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156-483: Structured methods of collaboration encourage introspection of behavior and communication. Such methods aim to increase the success of teams as they engage in collaborative problem-solving . Collaboration is present in opposing goals exhibiting the notion of adversarial collaboration , though this is not a common use of the term. In its applied sense, "[a] collaboration is a purposeful relationship in which all parties strategically choose to cooperate in order to accomplish

312-679: A comparative advantage in the production of tradable goods. The Roman Empire used collaboration through ruling with visible control, which lasted from 31BC until (in the east ) 1453CE, across around fifty countries. The growth of trade was supported by the stable administration of the Romans. Evidence shows that the Roman Empire and Julius Caesar were influenced by the Greek writer Xenophon 's The Education of Cyrus on leadership. This says that 'social bonds, not command and control, were to be

468-538: A neutron moderator effect, which would not cause an explosion but would release radioactive contamination . For this reason, pilots were advised to crash on land rather than at sea. Ultimately, Parsons opted to keep the explosives out of the Little Boy bomb until after the B-29 had taken off, to avoid the risk of a crash that could destroy or damage the military base from which the weapon was launched. The Little Boy

624-402: A 1-inch (25 mm) axial hole. The slug comprised 40% of the total fissile mass (25.6 kilograms or 56 pounds). The insert was a stack of six washer-like uranium discs somewhat thicker than the projectile rings that were slid over a 1-inch rod. This rod then extended forward through the tungsten carbide plug, impact-absorbing anvil, and nose plug backstop, eventually protruding out of the front of

780-403: A close and symbiotic relationship among a nation's armed forces , its private industry , and associated political interests. In such a system, the military is dependent on industry to supply material and other support, while the defence industry depends on government for revenue. Skunk Works is a term used in engineering and technical fields to describe a group within an organization given

936-404: A common social , political or spiritual vision. They share responsibilities and resources. Intentional communities include cohousing , residential land trusts , ecovillages , communes , kibbutzim , ashrams , and housing cooperatives . Typically, new members of an intentional community are selected by the community's existing membership, rather than by real estate agents or land owners (if

1092-607: A constant feature of electroacoustic music , due to the technology's complexity. Embedding technological tools into the process stimulated the emergence of new agents with new expertise: the musical assistant, the technician, the computer music designer, the music mediator (a profession that has been described and defined in different ways over the years) – aiding with writing, creating new instruments, recording and/or performance. The musical assistant explains developments in musical research and translates artistic ideas into programming languages. Finally, he or she transforms those ideas into

1248-549: A critical role in both scene and sequel . Little Boy Little Boy is the name of the type of atomic bomb used in the bombing of the Japanese city of Hiroshima on 6 August 1945 during World War II , making it the first nuclear weapon used in warfare. The bomb was dropped from the Boeing B-29 Superfortress Enola Gay piloted by Colonel Paul W. Tibbets Jr. , commander of

1404-485: A development that proved essential to the development of psychology as a modern, peer-reviewed scientific discipline. Such exact purism was typical of Wundt and he instructed all introspection observations be performed under these same instructions: "1) the Observer must, if possible, be in a position to determine beforehand the entrance of the process to be observed. 2) the introspectionist must, as far as possible, grasp

1560-410: A dress rehearsal on 29 July. The B-29 Next Objective , piloted by Major Charles W. Sweeney , flew to Iwo Jima , where emergency procedures for loading the bomb onto a standby aircraft were practiced. This rehearsal was repeated on 31 July, but this time L-6 was reloaded onto a different B-29, Enola Gay , piloted by Tibbets, and the bomb was test dropped near Tinian. L-11 was the assembly used for

1716-794: A few selected firms has been shown to positively impact firm performance and innovation outcomes. Technology has provided the internet, wireless connectivity and collaboration tools such as blogs and wikis, and has as such created the possibility of " mass collaboration ". People are able to rapidly communicate and share ideas, crossing longstanding geographical and cultural boundaries. Social networks permeate business culture where collaborative uses include file sharing and knowledge transfer . According to author Evan Rosen command-and-control organizational structures inhibit collaboration and replacing such structures allows collaboration to flourish. Studies have found that collaboration can increase achievement and productivity. However, Bill Huber, former chair of

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1872-510: A gun-type nuclear weapon occurred before the Little Boy was dropped over Hiroshima . The only test explosion of a nuclear weapon concept had been of an implosion-type device employing plutonium as its fissile material, which took place on 16 July 1945 at the Trinity nuclear test . There were several reasons for not testing a Little Boy type of device. Primarily, there was the issue of fissile material availability. K-25 at Clinton Engineer Works

2028-462: A high degree of autonomy unhampered by bureaucracy, tasked with advanced or secret projects. One such group was created at Lockheed in 1943. The team developed highly innovative aircraft in short time frames, notably beating its first deadline by 37 days. As a discipline, project management developed from different fields including construction, engineering and defense. In the United States,

2184-424: A market economy, leading to trading within the Roman Empire and taxes. In Hutterite communities housing units are built and assigned to individual families, but belong to the colony with little personal property. Meals are taken by the entire colony in a common long room. The Oneida Community practiced Communalism (in the sense of communal property and possessions) and Mutual Criticism , where every member of

2340-419: A means of achieving financial savings and operational efficiency in the acquisition of common goods and services in the public sector, and producing mutually beneficial results in the private sector. Collaboration allows for better communication within organizations and along supply chains . It is a way of coordinating different ideas from numerous people to generate a wide variety of knowledge. Collaboration with

2496-477: A means to quantitatively measure the whole of conscious experience. Titchener was exclusively interested in the individual components that comprise conscious experience, while Wundt, seeing little purpose in the analysis of individual components, focused on synthesis of these components. Ultimately, Titchener's ideas would form the basis of the short-lived psychological theory of structuralism . American historiography of introspection, according to some authors,

2652-478: A one-time or long-term basis. It can be as simple as dual-authorship or as complex as commons-based peer production . Tools include Usenet , e-mail lists , blogs and Wikis while ' brick and mortar ' examples include monographs (books) and periodicals such as newspapers, journals and magazines. One approach is for an author to publish early drafts/chapters of a work on the Internet and solicit suggestions from

2808-431: A perception that the buyer was in a win-win situation, it soon became apparent that it was either close to a lose-win or at best a partial win-win situation favouring the supplier. A four-year study of interorganizational collaboration in a mental health setting found that successful collaboration can be rapidly derailed through external policy steering, particularly where it undermines relations built on trust. Collaboration

2964-491: A plan partly by eliminating certain stimuli and partly by grading their strength and quality". Edward Titchener was an early pioneer in experimental psychology and student of Wilhelm Wundt. After earning his doctorate under the tutelage of Wundt at the University of Leipzig, he made his way to Cornell University , where he established his own laboratory and research. When Titchener arrived at Cornell in 1894, psychology

3120-435: A process of repentance of wrongdoings during their daily life, and remind themselves to refrain from doing so again. Devout Jains often do Pratikraman at least twice a day. Many practice Pratikraman on holy days such as Samvatsari , or Forgiveness Day. Introspection is encouraged in schools such as Advaita Vedanta ; in order for one to know their own true nature, they need to reflect and introspect on their true nature—which

3276-446: A relatively isolated rural location with little budget, Black Mountain fostered an informal and collaborative spirit. Innovations, relationships and unexpected connections formed at Black Mountain had a lasting influence on the postwar American art scene, high culture and eventually pop culture . Buckminster Fuller met student Kenneth Snelson at Black Mountain, and the result was the first geodesic dome (improvised out of slats in

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3432-402: A score or a computer program and often performs the musical piece during the concerts. Examples of collaboration include Pierre Boulez and Andrew Gerzso, Alvise Vidolin and Luigi Nono , Jonathan Harvey and Gilbert Nouno. Although relatively rare compared with collaboration in popular music, there have been some notable examples of music written collaboratively by classical composers. Perhaps

3588-601: A secret purpose, deliberately using codenames that would align with modifying vehicles for Roosevelt and Churchill would serve their needs well. Because of its perceived simplicity, the gun-type nuclear weapon design was the first approach pursued by the scientists working on bomb design during the Manhattan Project . In 1942, it was not yet known which of the two fissile materials pathways being simultaneously pursued— uranium-235 or plutonium-239 —would be successful, or if there were significant differences between

3744-475: A shared outcome". Trade between nations is a form of collaboration between two societies which produce and exchange different portfolios of goods. Trade began in prehistoric times and continues because it benefits all of its participants. Prehistoric peoples bartered goods and services with each other without a modern currency. Peter Watson dates the history of long-distance commerce from circa 150,000 years ago. Trade exists because different communities have

3900-574: A single firestorm, and the fire-damaged area was only one-quarter as great as at Hiroshima, due in part to a southwest wind that pushed the fires away from the city. As the map shows, the Hiroshima firestorm jumped natural firebreaks (river channels), as well as prepared firebreaks. The spread of fire stopped only when it reached the edge of the blast-damaged area, encountering less available fuel. The Manhattan Project report on Hiroshima estimated that 60% of immediate deaths were caused by fire, but with

4056-462: A study of Mayan fathers and children with traditional Indigenous ways of learning worked together in collaboration more frequently when building a 3D model puzzle than Mayan fathers with western schooling. Also, Chillihuani people of the Andes value work and create work parties in which members of each household in the community participate. Children from indigenous-heritage communities want to help around

4212-475: A trust that allows one to know when to give the benefit of the doubt. That is to say, that words are only meaningful if validated by one's actions; When people report strategies, feelings or beliefs, their behaviors must correspond with these statements if they are to be believed. Even when their introspections are uninformative, people still give confident descriptions of their mental processes, being "unaware of their unawareness". This phenomenon has been termed

4368-528: A venue, lighting, etc. Hypothetically, one person could control all of this, but most often every work of ballet is the by-product of collaboration. From the earliest formal works of ballet, to the great 19th century masterpieces of Pyotr Tchaikovsky and Marius Petipa , to the 20th century masterworks of George Balanchine and Igor Stravinsky , to today's ballet companies, feature strong collaborative connections between choreographers, composers and costume designers are essential. Within dance as an art form, there

4524-492: Is also a sense in which subjects simply cannot be wrong about their own experiential states.' Presumably they arrived at this conclusion by drawing on the seemingly self-evident quality of their own introspections, and assumed that it must equally apply to others. However, when we consider research on the topic, this conclusion seems less self-evident. If, for example, extensive introspection can cause people to make decisions that they later regret, then one very reasonable possibility

4680-537: Is also the collaboration between choreographer and dancer. The choreographer creates a movement in her/his head and then physically demonstrates the movement to the dancer, which the dancer sees and attempts to either mimic or interpret. Musical collaboration occurs when musicians in different places or groups work on the piece. Typically, multiple parties are involved (singers, songwriters, lyricists, composers, and producers) and come together to create one work. For example, one specific collaboration from recent times (2015)

4836-834: Is also threatened by opportunism from the business partners and the possibility of coordination failures that can derail the efforts of even well-intentioned parties. Margarita Leib, a professor at Tilburg University in the Netherlands, wrote about how individuals working together sometimes promote dishonest behavior that prioritizes profit, like what Volkswagen did to fake vehicle emission levels . This often begins with one person lying, which incentivizes or pressures everyone else to escalate in response. In recent years, co-teaching has become more common, found in US classrooms across all grade levels and content areas. Once regarded as connecting special education and general education teachers, it

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4992-405: Is applicable to many facets of philosophical thought it is perhaps best known for its role in epistemology ; in this context introspection is often compared with perception , reason , memory , and testimony as a source of knowledge . It has often been claimed that Wilhelm Wundt , the father of experimental psychology, was the first to adopt introspection to experimental psychology though

5148-613: Is contrasted with external observation . It generally provides a privileged access to one's own mental states, not mediated by other sources of knowledge, so that individual experience of the mind is unique. Introspection can determine any number of mental states including: sensory, bodily, cognitive, emotional and so forth. Introspection has been a subject of philosophical discussion for thousands of years. The philosopher Plato asked, "…why should we not calmly and patiently review our own thoughts, and thoroughly examine and see what these appearances in us really are?" While introspection

5304-430: Is dominated by three misconceptions. In particular, historians of psychology tend to argue 1) that introspection once was the dominant method of psychological inquiry, 2) that behaviorism, and in particular John B. Watson , is responsible for discrediting introspection as a valid method, and 3) that scientific psychology completely abandoned introspection as a result of those critiques. However, introspection has not been

5460-688: Is in a letter written by James Waldegrave, 1st Earl Waldegrave in 1713. Antoine Augustin Cournot 's Researches into the Mathematical Principles of the Theory of Wealth in 1838 provided the first general theory. In 1928 it became a recognized field when John von Neumann published a series of papers. Von Neumann's work in game theory culminated in the 1944 book The Theory of Games and Economic Behavior by von Neumann and Oskar Morgenstern . The term military-industrial complex refers to

5616-427: Is not primarily rooted in behaviorist epistemology. Introspection is still widely used in psychology, but now implicitly, as self-report surveys, interviews and some fMRI studies are based on introspection. It is not the method but rather its name that has been dropped from the dominant psychological vocabulary. Partly as a result of Titchener's misrepresentation, the use of introspection diminished after his death and

5772-499: Is now more generally defined as "…two professionals delivering substantive instruction to a diverse group of students in a single physical space." As American classrooms have become increasingly diverse, so have the challenges for educators. Due to the diverse needs of students with designated special needs, English language learners (ELL), and students of varied academic levels, teachers have developed new approaches that provide additional student support. In practice, students remain in

5928-549: Is prominent in eastern Christianity . In Eastern Christianity some concepts addressing human needs, such as sober introspection ( nepsis ), require watchfulness of the human heart and the conflicts of the human nous , heart or mind. Noetic understanding can not be achieved by rational or discursive thought (i.e. systemization). Rationalists view prayer as to help train a person to focus on divinity through philosophy and intellectual contemplation ( meditation ). Jains practise pratikraman ( Sanskrit "introspection"),

6084-488: Is that people generally see themselves as less biased than everyone else , because they are not likely to introspect any biased thought processes. One experiment tried to give their subjects access to others' introspections. They made audio recordings of subjects who had been told to say whatever came into their heads as they answered a question about their own bias. Although subjects persuaded themselves they were unlikely to be biased, their introspective reports did not sway

6240-575: Is that the introspection caused them to 'lose touch with their feelings'. In short, empirical studies suggest that people can fail to appraise adequately (i.e. are wrong about) their own experiential states. Another question in regards to the veracious accountability of introspection is if researchers lack the confidence in their own introspections and those of their participants, then how can it gain legitimacy? Three strategies are accountable: identifying behaviors that establish credibility, finding common ground that enables mutual understanding, and developing

6396-424: Is the fiction-writing mode used to convey a character's thoughts. As explained by Renni Browne and Dave King, "One of the great gifts of literature is that it allows for the expression of unexpressed thoughts…" According to Nancy Kress, a character's thoughts can greatly enhance a story: deepening characterization, increasing tension, and widening the scope of a story. As outlined by Jack M. Bickham, thought plays

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6552-523: Is what meditation is. Especially, Swami Chinmayananda emphasised the role of introspection in five stages, outlined in his book "Self Unfoldment." In Islam , greater jihad is the extertion of effort to internally struggle against one's evil inclinations. In Sufism , ‘’ nafs ’’ is in its unrefined state "the ego", which is considered to be the lowest dimension of a person's inward existence—his animal and satanic nature. Introspection (also referred to as Rufus dialogue, interior monologue, self-talk)

6708-479: The 509th Composite Group , and Captain Robert A. Lewis . It exploded with an energy of approximately 15 kilotons of TNT (63  TJ ) and had an explosion radius of approximately 1.3 kilometers which caused widespread death across the city. The Hiroshima bombing was the second nuclear explosion in history, after the Trinity nuclear test . Little Boy was developed by Lieutenant Commander Francis Birch 's group at

6864-631: The ITER nuclear fusion experiment, and the European Union's Human Brain Project . Introspection Introspection is the examination of one's own conscious thoughts and feelings . In psychology , the process of introspection relies on the observation of one's mental state , while in a spiritual context it may refer to the examination of one's soul . Introspection is closely related to human self-reflection and self-discovery and

7020-987: The Internet . Screenwriter organizations bring together professional and amateur writers and filmmakers. Collaboration in business can be found both within and across organizations, and examples range from formalised partnerships , use of coworking spaces where freelancers can work with others in a collaborative environment and crowd funding , to the complexity of a multinational corporation . Inter-organizational collaboration brings participating parties to invest resources, mutually achieve goals, share information, resources, rewards and responsibilities, as well as make joint decisions and solve problems. Collaboration between public, private and voluntary sectors can be effective in tackling complex policy problems, but may be handled more effectively by boundary-spanning teams and networks than by formal organizational structures. In turn, business and management scholars have paid much attention to

7176-556: The Lockheed Corporation ) Polaris missile submarine program; and (2) the " Critical Path Method " (CPM) developed in a joint venture by both DuPont Corporation and Remington Rand Corporation for managing plant maintenance projects. These mathematical techniques quickly spread into many private enterprises. In 1969, the Project Management Institute (PMI) was formed to serve the interest of

7332-455: The Manhattan Project 's Los Alamos Laboratory during World War II, a reworking of their abandoned Thin Man nuclear bomb. Like Thin Man, it was a gun-type fission weapon . It derived its explosive power from the nuclear fission of uranium-235 , whereas Thin Man was based on fission of plutonium-239 . Fission was accomplished by shooting a hollow cylinder (the "bullet") onto a solid cylinder of

7488-406: The Trinity nuclear test . Since that had been estimated at 18 kilotons of TNT (75 TJ), speech writers rounded up to 20 kilotons. Further discussion was then suppressed, for fear of lessening the impact of the bomb on the Japanese. Data had been collected by Luis Alvarez , Harold Agnew , and Lawrence H. Johnston on the instrument plane, The Great Artiste , but this was not used to calculate

7644-560: The University of Victoria assert that until the early 1990s the individual was the 'unit of instruction' and the focus of research. The two observed that researchers and practitioners switched to the idea that "knowing" is better thought of as a cultural practice. Roth and Lee also claim that this led to changes in learning and teaching design in which students were encouraged to share their ways of doing mathematics, history, science, with each other. In other words, that children take part in

7800-520: The adaptive unconscious suggests that a very large proportion of mental processes, even "high-level" processes like goal-setting and decision-making, are inaccessible to introspection. Indeed, it is questionable how confident researchers can be in their own introspections. One of the central implications of dissociations between consciousness and meta-consciousness is that individuals, presumably including researchers, can misrepresent their experiences to themselves. Jack and Roepstorff assert, '...there

7956-660: The bomb bay of a B-29. In early 1944, Emilio G. Segrè and his P-5 Group at Los Alamos received the first samples of plutonium produced from a nuclear reactor, the X-10 Graphite Reactor at Clinton Engineer Works in Oak Ridge, Tennessee . Analyzing it, they discovered that the presence of the isotope plutonium-240 (Pu-240) raised the rate of spontaneous fission of the plutonium to an unacceptable amount. Previous analyses of plutonium had been made from samples created by cyclotrons and did not have as much of

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8112-501: The introspection illusion and has been used to explain some cognitive biases and belief in some paranormal phenomena. When making judgements about themselves, subjects treat their own introspections as reliable, whereas they judge other people based on their behavior. This can lead to illusions of superiority . For example, people generally see themselves as less conformist than others, and this seems to be because they do not introspect any urge to conform. Another reliable finding

8268-424: The stratosphere , where they dissipate and become part of the global environment. Because Little Boy was an air burst 580 meters (1,900 ft) above the ground, there was no bomb crater and no local radioactive fallout. However, a burst of intense neutron and gamma radiation came directly from the fission of the uranium. Its lethal radius was approximately 1.3 kilometers (0.8 mi), covering about half of

8424-400: The 1941 film version . Little Boy was named by others as an allusion to Thin Man since it was based on its design. It was also sometimes referred to as the "Mark I" nuclear bomb design, with "Mark II" referring to the abandoned Thin Man, and "Mark III" to the "Fat Man." In September 1945, another Project Alberta physicist, Norman F. Ramsey , stated in his brief "History of Project A," that

8580-457: The 5 psi overpressure threshold. Ordinary urban buildings experiencing it were crushed, toppled, or gutted by the force of air pressure. The picture at right shows the effects of a nuclear bomb-generated 5 psi pressure wave on a test structure in Nevada in 1953. A major effect of this kind of structural damage was that it created fuel for fires that were started simultaneously throughout

8736-616: The Director of the Manhattan Project, Major General Leslie R. Groves , ordered that some Little Boys be prepared as an interim measure until a solution could be found. No Little Boy assemblies were available, and no comprehensive set of diagrams of the Little Boy could be found, although there were drawings of the various components, and stocks of spare parts. At Sandia Base , three Army officers, Captains Albert Bethel, Richard Meyer, and Bobbie Griffin attempted to re-create

8892-490: The Hiroshima bomb, and was fully assembled with its nuclear fuel by 31 July. Parsons, the Enola Gay ' s weaponeer, was concerned about the possibility of an accidental detonation if the plane crashed on takeoff, so he decided not to load the four cordite powder bags into the gun breech until the aircraft was in flight. After takeoff, Parsons and his assistant, Second Lieutenant Morris R. Jeppson , made their way into

9048-537: The International Association for Contract and Commercial Management (IACCM, now World Commerce & Contracting ), notes that not all companies have what he calls "collaborative DNA". Huber argues that often when companies fail to implement or sustain successful collaborative relationships, the causes can be traced to insufficient leadership support or to underdeveloped collaboration skills. Andrew Cox, formerly of Birmingham Business School and

9204-581: The Little Boy. They were supervised by Harlow W. Russ, an expert on Little Boy who served with Project Alberta on Tinian, and was now leader of the Z-11 Group of the Los Alamos Laboratory's Z Division at Sandia. Gradually, they managed to locate the correct drawings and parts, and figured out how they went together. Eventually, they built six Little Boy assemblies. Although the casings, barrels, and components were tested, no enriched uranium

9360-621: The Naval Ordnance Plants in Pocatello, Idaho , and Louisville, Kentucky . Enough fissionable material was available by 1948 to build ten projectiles and targets, although there were only enough initiators for six. However, no actual fissionable components were produced by the end of 1948, and only two outer casings were available. By the end of 1950, only five complete Little Boy assemblies had been built. All were retired by November 1950. The Smithsonian Institution displayed

9516-460: The US demonstrates that these advances have not been able to overcome the challenges of such projects. Founded in 1933 by John Andrew Rice , Theodore Dreier and other former faculty of Rollins College , Black Mountain College was experimental by nature and committed to an interdisciplinary approach, attracting a faculty which included leading visual artists, poets and designers. Operating in

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9672-408: The assembly were activated by the impact of the projectile into the target. The material was split almost in half, with at one end a group of rings of highly enriched uranium with 40% of the supercritical mass, and at the other end another group of slightly larger rings with 60% of the supercritical mass, which was fired onto the smaller group, with four polonium-beryllium neutron initiators to make

9828-500: The assessments of observers. When subjects were explicitly told to avoid relying on introspection, their assessments of their own bias became more realistic. In Buddhism , Sampajañña refers to "the mental process by which one continuously monitors one's own body and mind. In the practice of śamatha, its principal function is to note the occurrence of laxity and excitation." It is of central importance for meditative practice in all Buddhist traditions . In Judaism , particularly in

9984-478: The beginning of the modern project management era. Again, in the United States, prior to the 1950s, projects were managed on an ad hoc basis using mostly Gantt charts , and informal techniques and tools. At that time, two mathematical project scheduling models were developed: (1) the " Program Evaluation and Review Technique " or PERT, developed as part of the United States Navy 's (in conjunction with

10140-489: The best-known examples are: Collaboration in entertainment dates from the origin of theatrical productions, millennia ago. It takes the form of writers, directors, actors, producers and other individuals or groups working on the same production. In the twenty-first century, new technology has enhanced collaboration. A system developed by Will Wright for the TV series title Bar Karma on CurrentTV facilitates plot collaboration over

10296-436: The bomb bay along the narrow catwalk on the port side. Jeppson held a flashlight while Parsons disconnected the primer wires, removed the breech plug, inserted the powder bags, replaced the breech plug, and reconnected the wires. Before climbing to altitude on approach to the target, Jeppson switched the three safety plugs between the electrical connectors of the internal battery and the firing mechanism from green to red. The bomb

10452-417: The bomb casing. This entire target assembly was secured at both ends with locknuts. When the hollow-front projectile reached the target and slid over the target insert, the assembled super-critical mass of uranium would be completely surrounded by a tamper and neutron reflector of tungsten carbide and steel, both materials having a combined mass of 2,300 kilograms (5,100 lb). Neutron initiators inside

10608-415: The caveat that "many persons near the center of explosion suffered fatal injuries from more than one of the bomb effects." Local fallout is dust and ash from a bomb crater, contaminated with radioactive fission products. It falls to earth downwind of the crater and can produce, with radiation alone, a lethal area much larger than that from blast and fire. With an air burst , the fission products rise into

10764-429: The center of a larger, stationary target. However, critical mass considerations dictated that in Little Boy the more extensive, hollow piece would be the projectile. Hollow cylinders have higher critical masses than solid pieces of fissile material, because any neutrons encountered by or generated by the material are more likely to get scattered in the air than to continue a chain reaction. The larger piece would also avoid

10920-606: The classroom and receive instruction by both their general teacher and special education teachers. In the 1996 report "What Matters Most: Teaching for America's Future" economic success could be enhanced if students developed the capacity to learn how to "manage teams… and…work together successfully in teams". Teachers increasingly use collaborative software to establish virtual learning environments (VLEs). This allows them to share learning materials and feedback with both students and in some cases, parents. Approaches include: Writers, both in fiction and non-fiction, may cooperate on

11076-555: The college established The Washington Center for Improving the Quality of Undergraduate Education, which focuses on collaborative education approaches, including learning communities as one of its centerpieces. The school later became notorious for less-successful collaborations. The romanticized notion of a lone, genius artist has existed since the time of Giorgio Vasari 's Lives of the Artists , published in 1568. Vasari promulgated

11232-566: The community was subject to criticism by committee or the community as a whole, during a general meeting. The goal was to remove bad character traits. A kibbutz is an Israeli collective community. The movement combines socialism and Zionism seeking a form of practical Labor Zionism . Choosing communal life, and inspired by their own ideology, kibbutz members developed a communal mode of living. The kibbutzim lasted for several generations as utopian communities, although most became capitalist enterprises and regular towns. The Manhattan Project

11388-405: The companies they work for, resulting in technical documents that are more comprehensive and accurate than documents produced by individuals. Technical communication collaboration typically occurs on shared document work-spaces (such as Google Docs), through social media sites, videoconferencing, SMS and IM, and on cloud-based authoring platforms. Scientific collaboration rapidly advanced throughout

11544-777: The components. Three different plants were used so that no one would have a copy of the complete design. The gun and breech were made by the Naval Gun Factory in Washington, D.C.; the target case and some other components by the Naval Ordnance Plant in Center Line, Michigan ; and the tail fairing and mounting brackets by the Expert Tool and Die Company in Detroit, Michigan . The bomb, except for

11700-455: The construction of consensual domains, and 'participate in the negotiation and institutionalization of ... meaning'. In effect, they are participating in learning communities . This analysis does not consider the appearance of Learning communities in the United States in the early 1980s. For example, The Evergreen State College , which is widely considered a pioneer in this area, established an intercollegiate learning community in 1984. In 1985,

11856-507: The contaminating isotope. If reactor-bred plutonium was used in a gun-type design, they concluded, it would predetonate , causing the weapon to destroy itself before achieving the conditions for a large-scale explosion. As a consequence of the discovery of the Pu-240 contamination problem, in July 1944 almost all research at Los Alamos was redirected to the implosion-type plutonium weapon, and

12012-496: The damage and the number of victims at Hiroshima were much higher, as Hiroshima was on flat terrain, while the hypocenter of Nagasaki lay in a small valley. According to figures published in 1945, 66,000 people were killed as a direct result of the Hiroshima blast, and 69,000 were injured to varying degrees. Later estimates put the deaths as high as 140,000 people. The United States Strategic Bombing Survey estimated that out of 24,158 Imperial Japanese Army soldiers in Hiroshima at

12168-427: The device crash, the hollow "bullet" could be driven into the "target" cylinder, possibly detonating the bomb from gravity alone (though tests suggested this was unlikely), but easily creating a critical mass that would release dangerous amounts of radiation. A crash of the B-29 and subsequent fire could trigger the explosives, causing the weapon to detonate. If immersed in water, the uranium components were subject to

12324-425: The difference in uncertainty owing to having better data on the latter. To put these numerical differences into context, it is necessary to know that the acute effects of nuclear detonations, especially the blast and thermal effects, do not scale linearly, but generally as a cubic root . Specifically, the distance of these effects scale as a function of the yield raised to an exponential power of 1 ⁄ 3 . So

12480-460: The dominant method. It is believed to be so because Edward Titchener 's student Edwin G. Boring , in his influential historical accounts of experimental psychology, privileged Titchener's views while giving little credit to original sources. Introspection has been critiqued by many other psychologists, including Wilhelm Wundt , and Knight Dunlap who in his article " The Case Against Introspection ", presents an argument against self-observation that

12636-624: The early bomb ballistic test shapes designs were referred to as "Thin Man" and "Fat Man" by (unspecified) " Air Force representatives" for "security reasons," so that their communications over telephones sounded "as if they were modifying a plane to carry Roosevelt (the Thin Man) and Churchill (the Fat Man)," as opposed to modifying the B-29s to carry the two atomic bomb shapes as part of Project Silverplate in late 1943. Another explanation of

12792-488: The effects of neutron reflection from the tungsten carbide tamper until it was fully joined with the rest of the fuel. Once joined and with its neutrons reflected, the assembled fissile core would comprise more than two critical masses of uranium-235. In 2004, John Coster-Mullen , a truck driver and model maker from Illinois who had studied every photograph and document on the Hiroshima bomb to make an accurate model, corrected earlier published accounts. The fuzing system

12948-460: The energy yield of the untested Little Boy design could be determined only at the moment of detonation, using instruments dropped by parachute from a plane flying in formation with the one that dropped the bomb. Radio-transmitted data from these instruments indicated a yield of about 15 kilotons. Comparing this yield to the observed damage produced a rule of thumb called the 5 pounds per square inch (34  kPa ) lethal area rule. Approximately all

13104-574: The fact, that he had named the first two atomic bomb designs during World War II based on their shapes: Thin Man and Fat Man . The "Thin Man" was a long, thin device, and its name came from the Dashiell Hammett detective novel and series of movies about The Thin Man . The "Fat Man" was round and fat so it was named after Kasper Gutman, a rotund character in Hammett's 1930 novel The Maltese Falcon , played by Sydney Greenstreet in

13260-504: The firestorm area. An estimated 30% of immediate fatalities were people who received lethal doses of this direct radiation, but died in the firestorm before their radiation injuries would have become apparent. Over 6,000 people survived the blast and fire, but died of radiation injuries. Among injured survivors, 30% had radiation injuries from which they recovered, but with a lifelong increase in cancer risk. To date, no radiation-related evidence of heritable diseases has been observed among

13416-399: The fissile material projectile. Several different weapon designs, including autocatalytic assembly, a nascent version of implosion, and alternative gun designs (e.g., using high explosives as a propellent, or creating a "double gun" with two projectiles) were pursued in the early years of the project, while the facilities to manufacture fissile material were being constructed. The belief that

13572-439: The forefather of project management is Henry Gantt , who is known for his use of the "bar" chart as a project management tool, for being an associate of Frederick Winslow Taylor 's theories of scientific management , and for his study of the management of Navy ship building. His work is the forerunner to many modern project management tools including the work breakdown structure (WBS) and resource allocation. The 1950s marked

13728-705: The founder of the International Institute for Advanced Purchasing and Supply (IIAPS), has highlighted the dangers in thinking that collaborative relationships always produce mutually advantageous " win-win " outcomes for both buyers and sellers in commercial relationships. Cox uses case studies which show where competent buyers have used collaboration successful to secure value for money , and other examples where "incompetent buyers" utilizing "what initially appear to be win-win outcomes" subsequently lose out to "more commercially competent suppliers". In relation to one of his examples, Cox concludes that From

13884-425: The front end of a thin-walled projectile 16.25 inches (413 mm) long. Filling in the remainder of the space behind these rings in the projectile was a tungsten carbide disc with a steel back. At ignition, the projectile slug was pushed 42 inches (1,100 mm) along the 72-inch-long (1,800 mm), 6.5-inch-wide (170 mm) smooth-bore gun barrel. The slug "insert" was a 4-inch cylinder, 7 inches in length with

14040-407: The gun design would be an easy engineering task once fuel was available led to a sense of optimism at Los Alamos, although Oppenheimer established a small research group to study implosion as a fallback in early 1943. A full ordnance program for gun-design development was established by March 1943, with expertise provided by E.L. Rose , an experienced gun designer and engineer. Work was begun to study

14196-465: The gun-type design was considered almost certain to work so it was never tested before its first use at Hiroshima. After the war, numerous components for additional Little Boy bombs were built. By 1950, five complete weapons had been created, and these were retired by November 1950. There are two primary accounts of how the first atomic bombs got their names. Los Alamos Laboratory and Project Alberta physicist Robert Serber stated, many decades after

14352-478: The house voluntarily. In the Mazahua Indigenous community of Mexico, school children show initiative and autonomy by contributing in their classroom, completing activities as a whole, assisting and correcting their teacher during lectures when a mistake is made. Fifth and sixth graders in the community work with the teacher installing a classroom window; the installation becomes a class project in which

14508-478: The hypocenter, left a permanent shadow , having absorbed the fireball heat that permanently bleached the surrounding stone. Simultaneous fires were started throughout the blast-damaged area by fireball heat and by overturned stoves and furnaces, electrical shorts, etc. Twenty minutes after the detonation, these fires had merged into a firestorm , pulling in surface air from all directions to feed an inferno which consumed everything flammable. The Hiroshima firestorm

14664-445: The idea that artistic skill was endowed upon chosen individuals by gods, which created an enduring and largely false popular misunderstanding of many artistic processes. Artists have used collaboration to complete large scale works for centuries, but the myth of the lone artist was not widely questioned until the 1960s and 1970s. Collaborative art groups include: Ballet is a collaborative art form. It entails music, dancers, costumes,

14820-402: The idea that those verbal reports are based on direct introspective access to mental content. Instead, judgements about one's own mind seem to be inferences from overt behavior, similar to judgements made about another person. However, it is hard to assess whether these results only apply to unusual experimental situations, or if they reveal something about everyday introspection. The theory of

14976-461: The importance of both formal and informal mechanisms to support inter-organizational collaboration. They especially point to the role of contractual and relational mechanisms and the inherent tensions between the two. Global manufacturer Unilever offers to collaborate with innovating start-up businesses, and its "Unilever Foundry" refers to over 400 examples of "strategic collaboration" in this field. Collaborative procurement has been commended as

15132-463: The issues. In 1982, Los Alamos created a replica Little Boy from the original drawings and specifications. This was then tested with enriched uranium but in a safe configuration that would not cause a nuclear explosion. A hydraulic lift was used to move the projectile, and experiments were run to assess neutron emission. After hostilities ended, a survey team from the Manhattan Project that included William Penney , Robert Serber, and George T. Reynolds

15288-404: The laboratory was entirely reorganized around the implosion problem. Work on the gun-type weapon continued under Person's Ordnance (O) Division, for use exclusively with highly enriched uranium as a fuel. All the design, development, and technical work at Los Alamos was consolidated under Lieutenant Commander Francis Birch 's group. In contrast to the plutonium implosion-type nuclear weapon and

15444-571: The land is not owned by the community). Collaboration in indigenous communities, particularly in the Americas, often involves the entire community working toward a common goal in a horizontal structure with flexible leadership . Children in some indigenous American communities collaborate with the adults. Children can be contributors in the process of meeting objectives by taking on tasks that suit their skills. Indigenous learning techniques comprise Learning by Observing and Pitching In . For example,

15600-428: The methodological idea had been presented long before, as by 18th century German philosopher-psychologists such as Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten or Johann Nicolaus Tetens . Also, Wundt's views on introspection must be approached with great care. Wundt was influenced by notable physiologists , such as Gustav Fechner , who used a kind of controlled introspection as a means to study human sensory organs. Building upon

15756-525: The mind; it does not suffice to justify knowledge claims about the mind. Similarly, the idea continued to be discussed between John Stuart Mill and Auguste Comte . Recent psychological research on cognition and attribution has asked people to report on their mental processes, for instance to say why they made a particular choice or how they arrived at a judgment. In some situations, these reports are clearly confabulated . For example, people justify choices they have not in fact made. Such results undermine

15912-521: The names, from a classified United States Air Force history of Project Silverplate from the 1950s, implies a possible reconciliation of the two versions: that the terms "Thin Man" and "Fat Man" were first developed by someone at or from Los Alamos (i.e., Serber), but were consciously adopted by the officers in Silverplate when they were adopting their own codenames for their own project (including "Silverplate"). As Silverplate involved modifying B-29s for

16068-451: The other by means of four cylindrical silk bags of cordite powder. This was a widely used smokeless propellant consisting of a mixture of 65 percent nitrocellulose , 30 percent nitroglycerine , 3 percent petroleum jelly , and 2 percent carbamite that was extruded into tubular granules. This gave it a high surface area and a rapid burning area, and could attain pressures of up to 40,000 pounds per square inch (280,000 kPa). Cordite for

16224-402: The other watches intently and all are allowed to attempt tasks with the more experienced stepping in to complete more complex parts, while others pay close attention. Game theory is a branch of applied mathematics, computer science, and economics that looks at situations where multiple players make decisions in an attempt to maximize their returns. The first documented discussion of game theory

16380-455: The penitent season in the month of Elul in order to correct the year's sins through repentance, which in Judaism begins with recalling and recognizing them. In Christianity , perfection is not just the possession and preservation of sanctifying grace , since perfection is determined by one's action, although Christian mysticism has gained a renewed interest in western Christianity and

16536-420: The people inside the area where the shock wave carried such an overpressure or greater would be killed. At Hiroshima, that area was 2.2 miles (3.5 km) in diameter. The damage came from three main effects: blast, fire, and radiation. The blast from a nuclear bomb is the result of X-ray -heated air (the fireball) sending a shock wave or pressure wave in all directions, initially at a velocity greater than

16692-399: The phenomenon in a state of strained attention and follow its course. 3) Every observation must, in order to make certain, be capable of being repeated several times under the same conditions and 4) the conditions under which the phenomenon appears must be found out by the variation of the attendant circumstances and when this was done the various coherent experiments must be varied according to

16848-560: The plutonium gun-type fission weapon, the uranium gun-type weapon was much simpler to design. As a high-velocity gun was no longer required, the overall length of the gun barrel could be dramatically decreased, and this allowed the weapon to fit into a B-29 bomb bay without difficulty. Though not an optimal use of fissile material compared to the implosion design, it was seen as a nearly guaranteed weapon. The design specifications were completed in February 1945, and contracts were let to build

17004-514: The point directly under the explosion was completely destroyed, except for about 50 heavily reinforced, earthquake-resistant concrete buildings, only the shells of which remained standing. Most were completely gutted, with their windows, doors, sashes, and frames ripped out. The perimeter of severe blast damage approximately followed the 5 pounds per square inch (34 kPa) contour at 1.1 miles (1.8 km). Later test explosions of nuclear weapons with houses and other test structures nearby confirmed

17160-510: The practical differences in effects at these yield ranges are smaller than may at first appear, if one assumes that there is a linear relationship between yield and damage. Although Little Boy exploded with the energy equivalent of around 15 kilotons of TNT, in 1946 the Strategic Bombing Survey estimated that the same blast and fire effect could have been caused by 2.1 kilotons of conventional bombs distributed evenly over

17316-442: The pre-existing use of introspection in physiology, Wundt believed the method of introspection was the ability to observe an experience, not just the logical reflection or speculations which some others interpreted his meaning to be. Wundt imposed exacting control over the use of introspection in his experimental laboratory at the University of Leipzig , making it possible for other scientists to replicate his experiments elsewhere,

17472-412: The primary mechanisms of governance'. Classics professor Emma Dench notes that the Roman Empire extended its citizenship "to enemies, former enemies of state, to people who'd helped them. The Romans were incredibly good at co-opting people and ideas." The Romans created a stable empire that benefitted both ruled and allied countries. Gold and silver were currencies created by the Romans which supported

17628-549: The profession. The International Project Management Association (IPMA), founded in Europe in 1967, has undergone a similar development and instituted the IPMA Project Baseline. Both organizations are now participating in the development of a global project management standard. However, the exorbitant cost overruns and missed deadlines of large-scale infrastructure, military R&D/procurement and utility projects in

17784-575: The project management industry. The premise of PMI is that the tools and techniques of project management are common even among the widespread application of projects from the software industry to the construction industry. In 1981, the PMI Board of Directors authorized the development of what has become A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK), standards and guidelines of practice that are widely used throughout

17940-557: The properties of barrels, internal and external ballistics , and tampers of gun weapons. Oppenheimer led aspects of the effort, telling Rose that "at the present time [May 1945] our estimates are so ill founded that I think it better for me to take responsibility for putting them forward." He soon delegated the work to Naval Captain William Sterling Parsons , who, along with Ed McMillan , Charles Critchfield , and Joseph Hirschfelder would be responsible for rendering

18096-451: The radar altimeter by the B-29 later known as Big Stink , piloted by Colonel Paul W. Tibbets , the commander of the 509th Composite Group . Two more drop tests over the sea were made on 24 and 25 July, using the L-2 and L-5 units in order to test all components. Tibbets was the pilot for both missions, but this time the bomber used was the one subsequently known as Jabit . L-6 was used as

18252-491: The range of the 5 pounds per square inch (34 kPa) overpressure damage expected from a detonated 12 kiloton weapon with a height of burst at 1,968 feet (600 m) would be expected to be 0.98 miles (1.58 km), whereas a 20 kiloton weapon would have the same range extend to 1.12 miles (1.80 km), a difference of only 0.14 miles (0.23 km). The areas affected for each would be 3.02 square miles (7.8 km ) and 3.91 square miles (10.1 km ), respectively. As such,

18408-441: The same material (the "target") by means of a charge of nitrocellulose propellant powder. Little Boy contained 64 kilograms (141 lb) of highly enriched uranium , although less than a kilogram underwent nuclear fission. Its components were fabricated at three different plants so that no one would have a copy of the complete design. Unlike the implosion design, which required sophisticated coordination of shaped explosive charges,

18564-410: The same target area: "220 B-29s carrying 1.2 kilotons of incendiary bombs , 400 tons of high-explosive bombs, and 500 tons of anti-personnel fragmentation bombs ." Since the target was spread across a two-dimensional plane, the vertical component of a single spherical nuclear explosion was largely wasted. A cluster bomb pattern of smaller explosions would have been a more energy-efficient match to

18720-506: The school's back yard); Merce Cunningham formed his dance company; and John Cage staged his first happening . Black Mountain College was a consciously directed liberal arts school that grew out of the progressive education movement . In its day it was a unique educational experiment for the artists and writers who conducted it, and as such an important incubator for the American avant garde . Dr. Wolff-Michael Roth and Stuart Lee of

18876-496: The scientific power of the United States for greater success. The project succeeded in developing and detonating three nuclear weapons in 1945: a test detonation of a plutonium implosion bomb on July 16 (the Trinity test ) near Alamogordo, New Mexico ; an enriched uranium bomb code-named " Little Boy " on August 6 over Hiroshima , Japan; and a second plutonium bomb, code-named " Fat Man " on August 9 over Nagasaki, Japan. The members of an intentional community typically hold

19032-464: The severe destruction region. The first effect of the explosion was blinding light, accompanied by radiant heat from the fireball. The Hiroshima fireball was 1,200 feet (370 m) in diameter, with a surface temperature of 10,000 °F (6,000 °C), about the same temperature as at the surface of the sun. Near ground zero, everything flammable burst into flame. One famous, anonymous Hiroshima victim, sitting on stone steps 850 feet (260 m) from

19188-427: The simplicity of the gun-type design, laboratory testing could establish that its parts worked correctly on their own: for example, dummy projectiles could be shot down the gun barrel to make sure they were "seated" correctly onto a dummy target. Absence of a full-scale test in the implosion-type design made it much more difficult to establish whether the necessary simultaneity of compression had been achieved. While there

19344-484: The speed of sound, analogous to thunder generated by lightning. Knowledge about urban blast destruction is based largely on studies of Little Boy at Hiroshima. Nagasaki buildings suffered similar damage at similar distances, but the Nagasaki bomb detonated 2.0 miles (3.2 km) from the city center over hilly terrain that was partially bare of buildings. In Hiroshima, almost everything within 1.0 mile (1.6 km) of

19500-452: The students participate in the process alongside the teacher. They all work together without needing leadership, and their movements are all in sync and flowing. It is not a process of instruction, but rather a hands-on experience in which students work together as a synchronous group with the teacher, switching roles and sharing tasks. In these communities, collaboration is emphasized, and learners are trusted to take initiative. While one works,

19656-415: The study of psychological phenomena, though generally only in experiments pertaining to internal thought conducted under experimental conditions. For example, in the " think aloud protocol ", investigators cue participants to speak their thoughts aloud in order to study an active thought process without forcing an individual to comment on the process itself. Already in the 18th century authors had criticized

19812-699: The subsequent decline of structuralism. Later psychological movements, such as functionalism and behaviorism , rejected introspection for its lack of scientific reliability among other factors. Functionalism originally arose in direct opposition to structuralism, opposing its narrow focus on the elements of consciousness and emphasizing the purpose of consciousness and other psychological behavior. Behaviorism's objection to introspection focused much more on its unreliability and subjectivity which conflicted with behaviorism's focus on measurable behavior. The more recently established cognitive psychology movement has to some extent accepted introspection's usefulness in

19968-437: The supercritical mass explode. A hole in the center of the larger piece dispersed the mass and increased the surface area, allowing more fission neutrons to escape, thus preventing a premature chain reaction. But, for this larger, hollow piece to have minimal contact with the tungsten carbide tamper , it must be the projectile, since only the projectile's back end was in contact with the tamper prior to detonation. The rest of

20124-518: The survivors' children. After the surrender of Japan was finalized, Manhattan Project scientists began to immediately survey the city of Hiroshima to better understand the damage, and to communicate with Japanese physicians about radiation effects in particular. The collaboration became the Atomic Bomb Casualty Commission in 1946, a joint U.S.–Japanese project to track radiation injuries among survivors. In 1975 its work

20280-521: The target. When the war ended, it was not expected that the inefficient Little Boy design would ever again be required, and many plans and diagrams were destroyed. However, by mid-1946 the Hanford Site reactors were suffering badly from the Wigner effect . Faced with the prospect of no more plutonium for new cores and no more polonium for the initiators for the cores that had already been produced,

20436-464: The teachings of the practitioners of Mussar a person could achieve progress in perfecting their character traits through a daily "Cheshbon Hanefesh," or Accounting of the Soul. In the practice of Cheshbon Hanefesh, a person introspects about themselves, their day, their faults, progress, and so on, and over time can use the data and process to change behavior and thoughts. Introspection is encouraged during

20592-439: The theory into practice. Concern that impurities in reactor-bred plutonium would make predetonation more likely meant that much of the gun-design work was focused on the plutonium gun. To achieve high projectile velocities, the plutonium gun was 17 feet (5.2 m) long with a narrow diameter (suggesting its codename as the Thin Man) which created considerable difficulty in its ballistics dropping from aircraft and fitting it into

20748-399: The time of the bombing, 6,789 were killed or missing as a result of the bombing. The exact measurement of the explosive yield of the bomb was problematic since the weapon had never been tested. President Harry S. Truman officially announced that the yield was 20 kilotons of TNT (84 TJ). This was based on Parsons's visual assessment that the blast was greater than what he had seen at

20904-410: The tungsten carbide tamper surrounded the sub-critical mass target cylinder (called the "insert" by the designers) with air space between it and the insert. This arrangement packs the maximum amount of fissile material into a gun-assembly design. For the first fifty years after 1945, every published description and drawing of the Little Boy mechanism assumed that a small, solid projectile was fired into

21060-495: The twentieth century as measured by the increasing numbers of coauthors on published papers. Wagner and Leydesdorff found international collaborations to have doubled from 1990 to 2005. While collaborative authorships within nations has also risen, this has done so at a slower rate and is not cited as frequently. Notable examples of scientific collaboration include CERN , the International Space Station ,

21216-514: The two fuels that would impact the design work. Coordination with British scientists in May 1942 convinced the American scientists, led by J. Robert Oppenheimer , that the atomic bomb would not be difficult to design and that the difficulty would lie only in the production of fuel. Calculations in mid-1942 by theoretical physicists working on the project reinforced the idea that an ordinary artillery gun barrel would be able to impart sufficient velocity to

21372-474: The uranium payload, was ready at the beginning of May 1945. Manhattan District Engineer Kenneth Nichols expected on 1 May 1945 to have enriched uranium "for one weapon before August 1 and a second one sometime in December", assuming the second weapon would be a gun type; designing an implosion bomb for enriched uranium was considered, and this would increase the production rate. The enriched uranium projectile

21528-645: The use of introspection, both for knowing one's own mind and as a method for psychology. David Hume pointed out that introspecting a mental state tends to alter the very state itself; a German author, Christian Gottfried Schütz , noted that introspection is often described as mere "inner sensation", but actually requires also attention, that introspection does not get at unconscious mental states, and that it cannot be used naively — one needs to know what to look for. Immanuel Kant added that, if they are understood too narrowly, introspective experiments are impossible. Introspection delivers, at best, hints about what goes on in

21684-575: The wartime Little Boy was sourced from Canada; propellant for post-war Little Boys was obtained from the Picatinny Arsenal . The bomb contained 64 kilograms (141 lb) of enriched uranium. Most was enriched to 89% but some was only 50% uranium-235, for an average enrichment of 80%. Less than a kilogram of uranium underwent nuclear fission , and of this mass only 0.7 grams (0.025 oz) was transformed into several forms of energy, mostly kinetic energy , but also heat and radiation. Inside

21840-429: The weapon, the uranium-235 material was divided into two parts, following the gun principle: the "projectile" and the "target". The projectile was a hollow cylinder with 60% of the total mass (38.5 kilograms [85 lb]). It consisted of a stack of nine uranium rings, each 6.25 inches (159 mm) in diameter with a 4-inch (100 mm) bore in the center, and a total length of 7 inches (180 mm), pressed together into

21996-764: The world at large. This approach helped ensure that the technical aspects of the novel The Martian were as accurate as possible. The science fiction author Frederik Pohl was noted for his longtime collaborations with Cyril Kornbluth and Jack Williamson . Collaboration in technical communication (also commonly referred to as technical writing) has become increasingly important in the creation and dissemination of technical documents in multiple technical and occupational fields, including: computer hardware and software, medicine, engineering, robotics, aeronautics, biotechnology, information technology, and finance. Collaboration in technical communication allows for greater flexibility, productivity and innovation for technical writers and

22152-531: The yield at the time. More rigorous estimates of the bomb yield and conventional bomb equivalent were made when more data was acquired following the end of the war. A 1985 study estimated the bomb's yield was around 15 kilotons of TNT (63 TJ). After being selected in April 1945, Hiroshima was spared conventional bombing to serve as a pristine target, where the effects of a nuclear bomb on an undamaged city could be observed. While damage could be studied later,

22308-481: The yield was estimated in the 1960s at 16.6 ± 0.3 kilotons. A review conducted by a scientist at Los Alamos in 1985 concluded, on the basis of existing blast, thermal, and radiological data, and then-current models of weapons effects, that the best estimate of the yield was 15 kilotons of TNT (63 TJ) with an uncertainty of 20% (±3 kt). By comparison, the best value for the Nagasaki bomb was evaluated as 21 kilotons of TNT (88 TJ) with an uncertainty of 10% (±2 kt),

22464-403: Was 120 inches (300 cm) in length, 28 inches (71 cm) in diameter and weighed approximately 9,700 pounds (4,400 kg). The design used the gun method to explosively force a hollow sub- critical mass of enriched uranium and a solid target cylinder together into a super-critical mass, initiating a nuclear chain reaction . This was accomplished by shooting one piece of the uranium onto

22620-831: Was a collaborative project during World War II among the Allies that developed the first atomic bomb . It was a collaborative effort by the United States , the United Kingdom and Canada . The value of this project as an influence on organized collaboration is attributed to Vannevar Bush . In early 1940, Bush lobbied for the creation of the National Defense Research Committee . Frustrated by previous bureaucratic failures in implementing technology in World War I, Bush sought to organize

22776-400: Was at least one prominent scientist ( Ernest O. Lawrence ) who advocated for a full-scale test, by early 1945 Little Boy was regarded as nearly a sure thing and was expected to have a higher yield than the first-generation implosion bombs. Though Little Boy incorporated various safety mechanisms, an accidental detonation of a fully-assembled weapon was very possible. Should the bomber carrying

22932-422: Was completed on 15 June, and the target was completed on 24 July. The target and bomb pre-assemblies (partly assembled bombs without the fissile components) left Hunters Point Naval Shipyard , California, on 16 July aboard the heavy cruiser USS  Indianapolis , arriving on 26 July. The target inserts followed by air on 30 July. Although all of its components had been individually tested, no full test of

23088-460: Was designed to produce around 30 kilograms of enriched uranium per month, and the Little Boy design used over 60 kilograms per bomb. So testing the weapon would incur a considerable delay in use of the weapon. (By comparison, B Reactor at the Hanford Site was designed to produce around 20 kilograms of plutonium per month, and each Fat Man bomb used around 6 kilograms of material.) Because of

23244-432: Was designed to trigger at the most destructive altitude, which calculations suggested was 1,900 feet (580 m). It employed a three-stage interlock system: The Little Boy pre-assemblies were designated L-1, L-2, L-3, L-4, L-5, L-6, L-7, and L-11. Of these, L-1, L-2, L-5, and L-6 were expended in test drops. The first drop test was conducted with L-1 on 23 July 1945. It was dropped over the sea near Tinian in order to test

23400-479: Was roughly 2.0 miles (3.2 km) in diameter, corresponding closely to the severe blast-damage zone. (See the USSBS map, right.) Blast-damaged buildings provided fuel for the fire. Structural lumber and furniture were splintered and scattered about. Debris-choked roads obstructed firefighters. Broken gas pipes fueled the fire, and broken water pipes rendered hydrants useless. At Nagasaki, the fires failed to merge into

23556-486: Was sent to Hiroshima to evaluate the effects of the blast. From evaluating the effects on objects and structures, Penney concluded that the yield was 12 ± 1 kilotons. Later calculations based on charring pointed to a yield of 13 to 14 kilotons. In 1953, Frederick Reines calculated the yield as 15 kilotons of TNT (63 TJ). Based on the Project Ichiban data, and the pressure-wave data from The Great Artiste ,

23712-422: Was still a fledgling discipline, especially in the United States, and Titchener was a key figure in bringing Wundt's ideas to America. However, Titchener misrepresented some of Wundt's ideas to the American psychological establishment, especially in his account of introspection which, Titchener taught, only served a purpose in the qualitative analysis of consciousness into its various parts, while Wundt saw it as

23868-514: Was superseded by the Radiation Effects Research Foundation . In 1962, scientists at Los Alamos created a mockup of Little Boy known as "Project Ichiban" in order to answer some of the unanswered questions about the exact radiation output of the bomb, which would be useful for setting benchmarks for interpreting the relationship between radiation exposure and later health outcomes. But it failed to clear up all

24024-558: Was supplied for the bombs. By early 1947, the problem caused by the Wigner effect was on its way to solution, and the three officers were reassigned. The Navy Bureau of Ordnance began in 1947 to produce 25 "revised" Little Boy mechanical assemblies for use by the nuclear-capable Lockheed P2V Neptune aircraft carrier aircraft (which could be launched from, but not land on, the Midway -class aircraft carriers ). Components were produced by

24180-449: Was the song " FourFiveSeconds ". This single represents a type of collaboration because it was developed by pop idol Rihanna , Paul McCartney (former bassist, composer and vocalist for The Beatles ), and rapper/composer Kanye West . Websites and software facilitate musical collaboration over the Internet , resulting in the emergence of online bands . Several awards exist specifically for collaboration in music: Collaboration has been

24336-455: Was then fully armed. Jeppson monitored the bomb's circuits. The bomb was dropped at approximately 08:15 (JST) on 6 August 1945. After falling for 44.4 seconds, the time and barometric triggers started the firing mechanism. The detonation happened at an altitude of 1,968 ± 50 feet (600 ± 15 m). It was less powerful than the Fat Man , which was dropped on Nagasaki , but

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