a walled-in space by accelerating it to high speeds with
10302-535: Was responsible for genocides , most notably the Holocaust , which murdered demographics considered Untermensch by the Nazis. These included about six million Jews and about five million others, such as Slavs , Roma , homosexuals , and the physically and mentally disabled. The United States , the Soviet Union , and Canada deported and interned minority groups within their own borders and, largely because of
10404-406: Was to transmit secret tactical messages. Code talkers transmitted messages over military telephone or radio communications nets using formally or informally developed codes built upon their Indigenous languages. The code talkers improved the speed of encryption and decryption of communications in front line operations during World War II and are credited with some decisive victories. Their code
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